CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
ETHNOLOGICAL STORAGE:
II
METHOD AND THEORY AS
APPLIED AND DEVELOPED AT THE LOS ANGELES
COUNTY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in
Anthropology
by
Nancy J. 9-Dmberg
January, 1977
The Thesis of Nancy J. Blomberg is approved:
Antonio Gi~lman,
PhD.\
Committee Chairperson
California State University, Northridge
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES .
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
v
ABSTRACT • .
. .
•
vi
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE.
1
CHAPTER
1
ENVIRONMENT AND THE AGING PROCESS
4
Natural Aging
Biochemical and Microbiological Aging
2
-
METHODOLOGY OF ETHNOLOGICAL STORAGE:
THEORETICAL ASPECTS
• • . . • •
11
o
Textiles
Agents of Destruction
Atmosphere Pollutants
Light
Micro-Organisms
Storage Units
Wood
Basketry
Ivory, Bone
Feathers
Skin and Skin Products
Conservation Laboratory
3
STORAGE OF ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS AT
LACMNH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT
o
o
o
•
o
62
Environmental Controls
Equipment
Layout
4
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPUTERIZATION
CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
o
73
81
83
o
iii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table
1.
Causes of Damage to Mus,eum Objects .
5
2.
Moisture Retaining Capacity of Air
7
3.
Ranges of Dimensions of Cotton Fibres
4.
Wet and Dry Breaking Strengths of Raw and
Degraded Cottons .
. • • • • •
• • • 14
14
. 17
5.
Insect Pests of Textiles • .
6.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wood vs.
Metal Shelving . . • • • • • . . . • . • • 25
7.
Hygroscopic Behavior of Wood .
•
8.
Methods of Processing Skin .
• • 50
9.
Conservation Requirements of Materials and
Their Acco~modations . • • • . . . . • . • 60
10.
• 32
The Structure of Computerized Catalog
Systems
•
.
.
•
.
iv
•
.
.
.
.
.
•
•
•
.
.
• 79
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1.
Effect of change in relative humidity (P~)
on the Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC)
for Various Moisture Sensitive Materials
at Room Temperature • • • • • • . • • • • 31
2.
Diagram of Vertical Section Through
Calfskin
47
Diagram of Vertical Section Through
Cattle Hide
47
Diagram of Vertical Section Through
Sheepskin
!'
47
Diagram of Vertical Section Through
Goatskin
48
Diagram of Vertical Section Through
Pigskin
48
3.
4.
5.
6.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
........
7.
Storage Unit for Rolled Textiles
8.
LACMNH Anthropology Storeroom (GEE-7)
Proposed Layout
68
LACMNH Anthropology Storeroom (GE-7)
Proposed Layout
69
9.
• • • 66
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
.
10.
LACMNH Conservation Lab Proposed Layout . . 72
11.
Sample Page, University of Missouri
Museum of Anthropology . . . • •
12.
• • 77
Sample Catalog Card, Los Angeles County
Museum of Natural History, Ethnology
Section . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . 80
v
ABSTRACT
ETHNOLOGICAL STORAGE:
METHOD AND THEORY AS
APPLIED AND DEVELOPED AT THE LOS ANGELES
COUNTY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
by
Nancy J. Blomberg
Master of Arts in Anthropology
January, 1977
This thesis examines museum storage techniques
for ethnological specimens, including the environment
surrounding an artifact (to determine the effect it plays
in the aging of fragile objects}, and the nature of organic materials and the optimum conditions required by
each artifact for survival.
I
I
Application of these prin-
ciples is made to the Ethnology collections at tne Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History.
Development
of these facilities takes into consideration actual budgetary constraints, existing space, and the resources of
a small staff.
vi
1
p •
Several existing classification systems for
ethnological collections are considered in the light of
their applicability to
LAC~-1NH
collections.
Future com-
puterization interests of LACMNH are explored in conjunction with the development of their .classification system.
Data was obtained primarily from library
research and examination of numerous existing museum
facilities.
vii
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
The condition of an antiquity or a work of art
depends on two main factors--the materials of
which it is composed, which vary enormously,
and the conditions to which it has been subj~cted in the course of its life history.
(Plenderleith 1971:1)
Museums are the repositories for material
culture.
In most cases the artifacts therein are com-
posed of diverse materials ranging from fragile textiles
to stone stelae.
To ensure their survival each speciman
must be considered in the light of the two facts stated
by Plenderleith.
But an objects life history does not
end once it reaches a museum.
The environment within the 1
II museum must
I
provide for its survival for countless future 1
I
generations. The aim of this paper is to carry Plender- ~
I leith's statement a step further and consider proper
I storage conditions
for ethnological collections.
The
thesis is divided into four main chapters.
Chapter 1 analyzes the effects of light,
role in the acceleration of the aging process.
Chapter 2 outlines ideal conditions for each
type of material being archived.
Achievement of such
ideals is often difficult for museums with low budgets,
1
I
2
and the following chapter focuses on an existing
facility.
In Chapter 3 a working storage procedure has
been developed by using the collections of the Ethnology
Section of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History (LACMNH).
Application of this model has been made
considering actual budgetary constraints, existing space,
and available staff.
It should be noted that the Ethno-
logical collections at LACMNH are not limited to the
materials discussed in my thesis; however, I have chosen
to limit myself to those materials most susceptible to
deterioration.
.
The final chapter examines several classification
systems for ethnological collections in use at other
museums.
Modifications of these enabled the development
of a system ideally suited to the collections at LACMNH.
'l'his system is designed to allow for future expansion
and eventual computerized inventory of the collections ..
Methodology has centered on two main sources:
library research and inspection of several existing
museum facilities.
Institutions examined were:
1) Los Angeles County Museum of Art
2) Museum of Cultural History, UCLA
3) Museum of Man, San Diego
4) Santa Barbara Museum of Natural
5) Nevada State Museum, Carson City
His~ory
I
3
These visits provided additional insight into specific
problems.
All museums visited lacked ideal facilities.
Stabilization of temperature and humidity levels, insufficient space, and inadequate budget were the most frequently encountered problems.
The knowledge gained of
these problems and their attempted solutions, along with
information gleaned from library research were combined
in designing new facilities for LACMNH.
Selection of these institutions was based on one
or more similarities to LACMNH:
·
·
·
·
·
scope of collections
size of collections
size of budget
facilities available
computerization interests
C:hapter 1
ENVIRONMENT AND THE AGING PROCESS
Museum studies have come a long way in the second!
half of this century.
Modern curators have come to real-
ize that their responsibility towards the collections
goes a lot further than just exhibition of an artifact.
Besides having an expertise in his area of scholarship,
the curator must have a thorough grounding in the proper
care of the artifacts entrusted to the museum.
Very few
museums have adequate display space for their collections.
In reality only a very small proportion ever
finds its way to the exhibit halls.
Thus proper storage
and study facilities have become a great concern for the
curator.
I
l
Literature on the subject of museum storage,
although greatly increased in the last twenty years, is
still lacking.
Although a great deal has been published
with regards to art objects, the area of ethnological
storage has been largely ignored (Guldbeck 1972).
On the road to designing proper facilities we
must identify the causes of deterioration.
Such causes
an'd their results can be summarized in Table 1.
Ethnological materials are composed largely of
organic materials and are thus particularly susceptible
4
5
Table 1
Caqses of Damage to Museum Objects
-
i·. ·-;
.
::.;
--~
...._. ·...
Contaminated. M· ·.
Humidity .
j .. .
1
..
..
B~
Neglect
r
ol. ---..... . . .,-_-A....,k.
.
