Matakuliah : O0072 / Pengantar Psikologi
Tahun
: 2008
MOTIVATION & EMOTION
Pertemuan 10
DEFINITIONS
• Motivation
– The internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our
thoughts, feelings and actions
• Emotion
– Positive or negative feelings generally in reaction to stimuli that are
accompanied by physiological arousal and related behavior
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MOTIVES
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PRIMARY MOTIVES
Biological Needs
• Human motives for things that are necessary for survival, such as
food, water and warmth
• Other primary motives : sexual motive – because the species could
not reproduce and survive if the sexual motive were not satisfied
• Hypothalamus : the part of the forebrain involved with motives,
emotions and the functions of the autonomic nervous system
• Incentives : external cues that activate motives
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PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES
• Motives related to the individual’s happiness and well being, but not
to survival
• Types of Motivation :
– Affiliation
• The need to be with other people and to have personal relationship
– Achievement
• The psychological need in humans for success
– Intrinsic and Extrinsic
• Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake,
without some obvious external incentive present
• Extrinsic motivation is human motives activated by external rewards
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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
•
Physiological needs
The physiological needs of the organism
(those enabling homeostasis) take first
precedence. These consist mainly of:
– Eating
– Drinking
– Sleeping
– Sex
– If some needs are not fulfilled, a human's
physiological needs take the highest
priority. Physiological needs can control
thoughts and behaviours, and can cause
people to feel sickness, pain, and
discomfort.
• Safety needs
When physiological needs are met, the need for safety will emerge. When one stage is fulfilled, a person
naturally moves to the next. These include:
- Personal security from crime.
- Security as against company lay-offs
- Health and wellbeing
- Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts
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MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
•
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Love/Belonging/Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third
layer of human needs is social. The psychological aspect of
Maslow's hierarchy. This involves emotionally-based
relationships in general, such as:
– friendship
– sexual intimacy
– having a supportive and communicative family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance,
whether it comes from a large social group (such as clubs,
office culture, religious groups, professional organizations,
sports teams, gangs) or small social connections (family
members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues,
confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and
non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements,
many people become susceptible to loneliness, social
anxiety, and depression. This need for belonging can often
overcome the physiological and security needs, depending
on the strength of the peer pressure. e.g. an anorexic
ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a
feeling of belonging.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
•
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Esteem needs
According to Maslow, all humans have a need to be respected, to have self-respect, and to
respect others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity
or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued,
be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem,
inferiority complexes, an inflated sense of self-importance or snobbishness. There are two
levels to Esteem needs. The lower of the levels relates to elements like fame, respect, and
glory. The higher level is contingent to concepts like confidence, competence, and
achievement. The lower level is generally considered less advanced and more external; it
is dependent upon other people. Someone in this level needs to be reassured because of
lower esteem. People with low esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or
glory, which again are dependent on others. However confidence, competence and
achievement only need one person and everyone else is inconsequential to one's own
success. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able
to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory
externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as
depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
•
self-actualizing people:
–
–
–
–
–
–
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–
They embrace the facts and realities of the
world (including themselves) rather than
denying or avoiding them.
They are spontaneous in their ideas and
actions.
They are creative.
They are interested in solving problems; this
often includes the problems of others. Solving
these problems is often a key focus in their
lives.
They feel a closeness to other people, and
generally appreciate life.
They have a system of morality that is fully
internalized and independent of external
authority.
They have discernment and are able to view all
things in an objective manner.
In short, self-actualization is reaching one's
fullest potential.
•
According to Maslow, the tendencies of selfactualizing people are as follows:
1. Awareness
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2. Honesty
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philosophical sense of humor
social interest
deep interpersonal relationships
democratic character structure
3. Freedom
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need for solitude
autonomous, independent
creativity, originality
spontaneous
4. Trust
–
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–
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efficient perception of reality
freshness of appreciation
peak experiences
ethical awareness
problem centered
acceptance of self, others, nature
resistance to enculturation - identity with
humanity
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF MOTIVES
• Maslow believes that we should study and cultivate peak
experiences as a way of providing a route to achieve personal
growth, integration, and fulfillment. Peak experiences are unifying,
and ego-transcending, bringing a sense of purpose to the individual
and a sense of integration. Individuals most likely to have peak
experiences are self-actualizing, mature, healthy, and self-fulfilled.
