Matakuliah
Tahun
: O0072 / Pengantar Psikologi
: 2008
DEVELOPMENTAL PSIKOLOGI
Pertemuan 7, 8
• Nature vs Nurture
• Maturation
– Systematic psychical growth of the body, including the nervous system
• Imprinting
– A form of early learning that occurs in some animals during a critical
period
• Critical Period
– A biologically determined period in the life of some animals during which
certain forms of learning can take place most easily
• Rooting Reflex
– An automatic response in which an infant turns its head toward
stimulation on the cheek
• Babinsky Reflex
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DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Jean Piaget
Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan
Eric Erikson
JEAN PIAGET (1)
Theory of Cognitive Development
• Expanding on earlier work from James Mark Baldwin: four levels of
development corresponding roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre-school,
(3) childhood, and (4) adolescence.
• Each stage is characterized by a general cognitive structure that
affects all of the child's thinking (a structuralist view influenced by
philosopher Immanuel Kant
• Each stage represents the child's understanding of reality during
that period, and each but the last is an inadequate approximation of
reality.
• Development from one stage to the next is thus caused by the
accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the
environment; this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of
cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures require reorganizing.
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JEAN PIAGET (2)
Theory of Cognitive Development
•
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as
1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2 years (children experience the
world through movement and senses and learn object permanence)
2. Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills)
3. Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think
logically about concrete events)
4. Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract
reasoning).
Piaget viewed children as little philosophers, which he called tiny
thought-sacks and scientists building their own individual theories
of knowledge. Some people have used his ideas to focus on what
children cannot do. Piaget, however, used their problem areas to
help understand their cognitive growth and development.
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•
JEAN PIAGET (3)
Theory of Cognitive Development
•
Piaget provided no concise (or clear) description of the development
process as a whole. Broadly speaking it consisted of a cycle:
– The child performs an action which has an effect on or organizes objects, and
the child is able to note the characteristics of the action and its effects.
– Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations or in different contexts or on
different kinds of objects, the child is able to differentiate and integrate its
elements and effects. This is the process of reflecting abstraction (described in
detail in Piaget 2001).
– At the same time, the child is able to identify the properties of objects by the way
different kinds of action affect them. This is the process of empirical abstraction.
– By repeating this process across a wide range of objects and actions, the child
establishes a new level of knowledge and insight. This is the process of forming
a new cognitive stage. This dual process allows the child to construct new ways
of dealing with objects and new knowledge about objects themselves.
– However, once the child has constructed these new kinds of knowledge, he or
she starts to use them to create still more complex objects and to carry out still
more complex actions. As a result, the child starts to recognize still more
complex patterns and to construct still more complex objects. Thus a new stage
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begins, which will only be completed when all the child’s activity and experience
JEAN PIAGET (4)
Theory of Cognitive Development
• “Genetic epistemology"attempts to explain knowledge,
and in particular scientific knowledge, on the basis of its
history, its sociogenesis, and especially the
psychological origins of the notions and operations upon
which it is based"
• Jean Piaget has become a reference for epistemology,
and particularly for constructivist epistemology.
According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the
great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing"
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KOHLBERG (1)
Stages of Moral Development
• the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a
fascination with children's reactions to moral dilemmas
• His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis
for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental
constructive stages - each more adequate at responding
to moral dilemmas than the last
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KOHLBERG (2)
Stages of Moral Development
– Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
– 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
– 2. Self-interest orientation
( What's in it for me?)
– Level 2 (Conventional)
– 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
( The good boy/good girl attitude)
– 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
 ( Law and order morality)
– Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
– 5. Social contract orientation
– 6. Universal ethical principles
 ( Principled conscience)
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•
KOHLBERG
Pre-conventional
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in
children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners
in the pre-conventional level judge the morality of an action by its direct
consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second
stages of moral development, and are purely concerned with the self in an
egocentric manner.
• In Stage one, individuals focus on the direct consequences that their actions
will have for themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally
wrong if the person who commits it gets punished. The worse the
punishment for the act is, the more 'bad' the act is perceived to be.[12] In
addition, there is no recognition that others' points of view are any different
from one's own view. This stage may be viewed as a kind of
authoritarianism.
• Stage two espouses the what's in it for me position, right behavior being
defined by what is in one's own best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might
further one's own interests, such as you scratch my back, and I'll scratch
yours.[3] In stage two concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect. Lacking a perspective of society in the pre-conventional level, this
should not be confused with social contract (stage five), as all actions are
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performed to serve one's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist,
the perspective of the world is often seen as morally relative.
KOHLBERG
Conventional
•
•
•
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults.
Persons who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by
comparing these actions to societal views and expectations. The conventional level
consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development.
In Stage three, the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive
of approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects society's accordance with
the perceived role. They try to be a good boy or good girl to live up to these
expectations,[3] having learned that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three
reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in
terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect,
gratitude and the 'golden rule'. Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to
further support these stereotypical social roles. The intentions of actions play a more
significant role in reasoning at this stage; 'they mean well...'.[3]
In Stage four, it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of
their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is
thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three; society must
learn to transcend individual needs. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is
right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law,
perhaps everyone would - thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and
rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a
significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
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KOHLBERG
Post-conventional
•
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, consists of stages
five and six of moral development. Realization that individuals are separate entities
from society now becomes salient. One's own perspective should be viewed before
the society's. It is due to this 'nature of self before others' that the post-conventional
level, especially stage six, is sometimes mistaken for pre-conventional behaviors.