. Y:
S~ur. H~ ~
dioxide . . sulphide
·- ·.-~~: ·
ScaiWng
Tendering
... .
...
_,_.
Embrittlement
by desiccation
.
_
-~
=to
light, heat,
and
humidity
_:..:·
Damage to
marquetry
.I
Slackening
ofcanns
Blackening of lead pigments
Tarnishing of metals
. Rapid
~
Movement of hygroscopic materials
· W arp.ilig of wood
Flaking of paint
Activation of soluble salts
~-
wetness
.
.
:..,,
.-
...,· .
.. ::. ._··. ·~-'---...:Damp
___--nFungi
I
Heat
Bact=D.
Weakening of adhesives
Rotting of size
- Staining of paper, vellum, etc.
Blurring of inks
Mildewing of leather
Metallic corrosion encouraged.
Loss of adhesion of illuminations
.
Adhesion ofloaded. papea _
Tightening of auvas
Moth
Rats
and
Mice
(Plenderleith 1971:18)
6
to injury.
Lodewijks (1963) identifies three broad types
of injury:
1)
2)
3)
natural
biochemical and microbiological
mechanical
Once an object reaches a museum it is no longer subjected
to use and thus mechanical aging does not concern us.
Numbers one and two do need further consideration.
Natural Aging
Natural aging occurs through an objects exposure
to light, temperature, and humidity variation.
Stowlow
explains photochemical activity, the ability of light to
stimulate chemical change:
The heat from sunlight or from a powerful
electric lamp suggests that light is a form
of energy. A rise in temperature increases
the general agitation of atoms and molecules
and speeds up the rate of a chemical change.
The energy of light gives an added boost which
makes these atoms and molecules more reactive
and liable to change. Thus excited, dyes may
fade, long-chain molecules (polymers) in fibers
of paper or textiles may become broken, or portions of other substances may be converted to
colored compounds, as in the discoloration of
paper, varnishes, and drying oils {1966b:298).
Although light is the obvious enemy of colors
and causes the bleaching of objects, high temperature,
humidity, and oxygen help speed up deterioration.
Tern-
perature fluctuations are most harmful when combined
with humidity variation.
7
The concept of relative humidity (rH) must be
examined.
Dudley gives us a good working definition:
Relative humidity is the proportion of actual
moisture to the maximum possible amount of
moisture in the air at a specified temperature.
It is expressed in percentages. All air contains some water vapor, mixed with air gases.
The amount varies, but at a given temperature,
there is a maximum limit to the amount the air
will hold. This limit is low at low temperatures, high at high temperatures. When air
holds its limit of moisture i t is at 100%
relative humidity (1958:59).
The following table expresses the principle that
the higher the temperature, the greater the capacity for
moisture:
Table 2
Temperature
in °C
Grammes of water vapour per
kilogramme of dry air
rH
=
20%
rH
=
60%
rH ""' 100%!
0
0.38
2.28
3.82
20
1.43
8.69
14.61
40
4.55
28.30
48.67
60
12.50
83.35
152.45
(Coremans 1974:97)
I
I
'
I
,_
When temperature is reduced its capacity for moisture
retention is also reduced and condensation occurs.
This
II
8
moisture is then deposited on the artifact much to its
detriment.
As the humidi.ty in the air fluctuates, so does
the moisture content of the artifacts.
Ethnological
1
II
.I
specimens, being composed largely of organic material
with a cellular structure, are exceedingly hygroscopic.
Because of this property they constantly seek to maintain
an equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere.
Constant!
!
fluctuations in this environment will damage the artifacts depending on the type of material composing each
specimen.
Natural aging is further accelerated by two
~ypes
of atmospheric pollutants:
1964).
solid and'gaseous {Buck
Such large, solid particles as soot, lint, dust
and pollen are deposited on specimens every day.
When
the object is dusted the particles act as an abrasive and
gradually wear down the surface.
Such particles, espe-
cially dust, are also exceedingly hygroscopic and can
act as moisture attractants.
Insect infestation, depending on the type of
material attacked, can be devastating and must be controlled.
I
Methods include maintaining clean facilities
a'nd collections, and regular fumigation {Plenderleith
1971).
Gaseous pollutants, found in metropolitan areas
where most museums are located, are especially harmful
I
9
to artifacts.
Most harmful are sulphurous gases which
originate with.the burning of fuel.
Their further con-
version to sulphuric acid, by the addition of moisture,
causes enormous damage to the materials composing ethnological artifacts {Stowlow 1966a).
Thomson {1965) examines ozone and its effect on
organic materials.
Ozone attacks the double bonds be-
tween carbon atoms and causes their breakage, thus resulting in the gradual chemical disintegration of the
object.
Ozone is especially dangerous in Los Angeles,
and other cities with a similar potential concentration
of this pollutant.
Biochemical and Microbiological Aging
Lastly, biochemical and microbiological aging
must be considered.
These processes are responsible for
the growth of bacteria, molds and fungi on objects.
Micro-organisms can cause widespread destruction especially among textiles.
Staining and eventual rotting of
the material can be expected where micro-damage is occurring {Plenderleith 1971, Leene 1972, Lodewijks 1963).
How is the aging process to be retarded?
answer is environmental control.
The
Museum storerooms, as
well as exhibit areas, must be air-conditioned to the
specific requirements of the objects!
Buck identifies
10
four functions that any air-conditioning system must
incorporate:
1)
2)
3)
4)
control of humidity
control of temperature
air filtration
ventilation (1964:53).
Humidity, combined with temperature changes, have a
direct bearing on an artifact's condition.
Both must be
carefully monitored at regular intervals to assure stability of the artifacts.
Filtration of pollutants is
accomplished by activated carbon filters.
I lation
of air throughout the storeroom is
Proper circua must to avoid
stagnant pockets of air which may create undesirable
I
I mini-environments.
Cameron proposes
l
the model museum environment:
The ideal environment would provide pollutant~
free air, total darkness, a constant temperature in the range 60-65°F., a relative humidity constant in the range 50-60%, vibration
free structure and protection against shock
and sound waves, an absence of all organisms
(including humans), a site on high land, a
fire-proof structure, elaborate emergency backup control systems, and the co-operation of the
Almighty (1968:17).
Cameron's suggestions are slightly impractical but not
all points are unobtainable.
Such objectives must be
sought in order to prevent deterioration before it begins.
Ultimately such precautions are £ar less costly
than the loss of irreplaceable artifacts through neglect.
I
I.
l
Chapter 2
METHODOLOGY OF ETHNOLOGICAL STORAGE:
THEORETICAL ASPECTS
Having learned in Chapter 1 that all materials
react differently to the environment according to their
composition, it is necessary to examine each type of
material composing ethnological specimens to determine
specific requirements for their survival.
This chapter
surveys the storage requirements of the most fragile
types of ethnological artifacts.
I
.I
I
Textiles
I
Background
Historically the word textile comes to us from
the Latin, tegere, meaning to weave.
Such a- definition
taken literally could encompass a great deal of woven
materials of all types.
Leene discusses textile proper-
ties including "handling, drape and suppleness" (1972:4).
By applying these properties to the definition of textiles she omits baskets and mats.
I choose to consider
these in a separate section.
Ethnological textiles, in-the past, have been
composed totally of natural materials.
Synthetic fibres
did not enter the picture until the twentieth century
and consequently are represented in only a few modern
11
12
artifacts.
Furthermore synthetic fibers are relatively
resistant to deterioration.
Only those natural fibers
(wool, silk, cotton, and flax) which are the most numerous and susceptible to decay will be considered here.
