The Relational Model (cont’d)
Introduction to Disks and Storage
CS 186, Spring 2007, Lecture 3
Cow book Section 1.5, Chapter 3 (cont’d)
Cow book Chapter 9
Mary Roth
Administrivia
• Homework 1 available today from class
web site
Submit team members online
Read thru description; we’ll talk
more about it in today’s lecture
A Quick Survey…
Outline
• What we learned last time
– Components of a DBMS
– Relational Data Model
• New stuff
– Buffer Replacement and Files
Review: Components of a DBMS
• A DBMS is like an ogre; it has layers
Query Optimization
and Execution
Relational Operators
Files and Access Methods
Buffer Management
Disk Space Management
DB
Today we go here…
Review
• Relational Model
• Schema vs Instance
• Primary, Foreign Keys
•
•
•
•
Disks vs RAM
Disk Properties
DBMS Disk Manager
DBMS Buffer Manager
Buffer Management
Query Optimization
and Execution
Relational Operators
Files and Access Methods
Buffer Management
You are here…
Disk Space Management
DB
• Data must be in RAM for DBMS to operate on it!
• Buffer Mgr hides the fact that not all data is in RAM
Buffer Management in a DBMS
Page Requests from Higher Levels
BUFFER POOL
disk page
free frame
MAIN MEMORY
DISK
1
•
2
3
DB
4
5
6
7
8
9
Buffer pool information table contains:
choice of frame dictated
by replacement policy
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 … 999
<frame#, pageid, pin_count, dirty>
Requesting a page
Higher level DBMS
component
I need
page 3
BUFFER POOL
Buf Mgr
22
disk page
I need
page 3
3
3
free frames
MAIN MEMORY
Disk Mgr
DISK
1
2
3
… 22 … 90
If requests can be predicted (e.g., sequential scans) pages can be
pre-fetched several pages at a time!

Releasing a page
Higher level DBMS
component
I read page 3
and I’m done
with it
BUFFER POOL
Buf Mgr
22
disk page
3
free frames
MAIN MEMORY
Disk Mgr
DISK
1
2
3
… 22 … 90
Releasing a page
Higher level DBMS
component
I wrote on
page 3 and I’m
done with it
BUFFER POOL
Buf Mgr
22
disk page
3’
3’
free frames
MAIN MEMORY
Disk Mgr
DISK
1
2
3’
3
… 22 … 90
More on Buffer Management
• Requestor of page must eventually unpin it,
and indicate whether page has been
modified:
– dirty bit is used for this.
• Page in pool may be requested many times,
– a pin count is used.
– To pin a page, pin_count++
– A page is a candidate for replacement iff pin
count == 0 (“unpinned”)
• CC & recovery may entail additional I/O when
a frame is chosen for replacement.
– Write-Ahead Log protocol; more later!
What if the buffer pool is full? ...
• If requested page is not in pool:
– Choose a frame for replacement.
Only “un-pinned” pages are candidates!
– If frame is “dirty”, write it to disk
– Read requested page into chosen frame
• Pin the page and return its address.
Buffer Replacement Policy
• Frame is chosen for replacement by a
replacement policy:
– Least-recently-used (LRU), MRU, Clock, etc.
• Policy can have big impact on # of I/O’s;
depends on the access pattern.
LRU Replacement Policy
• Least Recently Used (LRU)
– for each page in buffer pool, keep track of time when
last unpinned
– replace the frame which has the oldest (earliest) time
– very common policy: intuitive and simple
• Works well for repeated accesses to popular pages
• Problems?
• Problem: Sequential flooding
– LRU + repeated sequential scans.
– # buffer frames < # pages in file means each page
request causes an I/O.
– Idea: MRU better in this scenario?
LRU causes sequential flooding in a
sequential scan
Higher level DBMS
component
I need
page 1
I need
page 2
I need
page 3
I need
page 1
I need page
2…ARG!!!
I need
page 4
BUFFER POOL
Buf Mgr
41
1
2
3
Disk Mgr
MAIN MEMORY
DISK
1
2
3
4
“Clock” Replacement Policy
A(1)
B(p)
D(1)
C(1)
• An approximation of LRU
• Arrange frames into a cycle, store one reference bit
per frame
– Can think of this as the 2nd chance bit
• When pin count reduces to 0, turn on ref. bit
Questions:
How like LRU?
Problems?
“Clock” Replacement Policy
Higher level DBMS
component
I need
page 5
I need
page 6
Frame 1
Frame 4
Frame 2
Frame 3
ref
Buf Mgr
do for each page in cycle {
if (pincount == 0 && ref bit is on)
turn off ref bit;
else if (pincount == 0 && ref bit is off)
choose this page for replacement;
} until a page is chosen;
1
2
51
2
63
4
3
4
5
6
DBMS vs. OS File System
OS does disk space & buffer mgmt: why not let
OS manage these tasks?
