Mata kuliah : A0012 – Manajemen Umum
Tahun
: 2010
Session 9
MOTIVATING FOR PERFORMING
Learning Objectives
• After studying Chapter 13, you will know:
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the kinds of behaviors managers need to motivate in people
how to set challenging, motivating goals
how to reward good performance
the key beliefs that affect people’s motivation
the ways in which people’s individual needs affect their behavior
how to create a motivating, empowering job
how people assess fairness
the causes and consequences of a satisfied workforce
Outline Materi
• Setting Goals
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Reinforcing Performance
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Performance-Related Beliefs
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Understanding People’s Needs
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Designing Motivating Jobs
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Achieving Fairness
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Job Satisfaction
Bina Nusantara
Motivating For Performance
• Motivation
– forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’ efforts
– highly motivated people, with adequate ability and understanding of the job, will be highly
productive
– managers must know what behaviors they want to motivate people to exhibit
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• Goal setting theory
Setting Goals
– people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their thoughts and behaviors toward
one end
• Goals that motivate
– goals should be acceptable to employees
– goals should be challenging but attainable
– goals should be specific, quantifiable, and measurable
• Limitations of goal setting
– individualized goals create competition and reduce cooperation
– single productivity goals interfere with other dimensions of performance
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Performance-Related Beliefs
• Expectancy theory
– proposes that people will behave based on their perceived likelihood that their effort will lead
to a certain outcome and on how highly they value that outcome
• expectancy - employees’ perception of the likelihood that their efforts
will enable them to attain their performance goals
• instrumentality - perceived likelihood that performance will be followed
by a particular outcome
• valence - value an outcome holds for the person contemplating it
– for motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes
must all be high
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Performance-Related Beliefs (cont.)
• Expectancy theory (cont.)
– managerial implications of expectancy theory
• increase expectancies
• identify positively valent outcomes
• make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes
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Basic Concepts Of Expectancy Theory
Effort
Performance
Expectancy
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Outcome
Instrumentality
• Content theories
Understanding People’s Needs
– indicate the kinds of needs that people want to satisfy
– the extent to which and the ways in which a person’s needs are met or not met affect her/his
behavior on the job
• Maslow’s need hierarchy
– human needs are organized into five major types
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physiological - food, water, sex, and shelter
safety or security - protection against threat and deprivation
social - friendship, affection, belonging, and love
ego - independence, achievement, freedom, recognition, and self-esteem
self-actualization - realizing one’s potential
Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
• Maslow’s need hierarchy (cont.)
– postulates that people satisfy these needs one at a time, from bottom to top
• people motivated to satisfy lower needs before they try to satisfy higher
needs
• once satisfied, a need is no longer a powerful motivator
– not altogether accurate theory of human motivation
– nonetheless, made three major contributions
• identified important need categories
• helped to think in terms of lower- and higher-level needs
• increased salience of personal growth and self-actualization
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Understanding People’s Needs (cont.)
• Alderfer’s ERG theory
– postulates that people have three basic need sets
• Existence needs - material and physiological desires
• Relatedness needs - involve relationships with other people
• Growth needs - motivate people to productivity or creativity
– postulates that several different needs can be operating at once
– has greater scientific support than Maslow’s hierarchy
• both theories remind managers of the types of reinforcers or rewards that
can be used to motivate people
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Comparison Of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy And ERG Theory
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Understanding Poeple’s Needs (cont.)