Natural fibers may be divided into two
categories:
animal origin (wool, silk)
vegetable origin (cotton, flax)
Animal fibers are composed of keratin which produces the
smell of burnt feathers when ignited.
Vegetable fibers
contain cellulose and produce an odor like burnt paper
(Plenderleith 1971:100).
Such broad distinctions are
initially useful but a closer look at the properties of
each type of fiber is necessary since the designing of
proper storage facilities depends upon a thorough understanding of the nature of the fibers concerned.
Wool
Wool originally evo:l,ved as a protective agent
for the sheep and consequently is able to withstand a
great deal of abuse.
Individual hairs, if examined under
a microscope, are covered with numerous scales.
These
scales can easily interlock with those of other hairs and ,
thereby form a strong bond.
For storage purposes it is
vital to know that moisture can be trapped under these
scales and lead to the decay of the fiber (Bellinger
1963: 193) •
13
Silk
Silk worms (Bombyx mori) spin a protective
cocoon for themselves by the extrusion of a double filament surrounded by silk gum-.
This gum sericin must be
boiled off before the filament can be utilized as thread.
Once cleaned, the remaining £ilaments have a smooth surface producing 400 to 1000 continuous yards from a single
cocoon.
Great care must be taken not to fold silk fabric
or breakage of these fibers will result.
While silk fil-
ament is very strong, it is not spun before being woven.
This results in an absence of other filaments to form as
tight a bond as wool (Bellinger 1963:193).
Cotton
Cotton fiber was evolved to isolate the seeds
maturing inside the cotton plant (Gossypium sp.) from
moisture.
Individual fibers are long and flat with
either a right (Z) or left (S) hand twist along its
length.
Hardly uniform in nature, cotton varies im-
mensely according to type.
Table 3.
Such variations are seen in
While the chart refers only to the four stan-
dard commercially available types of cotton it does express some of the great range of variation to be found
in cottons.
Such variation among-the fibers necessarily
produces a variation in the coarseness of the yarn and
the
f~brics
produced from it.
14
Table 3
Ranges of Dimensions of Cotton Fibres
Length (rom)
Mean
Maximum
Type
(
Diameter
= 0.001 rom)
Mean
Indian
12-20
20-36
14.5-22
American
16-30
24-48
13.5-17
Egyptian
20-32
36-52
12.0-14.5
Sea Island
28-36
50-64
11.5-13.0
(Leene 1972:13)
Leene (1972:14) further states that the strength
·of cotton depends on two factors:
relative humidity of
the environment and whether or not it has been subjected
to harmful amounts of light or heat.
Table 4 illustrates
some of these corresponding strengths:
Table 4
Wet and Dry Breaking Strengths of Raw
and Degraded Cottons
Cotton
Yarn
Breaking Strength
(g)
~vet
Dry
Elongation at Break
(%)
Wet
Dry
Raw
216
324
7.1
11.3
Degraded
by Light
122
79
2.73
Ca.4
(Leene 1972:14)
15
These factors must be taken into consideration when
handling ethnological cottons.
Linen
Linen is derived from the flax plant (Linum
usitatissimum) and as such is composed largely of cellulose.
Linen fibers serve as strengtheners in the plant
stem while also carrying water along its length.
This
movement of water creates a smooth fiber which is also
quite sturdy.
The fiber varies in size and strength
depending upon its location in the stem (Bellinger 1963:
192).
She further states that when any of the above
mentioned fibers are
• . . exposed to an atmosphere saturated with
moisture, linen absorbs 13 per cent of its
weight, cotton 21 per cent, and both wool and
silk 30 per cent (1963 :'193).
Agents of Destruction
Armed with the preceding data, one can gain a
clearer picture of what types of destruction might result
from improper care.
Textiles are particularly suscept-
ible to damage caused by several factors:
insects, atmo-
spheric pollutants, light and micro-organisms.
Each
needs consideration here.
Insects
Insects probably cause the greatest amount of
destruction to textiles.
Wool fibers are the most
!
I
16
susceptible to damage by insects, especially moths,
which feed directly on the fiber itself.
Hueck (1972:77)
mentions another source of trouble--those insects which
are not feeding directly on the textile fibers themselves
but on another material in close proximity,- and inadvertantly damage the textile.
Examples are seen in Table 5.
Of all the destructive agents working on
textiles, insects are probably the easiest to control.
Prevention of damage can be accomplished by using chemical deterrants such as para-dichlorobenzine crystals or
napthalene in closed containers.
Hueck (1972:89) recom-
mends the use of at least 100 grams of PDB for every
cubic meter of storage cabinet renewed every six months.
Furthermore to obtain maxiinum benefit from the vapors,
temperatures should be greater than 68°F.
While all authors (Hueck 1972, Plenderleith 1971,
Guldbeck 1968) agree that prevention of infestation is of I
primary importance, all recognize that.occasionally a
serious infestation can occur for one reason or another.
Such an occasion calls for a professional exterminator
due to the wide variety of chemicals used which are potentially dangerous to humans as well as the artifacts.
I
Table 5
Insect Pests of Textiles
Name
Substrate
Type of Damage
Tineola bisselliella Humm
(common clothes moth)
Preferably wool, fur, felt,
but they accept other
proteinaceous food. Occur
naturally in birds' nests.
Superficial grazing.
Holes. Silk and excrements
produced.
Same as above, larvae
build cases from silk and
bitten thread.
Moths
Tinea pellionella L.
(case-bearing clothes
moth)
Same as above; larvae form
tunnels in the material,
made of silk and bitten
threads.
Trichophaga tapetzella
(tapestry tnoth)
Hofmannophila
pseudospretella Staint
(brown house moth)
Endrosis sarcitrella
(white shouldered house
moth)
Occurs on wool. Feeds on
wool, etc; and stored
food.
Prefers stored food, but
occurs on wool.
,--------·--------··----·----------------
Same as above; produce a
mess of frass stuck together with . silk threads.
I-'
·--------·--------·---.,-·-···--~---·
'-l
.,..,..,
Table 5 (Continued)
Name
Substrate
Type of Damage
Carpet Beetles
Anthrenus museorum L.
(museum beetle)
Anthrenus verbasci L.
(varied carpet beetle)
Anthrenus scrophulariae L.
(common carpet beetle)
Anthrenus vorax Waterh.
(furniture carpet beetle)
Anthrenoceros australis
Hope Attagenus piceus Oliv
(black carpet beetle)
Attagenus pellio L.
Wool, fur, felt and
proteinaceous stored
materials, without
preference.
Mainly holes of irregular
shape. No silk. On
microscopical examination,
typical bristles from the
larvae are found.
Excrements very fine, hardly
visible.
Lepisma saccharina L.
(silverfish)
Rayon and-many types of
stored food, paper and
related materials.
Irregular holes in rayon
and, occasionally, other
textiles.
Niptus hololeucus Fald.
(golden spider beetle)
Stored food and debris of
vegetable or animal origin.
Holes bitten by adult
beetles generally more
knurled than of carpet
beetle larvae.
Other Pests
,_.
·--------------·
-----
00
Table 5 (Continued)
Name
Substrate
Type of Damage
Cockroaches (many
species)
Polyphagous, including
sizing of textiles, glue,
etc. Not specific for
textiles, although rayon
is eaten.
Superficial grazing and
irregular holes if amenable food is present.
Termites (many spe.cies)
Wood and many other
cellulose-containing
materials. Textiles are
readily eaten.
Complete devastation,
often progressing from the
dark back or inside of attacked materials. Many
termites build tunnels.
Wood-boring beetles
(many species)
Wood. No preference for
textiles, acceptance as
food doubtful.
Neat round holes in wooden
boards may be continued in
stored textiles.