All individuals are capable of peak experiences. Those who do not
have them somehow suppress or deny them.
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EMOTIONS
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DEFINITION
• a complex psychophysical process that arises spontaneously, rather
than through conscious effort, and evokes either a positive or
negative psychological response and physical expressions, often
involuntary, related to feelings, perceptions or beliefs about
elements, objects or relations between them, in reality or in the
imagination
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THREE THEORIES OF EMOTIONS (1)
• Somatic theories
William James in the late 19th century believed that emotional experience is
largely due to the experience of bodily changes. These changes might be visceral,
postural, or facially expressive. The most basic of these somatic theories is the
James-Lange theory. This theory and its derivates state that a changed situation
leads to a changed bodily state. It is this bodily state which in turn gives rise to an
emotion. Hence the emotion fear upon encountering a bear in the woods would
follow from:
– Spot a bear
– -> Heart start beating faster; adrenalin is being produced
» -> The emotion fear arises
This approach underlies experiment where through manipulating the bodily state,
a desired emotion is induced (e.g. in laughter therapy).
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THREE THEORIES OF EMOTIONS (2)
• The Cannon-Bard theory
Walter Cannon provided empirical evidence against the dominance
of the James-Lange theory of the physiological aspects emotions in
the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and
Rage. Cannon and Bard came up with a different account of the
relations between emotions and behavior; where a certain situation
leads to an emotion; which in turn activates a typical behavior. Here
the emotion fear upon encountering a bear in the woods would
result in:
– Spot a bear
– -> The emotion fear arises
» -> Run away
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THREE THEORIES OF EMOTIONS (1)
• Cognitive theories
Research in social psychology interprets emotions as a combination of two
elements; physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. The earliest account
of such a theory is the Singer-Schachter theory that is based on experiments that
varied arousal introducing chemical (adrenaline) and put the participants in
different situations. The combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive)
and whether participants received adrenaline or a placebo together determined
the response. In the example of the bear this would lead to:
– Spot a bear
– -> Adrenalin is released, hearts starts beating faster
– -> The sight of a bear is interpreted as being dangerous for the health (note this needs not
necessarily be a conscious appraisal)
» -> The emotion fear arises.
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PRIMARY EMOTIONS
• Robert Plutchik’s eight primary
emotions. The emotions that Plutchik
lists as primary are:
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anger
fear
sadness
joy
disgust
surprise
curiosity
acceptance
• The following is Ekman’s list of basic
emotions:
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–
–
–
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anger
fear
sadness
happiness
disgust
PHYSICAL RESPONSES TO PRIMARY EMOTIONS
• Physical responses
Attached to the idea of primary emotions as innate is the notion that each
emotion causes a detectable physical response in the body. These responses are
often perceived as sensation in the body; for example:
– Fear is felt as a heightened heartbeat, increased “flinch” response, and increased
muscle tension.
– Anger, based on sensation, seems indistinguishable from fear.
– Happiness is often felt as an expansive or swelling feeling in the chest and the
sensation of lightness or buoyancy, as if standing underwater.
– Sadness is often experienced as a feeling of tightness in the throat and eyes, and
relaxation in the arms and legs.
– Shame can be felt as heat in the upper chest and face.
– Desire can be accompanied by a dry throat, heavy breathing, and increased heart rate.
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AGGRESION :
EMOTIONAL & MOTIVATIONAL ASPECTS
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Freud’s Instinct Theory
• All animals (include human) are born with potent aggressive
instincts.
• This instinct create an uncomfortable pressure that must be
released in some way, how ?
– By finding the non violent ways to release aggressive energy
– Ex. Competition in business/sports, reading violent stories, etc
• Catharsis : the process of releasing instinctual energy
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FRUSTATION-AGGRESSION THEORY
• The theory that aggression is a natural reaction to the frustration of
important motives
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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• People are aggressive only if they have LEARNED that it’s to their
benefit to be aggressive
• We will act aggressively in reaction to frustration only if we have
learned to do so
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COGNITIVE THEORY OF AGGRESSION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Superiority
Victims of injustice
Vulnerability
Distrust
Helplessness
Tugas
• Mahasiswa menjawab pertanyaan dari buku Psychology : an
Introduction hal 371, 381 (no.2), 398 (no.2)
• Analisa DVD/VCD : Pursuit of Happiness berdasarkan salah satu teori
emosi dan salah satu teori motivasi
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