• In Stage five, individuals are viewed as holding different opinions and values. Along a
similar vein, laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid dictums. Those
that do not promote general social welfare should be changed when necessary to
meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.[8] This is attained through
majority decision, and inevitably compromise. In this way democratic government is
ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
• In Stage six, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Rights are
unnecessary as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions
are not met hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute
way (see Immanuel Kant's 'categorical imperative'[13]). This can be done by
imagining what one would do being in anyone's shoes, who imagined what anyone
would do thinking the same (see John Rawls's 'veil of ignorance'[14]). The resulting
consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end
in itself; one acts because it is right, and not because it is instrumental, expected,
legal or previously agreed upon. While Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he had
difficulty finding participants who consistently used it. It appears that people rarely if
ever reach stage six of Kohlberg's model
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CAROL GILLIGAN (1)
Theory of Moral Development
• she criticized Kohlberg's research on the moral development of
children, which at the time showed that girls on average reached a
lower level of moral development than boys did
• Gilligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg's basic study
were largely male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used
tended to favor a principled way of reasoning that was more
common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on
relations, which would be more amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw
reason to revise his scoring methods as a result of Gilligan's
critique, after which boys and girls scored evenly.
• Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics
of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so-called
ethics of justice.
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CAROL GILLIGAN (2)
Theory of Moral Development
• Morality as Individual Survival
– What is “right” is what is good for him/her
– Follow rules to obtain rewards for themselves and to avoid
punishment
• Morality as Self-Sacrifice
– Attained after becoming aware of the needs of others
– Believes that to be good and to be approved by others, they
must sacrifices their own needs and meet the needs of others
• Morality as Equality
– Views his/her own needs as equal to those of others
– Stage of advocacy of non violence – it is not right for anyone to
be intentionally hurt, including the person himself/herself
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Erik Erikson (1)
Theory of Psychosocial Development
• Erik Erikson believed that every human being goes through a certain
amount of stages to reach their full development. There are 8
stages, that a human being goes through from birth to death
• Erikson always insisted that he was a Freudian, he is better
described as a Neo-Freudian, Subsequent authors have described
him as an "ego psychologist,"
• In contrast to the stress laid in orthodox Freudianism on the id,
Erikson emphasised the ego. Perhaps the most conspicuous way in
which his theory differs from that of Freud is that,
• In contrast to Freud's list of stages that take development up through
adolescence, Erikson lists eight stages of development, spanning
the entire lifespan
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Erik Erikson (2)
Theory of Psychosocial Development
•
Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked by a
conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome
1.
2.
Stage One Oral-Sensory: from birth to one, trust vs. mistrust (ex. feeding)
Stage Two Muscular-Anal: 1-3 years, autonomy vs. shame (ex. toilet
3.
4.
5.
Stage Three Locomotor : 3-6 years, initiative vs. guilt (ex. Independence)
Stage Four Latency: 6-12 years, industry vs. inferiority (ex. school)
Stage Five Adolescence: 12-18 years, identity vs. confusion (ex. peer
6.
7.
8.
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training)
relationships)
Stage Six Young Adulthood: 18-40 years, intimacy vs. isolation (ex. love
relationships)
Stage Seven Middle Adulthood: 40-65 years, generativity vs. stagnation
(ex. Parenting)
Stage Eight Maturity: 65 years until death, integrity vs. despair (ex.
acceptance of one's life)
Erik Erikson (3)
Theory of Social Development
•
1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)
Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The
child, well - handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic
optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful.
•
2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)
The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably
between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The "well - parented" child
emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud
rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this
psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness, and
negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent
their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of "NO"
rings through the house or the grocery store.
•
3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose)
Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the "play
age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into
formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden
his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to
lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of
groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the
development of play skills and in imagination.
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Erik Erikson (4)
Theory of Social Development
•
4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls
the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. Here the child
learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing
from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork,
such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the
need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful
resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily
enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame - and guilt-filled
child will experience defeat and inferiority.
•
5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)
During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an
adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of "Who am I?" But even the
best - adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most
girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - doubts flood the youngster, and so on.
Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the
young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to
experiment with different - usually constructive - roles rather than adopting a "negative identity" (such as
delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being "paralyzed" by
feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity manhood or womanhood - is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him),
and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful
adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium,"
particularly for middle - and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to "play for keeps," but
can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them
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Erik Erikson (5)
Theory of Social Development
•
6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)
The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and
enduring friendship.
•
7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care)
In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the
sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively
and creatively.
•
8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)
If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the
mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is
independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well - defined
role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He
can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is
proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or
more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may
view himself and his life with disgust and despair.
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TUGAS
• BUATLAH sejarah kehidupan Anda masing-masing
menurut Teori Erik Erikson, dari tahap awal sampai
dengan tahap dimana menurut Anda – Anda sedang
berada saat ini, berikan contohnya untuk setiap tahapan
yang menunjukkan Anda berhasil atau Anda gagal pada
tahap tersebut.
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