(Hueck 1972:78)
1-'
\0
·---------·-
·---··--··~
20
Atmosphere Pollutants
All forms of atmospheric pollution (gaseous and
solid) are particularly damaging to textile fibers (Buck
1964:53).
Presenting such a large surface area to such
pollution increases the susceptibility of textile fibers
to such solid pollutants as dust, soot, lint and pollen.
Thomson (1972:108) states that the textile serves as a
filter to trap airborne particles.
Dirt itself is abra-
sive to the fabric but more importantly it can contain
sulphur dioxide.
When
so 2
is converted to sulphuric
acid, by the addition of iron, it can greatly damage the
cellulose structure of cotton and linen.
Ozone concentrations often found in large
amounts in Los Angeles further hasten this deterioration.
Thomson readily admits a lack of specific knowledge of
the effects of gaseous pollution on wool and silk and
calls for more data.
There is disagreement as to the best method of
pollution control within the museum.
Electrostatic pre-
cipitators which are the most effective means of removing
solid particles also produce ozone (Thomson 1965:157).
Activated carbon filters, the alternative, while not producing ozone remove only 60 per cent of the sulphur dioxide on the first pass.
If this air is recirculated then
this figure can be expected to rise somewhat (Thomson
21
1972:100).
Each type of control has its limitations.
Selection of one over the other should .depend on the circumstances of the individual museum.
Obviously if the
museum is in an area already high in ozone, then an electrostatic precipitator is out of the question.
However,
if sulphur dioxide is more of a problem a precipitator
would seem likely.
Light
Light damage to textiles varies according to the
nature of the fibers and the dyes (Geijer 1963:185).
Animal fibers are slightly more resistant to such decay
than are vegetable fibers.
Light varies according to
wavelength:
1)
Invisible ultraviolet radiation, wavelength 3000-4000 ~
2)
Visible light, wavelength 4000-7600 A
3)
Invisible infra-red radiation, beyond 7600 A
0
0
(Thomson 1972:101)
The harmful effects of type three are small and thus
concentration must be on 1 and 2.
The energy produced
by light combines with fabric dyes to cause chemical
reactions.
This results in fading of the colors and
weakening of the fibers
leith 1971:118).
(called tendering).
(Plender-
22
Ultraviolet light, which is present in sunlight
and emanates from fluorescent tubes is by far the most
dangerous.
Visible light, both natural and artificial,
also cause noticeable damage.
Control of light energy in the storeroom is
generally agreed upon by ·most authors, and can be
achieved quite easily (Plenderleith 1971, Thomson 1972,
Guldbeck 1968, Buck 1972).
Fluorescent fixtures· should
be equipped with filters to eliminate harmful rays, natural light should be eliminated, and all lights should
be kept to a minimum level and turned off when not in
use.
Micro-Organisms
One final agent of deterioration to be considered
is attack by micro-organisms.
Vegetable fibers, due to
their cellulose content, seem to be the most susceptible
to this type of attack (Hueck 1972:80).
the most damaging micro-organisms.
Fungi are among
Once cellulose is
broken down by fungal attack the fabric strength is lost.
Further damage may result in staining of the fabric by
the growing fungus.
Contrary to Hueck (1972:80) who believes that
bacterial attack on wool is hardly ever a problem,
Nopitsch (1953:3582) states:
23
Bacteria are introduced with the raw wool, on
earth-clogged footwear, or with dust, which is
apt to contaminate the entire factory unless
the premises are kept reasonably clean. According to the recent literature, the minimum
moisture content of wool necessary for the
development of bacterial attack is 40 per cent
and the minimum temperatures are said to range
between 25 and 40 c. (77 and 104 F).
These conditions outlined by Nopitsch are present in a
great many museum storerooms.
He cautions that the ex-
tent of the damage is often difficult to detect without
a microscope and appears only as premature wear (1953:
3583).
Most experts (Nopitsch 1953, Hueck 1972, Buck
1972, Plenderleith 1972, Dudley 1958) do agree as to the
proper method of control for such micro attacks.
As
high levels of temperature and humidity are conducive to
bacterial growth each must be carefully regulated.
Exact
levels of relative humidity required vary from author to
author:
1965
=
Dudley 1958
=
40%, Hueck 1972 - 50%, Myers
55-65%, Fikioris 1973
less than 40%.
=
50%+ 5%, Nopitsch 1953
=
The only figure that is not in keeping
with the majority is Nopitsch.
Perhaps the reason for
this is the very early date, 1953, at which it was written.
All others do agree that 70 per cent rH is the
minimum humidity necessary for mold formation.
A tern-
perature range between 65° and 70°F. is generally recommended by all.
24
Storage Units
To safeguard a collection, proper storage units
are as important as are environmental controls.
If tex-
tiles are crammed into tight compartments, folded, or
otherwise physically abused, deterioration occurs in
spite of elaborate atmospheric regulations.
Conservators disagree as to the_best type of
construction materials for storage units, .metal vs. wood.
Not only textile storage is concerned in this regard but
all types of ethnological materials.
Advantages .and dis-
advantages of both are discussed by Dudley (1958}, Guldbeck (1972}, and Reynolds (1962}.
of all arguments presented.
Table 6 is a composite
While there would seem to be
slightly more pluses in favor of metal, some of the dis-·
advantages of each can be overcome by certain modifications.
The surface resilience of metal can be improved
by lining shelves with linoleum to prevent ceramic chipping (Dudley 1958}.
Staining of textiles from contact
with acidic wooden shelves or drawers can be eliminated
by covering the storage units with acid-free paper (Buck·
1972:117}.
the wood.
Such paper will eventually absorb acid from
Periodic inspection is necessary to determine
.I
when to change the paper.
A more -permanent solution is
to seal the surface with sealant.
Wooden units can be
f
I
painted with fire-retardant chemicals to lessen this
danger.
I
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Not susceptible
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Does not warp
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Easily
adjustable
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26
Each individual museum must weight the
advantages and disadvantages of each in relationship to
the museum's specific situation.
If a museum is located
in a tropical climate where high humidity is a problem,
metal shelves are not advisable.
Another museum may find
itself with good humidity control but an insect problem,
thus having a need for metal units.
Once this basic problem has been addressed the
requirements of each specific textile must be considered.
I
There is basic agreement in the literature as to the best1
methods to be utilized {Fikioris 1973, Buck 1972, Harvey
1963, Myers 1965).
Large, flat textiles such as rugs,
and blankets should be rolled rather than.folded so as
to minimize the danger of thread breakage.·
Large card-
board tubes {minimum 3" diameter) are recommended as a
support medium.
Tubes should first be covered with an
inert material such as polethylene or acid-free paper to
prevent the textile from acid deterioration.
Once the
object has been rolled on the tube it should be covered
with yet another piece of polyethylene tied with muslin
strips.
Stress on the textile is eliminated by insertion
of a metal or wooden pole through the cardboard tube.
This unit should then be
suspende~
on a length of chain
or by pegs along a wall.
Dresses, shirts and blouses that have sufficient
fiber strength should be stored on hangers padded at the
27
shoulder.
Padding relieves some of the stress on the
shoulder seam.
Heavily beaded garments, or those too
fragile to handle, must be laid flat in drawers.
Ideally, only one object per drawer, with no stacking
.
(Harvey 1963) .
.
Irregular shaped objects such as hats and shoes
can be stored on open shelves if insects and dust are
not problems.
Closed cases or drawers should be used
/
otherwise (Fikioris 1973).
Not all objects will conform to the above rules.
Each piece must be considered in the· light of its condition as well as material composition.
