Mata kuliah
Dosen Pembuat
Tahun
: J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial
: D3122 - Rudy Aryanto
: 2009
Kepemimpinan: Konsep
Menumbuhkan dan Merubah
Chapter 17
Learning Objectives
– Define a prescriptive model of leadership
– Describe the type of research needed to develop a clearer
explanation of charismatic leadership
– Discuss why transformational leadership
is a difficult concept to use in developing
a leadership training program
– Compare internal and external causes of performance attribution
– Identify situations and settings in which self-managed groups
and self-leadership would be useful and effective
Leadership in Difficult Times
• After September 11, 2001, these types of leadership
were very important
– Economic management at the Federal level
– Large companies taking steps to protect the environment and
society
– Businesses retaining employees, even in the face of financial
losses
Leadership in General
• Leadership plays a role in attaining performance goals
– Some leaders are better at performance enhancement than
others
• Efficient leaders provide coordination and control
– Bringing people together
– Charting a course
– Providing encouragement and recognition
Leadership in General
• Options in a changing world
–
–
–
–
–
–
Self-managed groups
Self-leadership
Situational approaches
Transformational leaders
Contingency leadership
No leadership at all
• There is no one universally accepted model or approach
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
• Helps determine which leadership styles to
use in various situations
– No single leadership style works in all situations
– Main focus should be the problem to be solved and the situation
in which it occurs
– The leadership style used in one situation should not constrain
styles used in others
– Social processes influence participation
by subordinates in problem solving
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
• This model is used to evaluate the effects of participation
on…
–
–
–
–
Decision quality
Decision acceptance
Subordinate development
Time
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
DEff = DQual + DComm – DTP
• Decision effectiveness is based on
– Decision quality (technical aspects)
– Decision commitment (acceptance)
– Decision time penalty
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
OEff = DEff – Cost + Development
• Overall effectiveness
– Equals decision effectiveness minus
costs and development
– Can have positive or negative effects
on human capital
– Positive effects influence by leader’s
ability to facilitate teamwork
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
• Situational variables
– Information and expertise
of subordinates
– Time constraints
– Geographical restrictions
on interactions
Vroom-Jago Leadership Model
• Continuous scales
• Yes-No judgments
• Four attributes deal with importance
– Quality, commitment, time, development
• Six attributes are probability estimates
– Leader information, problem structure, commitment probability,
goal congruence, conflict, subordinate information
Time-Driven Decision Tree
Y
CP
N
Y
LI
N
GC
GC
N
CP
GC
N
CII
CII
AII
N
N
Y
Y
AI
GII
GII
Y
N
GC
L
LI
State the
problem
N
CO
Y
CR
H
Y
Y
ST
H
SI
N
Y
N
N
Y
SI
Y
N
N
Y
CP
N
Y
CO
ST
Y
CI
QR
Y
L
CR
CII
L
H
CP
Y
N
AI
GII
Limitations of Vroom-Jago Model
• Limitations and criticisms
– ‘Yes’ or ‘no’ responses don’t accommodate complexity of
many work situations
– Too complex
– Doesn’t address modern-day managerial challenges, such as
change, technological advancement, international competition
Attribution Theory of Leadership
Follower behavior

Leader attributions

Leader behavior
• The leader is an information processor
– Searches for informational clues as to
why something is happening
– Constructs causal explanations that guide leadership
behavior
Leader Attributions
• Categorize cause of behavior
– Person
– Entity
– Context
• Considerations when forming behavior attributions
– Distinctiveness
– Consistency
– Consensus
Leader Attributions
• Leaders who make attributions of internal causes
– Use more punitive behaviors
• When a problem is serious
– Leaders make more internal attributions
– And respond more harshly
Attribution Leadership Model
Informational Cues
Distinctiveness, consistency,
consensus
Causal attribution of
poor quality
Observation of poor
production quality
- Rejects
- Excess scrap
- Returned
product
- Excessive
production costs
Perceived Source of
Responsibility
Link
#1
Internal Causes:
- Low effort
- Low commitment
- Lack of ability
External Causes:
- Improper equipment
- Unfair deadlines
- Illness of production
team members
Link
#2
Leader behavior in
response to
attributes
- Reprimand
- Transfer
- Demotion
- Redesign job
- Personal concern
- Training
Leader Behavior: Cause or Effect?