• McClelland’s needs
– achievement - strong orientation toward accomplishment, and obsession with success and goal
attainment
– affiliation - strong desire to be liked by other people
– power - desire to influence or control other people
• personalized power - negative force
– expressed through the manipulation and exploitation of others
• socialized power - channeled toward the constructive improvement of
organizations and societies
• Need theories: International perspectives
– need importance varies from country to country
– not all people are motivated by the same needs
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Designing Motivating Jobs
• Rewards may be available from the nature of the job
– extrinsic reinforcers - reinforcement provided to a person by the boss, the company, or some
other person
– intrinsic reward - derived directly from performing the job itself
• essential to the motivation underlying creativity
– the result of a challenging problem
– the result of work that is exciting in and of itself
– ‘mechanistic’ approach to job design - characterizes a demotivating job
• highly specialized, simple and routine
• results in employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover
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• Job rotation
Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
– changing from one routine task to another to alleviate boredom
• can benefit everyone when done properly
• Job enlargement
– giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate boredom
• additional tasks at the same level of responsibility
• Job enrichment
– changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding, motivating, and satisfying
• adds higher levels of responsibility
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
• Herzberg’s two-factor theory
– distinguished between two broad categories of factors that affect people working on their jobs
• hygiene factors - characteristics of the workplace
– make people unhappy
– will not make people truly satisfied
• motivators - characteristics of the job itself
– when present, jobs presumed to be both satisfying and motivating
– theory has been widely criticized
– nevertheless, highlights the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
• reminds managers that worker motivation depends on more than extrinsic
rewards
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Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
• The Hackman and Oldham model of job design
– well designed jobs produce three critical psychological states
• meaningfulness - believe that work is important to other people
• responsibility - feel personally responsible for how the work turns out
• knowledge of results - know how well the job was performed
– psychological states produced by five core job dimensions
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skill variety - different job activities involving several skills
task identity - completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work
task significance - important impact on the lives of others
autonomy - independence and discretion in making decisions
feedback - information about job performance
Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
• The Hackman and Oldham model of job design (cont.)
– effective job enrichment increases all five core dimensions
– effectiveness of a job enrichment program depends on a person’s growth need strength
• growth need strength - degree to which individuals want personal and
psychological development
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The Hackman And Oldham Model Of Job Design
Core Job
Characteristics
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task
Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
From Job
Critical
Psychological
States
Meaningfulness
of Work
Responsibility for
Work Outcomes
Knowledge of
Results
MODERATORS
Knowledge and Skill
Growth Need Strength
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Outcome
s
High Internal
Motivation
High Growth
Satisfaction
High Job
Satisfaction
• Empowerment
Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.)
– process of sharing power with employees
– enhances beliefs about being influential contributors
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employees perceive meaning in work
employees feel competent
employees derive a sense of self-determination
employees believe they have an impact on important decisions
– empowering environment
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provides information required to perform at one’s best
knowledge available about how to use the information
employees have the power to make decisions
employees receive rewards for contributions
Actions That Empower Employees
Increase
signature authority
at all levels
Reduce the
number of
approval steps
Provide more
freedom of access
to people
Specific
Actions To
Empower
Provide more
freedom of access
to resources
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Reduce the
number of rules
Assign
nonroutine
jobs
Allow
independent
judgment
Define jobs
more broadly as
projects
• Equity theory
Achieving Fairness
– people assess how fairly they have been treated according to two key factors
• outcomes - various things the person receives on the job
• inputs - contributions the person makes to the organization
– people expect the outcomes they receive to be proportional to the inputs they provide
• people also pay attention to the outcomes and inputs of others
• Assessing equity
• equity exists when the ratios are equal
Outcomesperceptions or beliefs
Outcomes
• assessments of equity
are subjective
Their own
versus Others'
Inputs
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Inputs
Achieving Fairness (cont.)
• Restoring equity
– inequity causes dissatisfaction and leads to attempts to restore balance to the relationship
– a variety of behavioral and perceptual options may be used to restore equity
• alter Person’s ratio
– reduce inputs - give less effort, perform at lower levels, quit
– increase outcomes - request higher grade, better pay
• alter Other’s ratio
– decrease outcomes
– increase inputs
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Achieving Fairness (cont.)
• Fair process
– procedural justice - using a fair process in decision making and making sure others know that
the process was as fair as possible
– fair processes make unfair outcomes more palatable
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explain how a decision is made
make an unbiased decision
offer a chance to voice complaints
collaborate in making decision
Job Satisfaction
• Correlates of job satisfaction
– job satisfaction is unrelated to job performance
– the greater the job dissatisfaction:
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the higher turnover
the higher absenteeism
the lower corporate citizenship
the more grievances and lawsuits
the higher the probability of a strike
the more likely that stealing and/or vandalism will occur
the poorer the mental and physical health of the workers
Job Satisfaction (cont.)
• Quality of work life (QWL)
– programs designed to create a workplace that enhances employee well-being
– organizations differ drastically in their attention to QWL
• Psychological contracts
– a set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and what their employers owe
them
• has important implications for employee satisfaction/motivation
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Benefits provided by
the organization versus
Benefits promised by
the organization
Contributions provided
by the employee
Contributions promised
by the employee