Wood
The Nature of Wood
The physical properties of wood must be
identified if we are to come to an understanding of the
behavior of wooden artifacts.
Buck (1963:1.57) identi-
fies the basic material of all wood, regardless of
species., as:
1)
2)
3)
cellulose
hemicelluloses
lignin
He calls these the "solid substance" of wood or "gel
material."
species.
Gel concentration varies from species to
28
Wood may be thought of as a solid foam of gel
material. If the voids are sparse and small,
the wood will be hard and dense . • . . A sequence of decreasing wood density and
strength--such as oak, ash, chestnut, pine,
and spruce--follows a sequence of increasing
void volume. Near the limit is balsa, in
which the gel material exists only as a filmy
structure of thin membranes. As cell walls
become thinner, they may yield more easily
under mechanical stress, or even collapse
into the cell voids (Buck 1963:157).
Furthermore this gel material has the capacity to adsorb
and desorb moisture in the atmosphere thereby causing the
cell walls to expand and contract.
Throughout its lifetime a tree contains nearly
twice its dry weight in water.
As soon as it is cut down
it begins to lose this water to the atmosphere.
This
process is referred to as "seasoning" (Guldbeck 1972).
Buck gives us an exact definition:
Seasoning is a process of slow drying whereby
the free water or sap which fills the cell
cavities of recently cut wood escapes by devious routes throughout the porous structure
and leaves the cells empty (1952:39).
Seasoning is considered complete when an equilibrium
with the moisture content of the air has been reached.
Popular opinion holds that wood is considered stable upon
completion of the seasoning process.
Studies on seasoned
and unseasoned wood conducted by Buck (1952) to be examined later, show this to be false.
Two other properties of wood, elasticity and
plasticity need to be discussed first.
I'
II
i
29
An elastic body is one that spontaneously
recovers its normal bulk or shape after any
distortion by an external force (Buck 1963:
157).
Buck uses a spring as exhibiting such a property.
When
under stress it contracts, but release of the stress allows the spring to assume its original shape.
Wood is
also plastic in that it can be bent permanently to assume
a specific shape.
Both these properties increase greatly
when heat and moisture are applied to the wood (Buck
1963).
I
1
I
I
I
!
Destructive Agents:
Humidity and Insects
Humidity can cause damage to wood in two ways:
1)
2)
by causing the shrinking and swelling of .the
cell structure, and
by encouraging fungus growth.
From the discussion of the nature of wood it was
determined that wood is exceedingly hygroscopic, even
after seasoning.
The extent of that hygroscopicity must
be discussed now.
Stowlow explains the concept of equilibrium
moisture content:
Under ordinary circumstances cellulose materials
such as wood, canvas, and wool contain moisture.
They have what is known as an equilibrium moisture content which can be measured. It is the
amount of water vapor contained by a material
when it has reached equilibrium expressed as a
percentage of its dry weight at a particular
temperature. Materials increase their equilibrium moisture content up to a maximum fixed
quantity as the relative humidity in the air
l
30
surrounding them increases. When the relative
humidity drops, moisture is released; when
relative humidity increases again, moisture
is re-absorbed. The recognized v~garies in
this cycle are known as the phenomenon of
hysteresis (1966:168).
Figure 1 shows the effect of humidity on various
hygroscopic materials.
Examination of this chart reveals
that of all such materials, wood is by far the most affected by changes in humidity.
I
/
Such absorption and de-
sorption produces swelling and shrinking of the wood.
Continual stresses such as these can cause the wood to
warp and split.
Seasoning of the wood does not decrease the
I hygroscopic
behavior of wood. Buck (1952:42) states that
I "it is live or green wood which is stable because it is
constantly swollen to the maximum."
Experiments con-
ducted by him on specimens at the Fogg Museum of Art,
Harvard University, show just how unstable seasoned wood
actually is.
The results can be found in Table 7.
While
there seems to be a slight decline in hygroscopicity in
the oldest specimens, Buck says that:
It is very slight, and further evidence would
be needed to demonstrate that it exists at
all (1952:43).
The second type of damage resulting from excess
-
humidity is the development of fungus.
present in the air.
Spores are ever
High humidity (greater than 70%) is
necessary for their growth (Stowlow 1966) •
Rather than
31
30
12.
8
60
RH
Figure 1.
0
eo
100
/o
Effect of change in relative humidity
(RH) on the equilibrium moisture con- ·
tent (EMC) for various moisture sensitive materials at room temperature
1, wood; 2, Kraft paper; 3, newsprint
paper; 4, fir plywood; 5, homosote
board; 6, masonite board; 7, cotton;
8, linen; 9, styrolite (expanded polystyrene, density 0.02 gm/cc.)
(Stowlow 1966:176)
r-_.....;...._ _ _ _ _ _,..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Table 7
No.
Wood
Approximate
Age
Source
1
Poplar - tentatively
identified as Pepuius
deltoides
Secured at a lumber yard,
described as unseasoned
less than 1
year
2
Ash--Fraximus americana
Secured at a lumber yard,
described as well seasoned
less than 10
years
3
Oak--Quercus, a white oak
type species not identified
Secured at a lumber yard,
described as well seasoned
less than 20
years
4
Yellow poplar--Liriodeudron
tulipifera
From a timber taken from a
demolished building
75-125 years
5
Chestnut--Castanea dentata
From a timber taken from a
demolished building
75-125 years
6
Oak--Quercus, a white oak
type, species not identified
Taken from the support of a 1
painting by Holbein
7
Ash--Fraximus, species not
identified
Taken from a dowel in a panel
painted by Benvenuto di
Giovanni
:•
400 years
2
450 years
w
·-----
···---·--. -----------·-----
1\J
-~-
. ---...-
-·-----.--··---·----·
Table 7 (Continued)
No.
Wood
Approximate
Age
Source
8
Poplar--Populus, species
not identified
Taken from a panel painted by
Spinello Aretino
550 years
9
Poplar--Populus, species
not identified
Taken from a panel painting,
signed and dated, Giuliano da
Rinuini--1307
650 years
10
Ash--Fraximus, species not
identified
Taken from a dowel found in the
above panel, of specimen No. 9
650 years
11
Fig~-Identified as Ficus 3
Taken from the panel of a Fayum
portrait
1800 years
12
Fig~-Identified as Ficus 3
Taken from an Egyptian XII .
dynasty sarcophagus
3700 years
NOTES:
1 specimen consisted of a number of small splinters.
2
Although sound otherwise, the specimen contained a few worm holes.
3
Presumably Ficus sycomorus, a tree common in ancient and modern Egypt. Cf.
A. Lucas, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, London, 1934.
w
w
---~·--•·w--------~------·~----""""'~""....,.______
-------"'~,.....,_,.....,~_...,...,...'-'~•-•••""~"".......,._._,_,,
;'
Table 7 (Continued)
3
2
4
5
6
7
8
12
11
10
9
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ASH
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POPLAR
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35
feeding upon the wood itself, most molds seem to develop
because of such nutrients as grease or oil present in
the wood.
Fungus of the dry rot variety is most common
in objects continually subjected to water such as canoes
or totem poles (Plenderleith 1971).
Prevention of both types of humidity-related
damage to wood is possible.
Most conservators (Guldbeck
1972, Dudley 1958) agree that a constant relative humid-·
ity of 55 per cent prevents warping and splitting of
wood.
Furthermore, this low level prevents fungus at-
tack.
Clean artifacts are also a deterrant to mold
formation.
Insects.
Some major insect pests capable of
infesting wood are the powder-post beetle (Lyctus), the
death-watch beetle (Xestobium) , and the common furniture
beetle (Anobium).