• Some limitations, e.g., files can’t span disks.
• Buffer management in DBMS requires ability to:
– pin a page in buffer pool, force a page to disk &
order writes (important for implementing CC &
recovery)
– adjust replacement policy, and pre-fetch pages based
on access patterns in typical DB operations.
HW1 – Buffer Mgr
• Questions?
What is in Database Pages?
• Database contains files
(every page either part of a file, or empty)
• Files hold relational data (tuples) or
indexes (metadata)
Files of Records
• Blocks interface for I/O, but…
• Higher levels of DBMS operate on
records, and files of records.
• FILE: A collection of pages, each
containing a collection of records. Must
support:
– insert/delete/modify record
– fetch a particular record (specified using
record id)
– scan all records (possibly with some
conditions on the records to be retrieved)
Record Formats: Fixed Length
F1
F2
F3
F4
L1
L2
L3
L4
Base address (B)
Address = B+L1+L2
• Information about field types same for all
records in a file; stored in system catalogs.
• Finding i’th field done via arithmetic.
Page Formats: Fixed Length Records
Slot 1
Slot 2
Slot 1
Slot 2
Free
Space
...
...
Slot N
Slot N
Slot M
1 . . . 0 1 1M
N
PACKED
number
of records
M ... 3 2 1
UNPACKED, BITMAP
Record id = <page id, slot #>. In first
number
of slots
alternative, moving records for free space
management changes rid; may not be acceptable.
Record Formats: Variable Length
• Two alternative formats (# fields is fixed):
F1
F2
$
F3
F4
$
$
$
Fields Delimited by Special Symbols
F1
F2
F3
F4
Array of Field Offsets
 Second offers direct access to i’th field, efficient storage
of nulls (special don’t know value); small directory overhead.
Page Formats: Variable Length
Records
Rid = (i,N)
Page i
Rid = (i,2)
Rid = (i,1)
20
N
...
16
2
24
N
1 # slots
SLOT DIRECTORY
Can move records on page without
changing rid; so, attractive for fixedlength records too.
Pointer
to start
of free
space
Unordered (Heap) Files
• Simplest file structure contains records in no
particular order.
• As file grows and shrinks, disk pages are allocated
and de-allocated.
• To support record level operations, we must:
– keep track of the pages in a file
– keep track of free space on pages
– keep track of the records on a page
Heap File Implemented as a List
Data
Page
Data
Page
Data
Page
Full Pages
Header
Page
Data
Page
Data
Page
Data
Page
Pages with
Free Space
• The header page id and Heap file name must
be stored someplace.
– Database “catalog”
• Each page contains 2 `pointers’ plus data.
Heap File Using a Page Directory
Data
Page 1
Header
Page
Data
Page 2
DIRECTORY
Data
Page N
• The entry for a page can include the
number of free bytes on the page.
• The directory is a collection of pages;
linked list implementation is just one
alternative.
Indexes (a sneak preview)
• A Heap file allows us to retrieve records:
– by specifying the rid, or
– by scanning all records sequentially
• Sometimes, we want to retrieve records
by specifying the values in one or more
fields, e.g.,
– Find all students in the “CS” department
– Find all students with a gpa > 3
• Indexes are file structures that enable us
to answer such value-based queries
efficiently.
System Catalogs
• For each relation:
–
–
–
–
name, file location, file structure (e.g., Heap file)
attribute name and type, for each attribute
index name, for each index
integrity constraints
• For each index:
– structure (e.g., B+ tree) and search key fields
• For each view:
– view name and definition
• Plus statistics, authorization, buffer pool size, etc.

Catalogs are themselves stored as relations!
Attr_Cat(attr_name, rel_name, type, position)
attr_name
attr_name
rel_name
type
position
sid
name
login
age
gpa
fid
fname
sal
rel_name
Attribute_Cat
Attribute_Cat
Attribute_Cat
Attribute_Cat
Students
Students
Students
Students
Students
Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
type
string
string
string
integer
string
string
string
integer
real
string
string
real
position
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
Summary
• Disks provide cheap, non-volatile storage.
– Random access, but cost depends on location of page on
disk; important to arrange data sequentially to minimize
seek and rotation delays.
• Buffer manager brings pages into RAM.
– Page stays in RAM until released by requestor.
– Written to disk when frame chosen for replacement
(which is sometime after requestor releases the page).
– Choice of frame to replace based on replacement policy.
– Tries to pre-fetch several pages at a time.