• Reciprocal Causation
– Follower behavior impacts leader behavior and visa versa
• Research suggests
– Leader consideration behavior causes subordinate satisfaction,
and
– Follower performance causes changes in leader’s emphasis on
consideration and the structuring of behavior-performance
relationships
Charismatic Leadership
• The ability to influence others based on a supernatural
gift and attractive power
– Followers enjoy being with charismatic leaders because they feel
inspired, correct, important
• Charismatic leaders
–
–
–
–
John F. Kennedy
Mikhail Gorbechev
Walt Disney
Sam Walton
Stages in Charismatic Leadership
• Stage One
– Detecting unexploited opportunities and deficiencies in the
present situation
– Sensitivity to constituents’ needs
– Formulating an idealized strategic vision
• Stage Two
– Communicating the vision
– Articulating status quo as unacceptable; the vision as the best
alternative
– Articulating motivation to lead followers
Stages in Charismatic Leadership
• Stage Three
– Building trust through technical expertise, personal risk-taking,
self-sacrifice, unconventional behavior
• Stage Four
– Demonstrating the means to achieve
the vision through role modeling, empowerment, unconventional
tactics
Two Types of Charismatic Leaders
• Visionary leaders
– Focus on the long term
– Link followers’ needs and goals to the long-term goals of the
organization
• Crisis-based leaders
– Focus on the short term
– Have an impact when existing knowledge, resources, and
procedures are not adequate
– Communicate what actions need to be taken and what the
consequences will be
Transactional Leadership
• The transactional leader
– Helps followers identify what must be done to accomplish the
desired results
– Takes into consideration the followers’ self-concept and esteem
needs
– Relies on contingent reward and on management by exception
Transactional Leadership
L: Recognizes what F
needs
L: Recognizes what F
must do to attain
designated outcomes
L = Leader
L: Clarifies F’s Role
F: Feels confidence in
meeting role requirements
(subjective probability
of success)
F = Follower
F: Develops
motivation
to attain desired
outcomes
(expected effort)
L: Clarifies how F’s need
fulfillment will be
exchanged for enacting
role to attain designated
outcomes
F: Recognizes value of
designated outcomes
(need-fulfilling value for F)
Transformational Leadership
• Motivates followers to work for…
– Transcendental goals, not short-term
self-interests
– Achievement and self-actualization,
not security
• To achieve the vision, transformational leaders make
major changes in the firm’s…
– Mission
– Way of doing business
– Human resource management
Transformational Leadership
• Bass identified five factors that describe transformational
leaders
–
–
–
–
–
Charisma
Individual attention
Intellectual stimulation
Contingent reward
Management by exception
Substitutes for Leadership
Follower Initiative
Structured Tasks
Workgroup
Cohesiveness
Relationship-Oriented
Leadership Neutralizers
• Subordinate characteristics
– Need for independence
– “Professional” orientation
– Indifference toward organizational goals
• Organizational characteristics
– Close-knit, cohesive work groups
– Rewards not within leader’s control
– Spatial distance between superior & subordinates
• Tasks that are intrinsically satisfying
Task-Oriented
Leadership Neutralizers
• Subordinate characteristics
–
–
–
–
Ability, experience, training, knowledge
Need for independence
“Professional” orientation
Indifference toward organizational goals
• Task characteristics
– Unambiguous and routine
– Methodologically invariant
– Provides own feedback concerning accomplishment
Task-Oriented
Leadership Neutralizers
• Organizational characteristics
– Formalization
– Inflexibility
– Highly specified and active advisory
and staff functions
– Close-knit, cohesive work groups
– Rewards not within the leader’s control
– Spatial distance between superior and subordinates