Each can do a great deal of damage
before it is discovered (Plenderleith 1971).
Fumigation of objects upon entering the museum
is a must to prevent the infestation from spreading to
the remainder of the collection.
The egg stage is often
unaffected by fumigation and therefore regular, periodic
fumigation is necessary to prevent re-infestation
(Plenderleith 1971).
36
Storage Units
I
.I
I
I
Wood has been exploited by man since paleolithic
times. Man has done almost everything with
wood--made his home of it, made fires with it
to cook his meals, used it for utensils, weapons, and implements, built ships and bridges
of it, used it for making vehicles, furniture,
art objects, and musical instruments, and, in
modern times, transformed it into paper and
even clothing. It is not surprising therefore,
that wood forms a large part of the collections
in museums--particularly in ethnographical and
folk museums--and its conservation is a matter
of considerable importance (Planderleith 1971:
124)
0
This statement by Plenderleith describes the range of
uses of wood and focuses on a major storage problem.
This variety of wooden artifacts produces the need for
a variety of storage units.
Objects can range in size
.from large boats to tiny figures.
Their function can
range from carefully handled ceremonial masks to
heavily-used household grease dishes.
Wooden artifacts
exist in all shapes, sizes and conditions and the storage units chosen must reflect these variances.
Choice of wood vs. metal should be made
considering the factors previously discussed.
Heavier
objects such as boats, and canoes are better stores on
sturdy metal shelving.
of ways:
Masks can be stored in a variety
in drawers, on open shelves, or hung on strong
wire mesh.
Many Oceanic pieces such as shields, masks
and ancestor figures have a surface of extremely fugitive paint.
This feature should be considered when
37
storing such objects..
Dudley (1958: 73) states that a
spray fixative may be used to prevent paint loss on
Melanesian specimens.
Many wooden artifacts are a composite of several
materials and thus deserve special consideration.
bows are often strung with sinew.
Wooden
Age increases the
brittleness of the sinew, making it susceptible to
breakage.
In some cases it may be wise to store the bow
unstrung to prevent this breakage from occurring.
The
curator should do so however, with the full knowledge
that it can probably never be re-strung safely.
Wooden
pipe sterns that are completely decorated with porcupine
quill embroidery serve as another good example of a cornposite item.
While the wooden foundation might not need
the protection of insect proof cabinets, porcupine
quills are highly susceptible to insect attack and
should be safeguarded against it.
All features of an
object should be taken into consideration when designing
proper storage units.
Basketry
The Nature of Basketry
Crowfoot (1956) divides basketry and matting
quite generally from weaving:
Baskets are vessels made by hand by interlacing
two or more sets of strands in different ways,
38
and these ways are sometimes closely similar
to weaving. Mats.may be made in a similar
manner to basketry, but are often true weaves
(1956:414).
Basketry represents a very ancient technology
using mainly plant fibers.
By about 5,000 B.C., basketry and weaving have
already been developed in distinct directions.
The material of basketry is generally unspun
vegetable fibres, though hand-twisted cords are
found in some types of baskets, especially for
handles and bases, and are sometimes used in
matting. Obviously the fibres used depend on
the local vegetation, but even when they have
been preserved they are often difficult to
identify (Crowfoot 1956:415).
Two techniques are generally recognized in the
manufacture of basketry:
twined or woven basketry.
(1} coiled or sewn, and (2)
Each has numerous variations
(James 1901}.
Suitable basketry materials are endless.
Mason
(1902) offers what he considers to be an incomplete list
of some 85 plant types used in basketry by American Indians alone.
While basketry materials are not limited
to plants, their use has predominated.
In the manufacture of their baskets the Indians
have ransacked the three kingdoms of nature-mineral, animal, and vegetal . • . The chief
dependence, however, of the basketmaker is upon
the vegetal kingdom. Nearly all parts of plants
have been used by one tribe or another for this
purpose--roots, stems, bark, leaves, fruits,
seeds and gums (Mason 1902:197).
Once completed, baskets were put to a wide
variety of uses.
Large utilitarian baskets received
39
p '
considerable wear.
Many were used in connection with
food from sturdy burden baskets, to tightly woven cooking
containers, to large graneries.
As a consequence, muse-
ums generally receive specimens that have been subjected
to substantial wear.
Destructive Agents
Past use of baskets for food gathering or
storage usually requires a thorough cleaning of the
specimen once it reaches a museum.
While insects can
feed directly upon the plant fiber itself, trapped food
particles further attract them (Mason 1902:540).
Some
specimens contain feather or wool decoration which is
another insect attractor {Dudley 1958:63).
High humidity produces mold growth on the
baskets and Dudley {1958:67) recommends a level of 55 per
cent rH be maintained in the storeroom.
Good
ventilation~
further inhibits mold formation.
Storage Units
'
Storage facilities for baskets depends on the
nature of the basket itself.
Dudley (1958:63) states
that baskets can be stored in several ways:
shelves, in cartons, or in cabinets.
on open
If open shelves
are used, care must be taken to prevent dust build-up
on the specimens.
Cabinets and cartons should not be
sealed as good circulation must be permitted.
Dudley
!I
40
further states that while sturdy baskets should be
stored individually, it is advisable to stack a few very
flexible baskets inside one another to provide mutual
support.
Large mats or sails require the same care
regarding humidity level and insect protection.
Because
of their size and brittle nature, large flat pieces
should never be folded, but should be laid flat.
If
space does not permit this, they should be loosely
rolled (Dudley 1958).
Ivory, Bone
The Nature of Bone and Ivory
Once worked and polished, bone and ivory are
very difficult to distinguish.
Guldbeck discusses the
characteristics of bone and ivory and offers a working
definition:
Ivory, teeth and tusks contain a hard, dense
core of dentine with a fine longitudinal grain
structure, and have an outer coating of enamel;
whereas bone is somewhat softer and of a
coarser cellular structure (1972ll34).
Plenderleith agrees on the difficulties in attempting to
distinguish worked bone and ivory.
Identification by
chemical analysis is not conclusive and Plenderleith explains why:
In both materials the main inorganic constituents
are the same, namely calcium phosphate associated with carbonate and fluoride, and the organic tissue of both is ossein; . . . (1971:148).
41
He suggests microscopic examination as the definitive
method.
Properties revealed are:
In cross-section, bone shows a rather coarse
grain with characteristic lacunae, whereas
Ivory, being composed of the hard, dense tis·sue known as dentine, is more compact and is
characterized by the presence of a network
composed of tiny lenticular areas resulting
from the intersection of systems of striations
that may be seen radiating from the center of
the tusk (Plenderleith 1971:149).
Sources of ivory include elephants, walrus,
hippopatomi, whales, mammoths and mastodons.
The prop-
erties of each vary slightly according to provenance
(Beigbeder 1965).
Walrus and whale ivory have been sub-
jected to a lifetime of water.
Mammoth and mastodon
ivory has considerable antiquity and has probably been
buried for several thousand years prior to its being
worked.
Bone is available from a variety of animals and
!
I
l
~
its density varies from species to species.
More readily!
available than ivory, bone is fashioned into a wider
range of utilitarian objects.
i1
The scarcity of ivory
generally causes it to be reserved for manufacture into
finer objects (Plenderleith 1971).
Agents of Destruction
Ivory and bone are extremely fragile and
susceptible to deterioration.
The directional proper-
ties of the grain in both bone and ivory causes their
L--------------------------------------------------------------------------~
42
warping and splitting when exposed to the continual
stress of excess heat and moisture.
The osseins consol-
idating them disintegrate when exposed to water for a
prolonged period of time.
