Subject
Year
: G-1342 Research Seminar
: 2008/2009
Research Proposal Seminar:
THE ARGUMENT
Meeting 6
STRUCTURING ARGUMENTS
• “A speech has two parts. Necessarily, you state
your case, and you prove it” (Aristotle).
• An argument, at its simplest level, consists
of three simple steps:
1. You make a claim
2. You offer evidence
3. You show how the evidence proves the
claim.
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• The claim is the conclusion of your
argument, the statement you want your
listener to accept, e.g. “The most
important thing you can learn in college is
how to learn”.
• The evidence is supporting material a
presenter/speaker uses to prove a point.
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TYPES OF ARGUMENT
1. Argument by examples or inductive
argument: says that what is true of a few
instances is true generally.
Key points:
• Are the examples true?
• Are the examples relevant?
• Are the examples sufficient?
• Are the examples representative?
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2. Argument by analogy: says that what is
true in one case is or will be true in
another.
Key Points:
– Are the similarities between the two
cases relevant?
– Are any of the differences between the
two cases relevant?
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3. Argument by cause: says that one action
or condition caused or will cause another.
Key Points:
– Does the causal relationship exist?
– Could the presumed cause produce the
effect?
– Could the effect result from other causes?
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4. Argument by deduction: says that what is
true generally is or will be true in a specific
instance.
Use the following steps to check the structure
and flow of your deductive argument (called
syllogism):
1. State your major premise.
2. Say “because” and then state your minor
premise.
3. State your conclusion.
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• Terms:
1. Syllogism: the pattern of a deductive argument,
consisting of a major premise, a minor premise,
and a conclusion.
2. Major premise: a claim about a general group of
people, events, or conditions.
3. Minor premise: a statement placing a person, an
event, or a condition into a general class.
4. Conclusion: the deductive argument that what is
true of the general class is true of the specific
instance.
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• Key Points:
1. Do the premises relate to each other?
2. Is the major premise true?
3. Is the minor premise true?
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• 5. Argument by authority: uses
testimony from an expert source to
prove a speaker’s claim.
Key Points:
- Is the source an expert?
- Is the source unbiased?
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Useful Terms on Fallacies of Arguments:
• Fallacy: a flaw in the logic of an argument.
• Hasty Generalization: a fallacy that makes claims
from insufficient or unrepresentative examples.
• Post Hoe: a chronological fallacy that says that a
prior event caused a subsequent event.
• Slippery Slope: a fallacy of causation that says
that one action inevitably sets a chain of events in
motion.
• Red Herring: a fallacy that introduces irrelevant
issues to deflect attention from the subject under
discussion.
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• Appeal to Tradition: a fallacy that opposes change
by arguing that old ways are always superior to new
ways.
• False Dilemma: a fallacy that confronts listener with
two choices when, in reality, more options exist.
• Bandwagon: a fallacy that determines truth,
goodness, or wisdom by popular opinion.
• Ad Hominem: a fallacy that urges listeners to reject
an idea because of the allegedly poor character of
the person voicing it; name calling.
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