Sunlight causes ivory and
bone to darken and lose their natural color (Guldbeck
1972, Plenderleith 1971).
This extremely fragile nature of ivory and bone
must be protected in a rigidly controlled environment.
Vital to the well-being of these materials is a constant
humidity maintained at a fairly high level of 55 per
cent (Dudley 1958, Daifuku 1960, Fall 1973).
The most dangerous atmospheric pollutant
·j
destructive to ivory and bone, is sulphur dioxide.
Once it has been converted to sulphuric acid it begins
to react with bone and ivory causing the disintegration
of their inorganic framework (Guldbeck 1972, Plenderleith
1971).
Proper air filtration in the museum environment
can prevent this from happening.
Insects and rodents can further damage bone and
ivory specimens (Daifuku 1960:121).
Ca-reful inspection
and fumigation of the premises is a must.
Storage Units
Most objects made of bone- and ivory are
relatively small in size.
For maximum protection from
all types of possible damage they are best stored in
43
drawers or closed cabinets.
Each piece should be
prevented from movement in storage drawers.
Fall (1973)
recommends padding drawers with velvet to act as a shock
absorbent.
She cautions against using cotton padding
with intricately carved ivory pieces, as particles of
fiber may become lodged in cracks and could tear off
pieces of ivory.
Any storage of ivory and bone objects should be
designed to protect their fragile nature from all destructive forces.
Feathers
The Nature of Ethnographic
Featherwork
Ethnological artifacts containing feathers are
generally composed of several types of materials.
feathers are
near~y
The
always only an ornamentation on some
type of sturdier foundation.
Examples include:
Porno
baskets, Plains Indian headdresses, Polynesian masks and
South American ceremonial clothing.
On each of these,
feathers serve mainly as the decoration, while the
foundation provides the support for the object.
In such
cases, all of the materials composing the object must be
considered when attempting to provide proper museum
storage.
44
Destructive Agents
Feathers are particularly susceptible to moth
attack.
Total destruction of a piece occurs if simple
fumigation is not a regular practice.
The fading of feathers is another major type of
deterioration and can be caused by three factors:
light, paradichlorbenzene crystals, and sulphuric acid
(Gowers 1972).
Ultraviolet light plays the major role in the
fading of feathers.
Combined with the use of paradi-
chlorobenzene crystals, such light can rapidly speed the
fading process.
Light should be kept to a minimum in
the storeroom and the use of uv filters. in exhibit cases
and storerooms as well, is a necessity.
Gowers (1972) explains the action of sulphuric
acid, the third factor in feather fading:
It is believed that, for example, the
lipochromes usually present in red and
yellow feathers can be caused to fade· in
the presence of sulphuric acid, • . • (1972:
228) .
Such atmospheric pollutants as sulphur dioxide must .
then be screened out by means of activated carbon
filters.
Dust, a type of solid
atm~spheric
pollution, is
abrasive to delicate feathers and should also be removed
by filters.
45
'
Storage Units
Since feathered objects occur in all shapes and
sizes, no one particular type of storage can be recommended.
If the object is small enough it should be kept
in an insect-proof cabinet to protect it from moth
damage.
Plastic bags should be used to cover large ob-
jects and prevent dirt build-up (Gowers 1972) •
Because of the fragile nature of the quills,
::::::::sh:::::::i::df:::::::t~hould be protected from
I
Requirements for each type of materials composing!
the artifact must also be considered for optimum storage.
Skin and Skin Products
The Nature of Skin
The wide variety of animal skins employed by
primitive peoples (bison, deer, walrus, seal, cow, pig,
alligator, lizard, snake, goat and sheep, etc.) makes a
general discussion of the nature of skin very difficult.
The myriad processing methods employed further complicates the problem.
Some fundamental features can be outlined and
Plenderleith defines some of the basic terms:
The word skins is used as a general term for
all classes of materials, whether raw, cured,
or processed, and skin from the l~rger animals,
such as horse and cow is known specifically as
I
!
I
'
46
hide.
Curing refers to a first-aid or field
treatment to prevent putrefaction, and processing to any more permanent treatment including the manufacture of leather (1971:24).
Basically all skins (mammalian) consist of two
layers:
1)
2)
epidermis, the thin outer layer
corium, the thick inner layer
Each of these consists of several sub-layers.
Reed
(1972) and Arnold (1925) have detailed descriptions of
the nature of the various skins.
The epidermis is removed prior to tanning
(except in furs)
and this discussion involves mainly the
inner layer, corium.
This corium consists of a network
of flexible protein (collagen) fibers.
Reed (1972)
states that:
. . . it is this complex, three-dimensional
network of fibres which gives leather its
unique character for as yet it has not been
possible to produce it artificially.
It is
also undoubtedly the basis of the high tensile
strength and general toughness shown by skin
products (1972:29).
The drawings by Reed (1972) show the variations in the
fiber layers found in different animals.
When an animal dies the skin is immediately
susceptible to attack by bacteria.
Curing to remove all
attached fat and muscles must occur at once to prevent
putrefaction.
per cent water.
In life, the corium consists of nearly 60
Upon flaying, this water is lost, re-
sulting in a hardening of the
skin~
In this state the
p '
47
I
-·-···1
.
------'-·-----------------.
Figure 2.
Diagram of vertical section through calfskin.
(This, together with Figures 3 to 6, shows
relative extent of the papillary and fibre
network layers in different animals.)
Figure 3.
Diagram of vertical section through cattle
hide.
'
f
1
l
[
Figure 4.
'
!
I
Diagram of vertical section through sheepsk1n. !
48
Figure 5.
Diagram of vertical section through goatskin.
I
ll
l
-~
Figure 6.
Diagram of vertical section through pigskin.
(Reed 1972:34, 35)
49
skin is relatively immune to bacterial attack but must
be processed to be of any use (Plenderleith 1971).
Processing methods vary from culture to culture
and from century to century.
Although the specific chem-
icals involved may differ, three basic processes are
recognized:
1)
2)
3}
vegetable tannage (tanning)
mineral tannage (tawing)
oil tannage (chamoising)
(Waterer 1972)
All are intended to render the corium useful for
manufacture into various objects.
cesses can be found in Reed (1972),
and Arnold (1925) •
methods graphically.
Details of these proWaterer (1972, 1973)
Table 8 shows the various processing
Artifacts in museum collections
might have been processed by any of these methods.
It
is important to their proper care that the curator rec-
ognize the method used as a semi-tanned specimen would
need to be treated differently in storage than a fully
tanned specimen.
Many ethnological specimens, especially those
made by Eskimos, are only semi-tanned.
Schaffer (1974)
discusses the processes employed:
For tanning, Canadian Indians and Eskimos use
oil and smoke. Both are the oldest methods of
tanning, known already to the-prehistoric man
of Europe in the interglacial period 8,000 B.C.
In the former method the skin is impregnated
with a . poly-unsaturated oil which is oxidized
by air during gentle heating, resulting in
50
Table 8
METHODS OF PROCESSING SKIN
·Flayed hide or skin
I
Soaking in acqueous liquor
~
Curing
I
Unhairing
(loosening and cleaning
the structure to make
pelt)
Scudding
(temporary
preservation)
Soaking
Fleshin
I
Splitting
Scudding
I
Pickling
-----
Tanning
Treatment with certain
chemical reagents (called
tanning agents) to
produce LEATHERS
. ·. h.
l
F1n1s 1ng processes
dyeing, to impart colour
spraying, to impart colour,
gloss finishes,
smoothness,
wear resistance,
etc.
Fat-liquoring and currying
application of water-resistant fatty materials
to control handle; drape,
flexibility, durability,
stretch, water resistance.
Rolling, Staking, Pressing,
Embossing, Glazing, Buffing
Parchment and rawhide
materials
Wet pelt is dried in air
at room temperature under
tension, using a frame on
which to stretch the
sheet
Finishing processes for
parchment might include:
mechanical thinning,
paring, shaving, scraping, chemical cleaning of
surface, grease removal,
rubbing or pouncing with
abrasive materials
(powders), bleaching,
colouring, surface finishes for evenness and
smoothness, etc.
Rawhide materials
apart from occasional
bleaching to whiten the
surface, these receive
no further finishing
treatments.
(Reed 1972:47)
51
permanent blocking of the unstable end groups
of the fibril proteins. Fish and seal are the
main source of poly-unsaturated oils, but tribes
living far from the coastal regions use animal
fats to which brain and liver extract, as an
emulsifying agent, is added. This is necessary
because animal fat is saturated and does not
react with the fibers in itself. Only a moderate tanning effect is achieved by this method,
which is attributed mainly to the phosphate
content of the brain. In the smoking methods
the aldehydes in the burning products of wood
react with the groups of the collagen protein
chains. This process is akin to the presentday formaldehyde tannage (1974:68).
She further explains that these incomplete processes
yield a product that readily absorbs and desorbs water.
Once the artifact dries excessively the collagen shrinks
irreversibly.
Precautions should be taken in storage to
prevent this.
Another raw material used extensively by Eskimos
is gut or intestine.
Schaffer describes its properties:
This material differs from skin both in the
molecular composition of the proteins and
texture . . • The structure is so dense that
it is impervious to water. Processing by the
Eskimos consists mainly of scraping, the removal of the innermost mucous membranes, so
that only the outermost serious membrane remains together, with the two muscularis tissue
layers adjacent to it (1972:72).
Such processing yields a specimen which will be brittle
when dry and subject to breakage.
Skins with the fur left on are also common
ethnological items and need mention.
does not remove the epidermis.
Initial curing
The flesh side is scrapedi1
clean to prevent putrefaction, leaving only a thin layer
I
52
of corium.
Alternate
~etting
and drying, with the
addition of oils or chemicals varying by culture, complete this simple process (Plenderleith 1971).
However,
now the museum curator must consider not only the requirements of the skin but the attached hair also.
Determination of the type of skin and method of
processing employed by the maker are the first steps towards preservation of any skin or skin product.
Agents of Destruction
Because of the very nature of skin it is highly
susceptible to destructive forces.
Guldbeck emphasizes
the extent of this susceptibility:
Skin, even more than any other organic
material, is so adversely affected by excesses of heat, moisture, and/or microorganisms that there is frequently nothing
left of its original nature and characteristics; and even the best conservator or
protein chemist may be unable to solve the
problem (1972:87).
Examination of the agents of destruction is of
assistance in designing proper storage units.
Gaseous Pollutants.
The harmful effects of
sulphur dioxide on leather have been recognized for over
a century.
Plenderleith describes the first documented
case of such deterioration:
In 1843 Michael Faraday, when lecturing at
the Royal Institution in London, exhibited
leather-bound volumes belonging to the
53
Athenaeum Club that were in a shocking state
of decay. This condition he attributed to
the products of combustion of coal gas, and
he proceeded to demonstrate that the moisture
from a gas flame, condensed on cold metal,
contained sulphuric acid. The Athenaeum
ventilating pipes were, in fact, thickly
coated with green vitriol {iron sulphate),
from the action upon iron of the acid fumes
evolved on combustion and these same acid
fumes were responsible for the decay of the
leather bookbindings and upholstery {1971:21).
Damage manifests itself as a powdering of the leather.
Since air pollution does not seem to be decreasing, the
harmful gases must be filtered out of the air in the
museum building.
Humidity.
constant level.
skin goods.
Humidity must be maintained at a
Both high and low extremes can damage
High humidity encourages fungus growth and
once established fungus is difficult to eradicate.
Pro-
longed attack causes staining and erosion of the skin.
Exposure of leather to water encourages bacterial growth
and gradual disintegration of the material {Plenderleith
1971, and Nopitsch 1953).
Extremely low humidity is equally as damaging as
high humidity.
Combined with heat and/or sunlight, dry
conditions embrittle skin goods irreversibly.
Exposure
for lengthy periods of time can do even more damage.
Plenderleith uses articles found in Egyptian tombs as
examples of extreme deterioration:
,.
54
Exposure to the prolonged action of a low
humidity, as in some Egyptian tombs, has
converted skin into a black syrup of
bitumastic appearance, which is sometimes
found to be still tacky, but sometimes has
run into a hard black solid with a superficial resemblance to ebonite (1971:29}.
The ideal level of humidity is generally agreed
to be:
55 per cent.
Below 50 per cent embrittlement
occurs, while above 65 per cent fungal growth takes
place (Guldbeck 1972, Dudley 1958, and Plenderleith
1971}.
Plenderleith believes such environmental control
is far preferable to the use of chemical fungicides
which could themselves conceivably damage the leather.
Insects, Rodents.
Stringent measures must be
taken to prevent insect and rodent infestation of skin
collectionse
Moths and beetles are especially destruc-
tive and often hard to detect until the damage is done.
Furs are particularly susceptible to moth attack.
Para-
dichlorobenzene crystals are effective moth deterrants
if used in tightly sealed containers and in great enough
volume.
Rodents being of greater body size than insects
potentially cause more damage.
Guldbeck amusingly
states _the problem:
• . . a mouse is just as happy to chew on
Admiral Perry's mukluk or the cover of the
Gutenberg Bible as on one of Pancho Villa's
pistol belts (1972:89}.
55.
Furthermore their urine stains can be damaging and
difficult to remove (F. Gallo 1963).
Eradication of
such pests by baited traps is usually effective.
Constant vigilance in the storeroom must be
maintained to prevent damage to the objects by any agent.
Storage Units
Skin products have had wide applicability to
primitive peoples everywhere.
Their extensive usage is
discussed by Plenderleith:
The entire skin of an animal was sometimes
sewn up and used as a water-carrier, or filled
with air and used as a float or buoy; skin was
used to cover primitive canoes or coracles; it
was used for sails, tents, domestic utensils,
hunting gear, harness, and accoutrements of
every kind. The internal organs of animals
were also utilized. Vases and waterproof
clothing were made from the intestines of the
cow and walrus, floats from bladders, and
utensils from the stomach of the camel. Masks
were made by moulding moist skins or bladders
over a suitably modelled shape and allowing
them to dry in position; the shape of the
mould was retained by the tissue, which could
then be stabilized by waterproofing with fat
or oil (1971:22).
These objects just described have as wide a range of.
size as function.
The combination of size and suscepti-
bility to deterioration must determine the choice of
storage units.
In areas of high, uncontrolled humidity, metal
shelves present a condensation problem thus making their
use unsuitable.
If insects are a problem, wooden units'
56
I
should not be used.
Siz.e permitting, objects should be
kept in tightly sealed cabinets for protection from such
insect damage (Guldbeck 1972) •
Waterer (1973) stresses the need to maintain the
precise shape of the leather objects by padding them with
acid-free tissue paper.
Leather should never be folded.
Shirts and dresses should ideally be stored on tailor's
dummies shaped to the exact measurements of the object.
He emphasized that no matter what the object, " . . • the
aim should always be to ensure that it rests in a position devoid of any strain" {1973:35).
The extremely fragile nature of skin products,
the wide range of processing techniques, and their destructive agents should be fully understood by museum
curators to ensure the survival of these specimens.
Conservation Laboratory
Time is ultimately the enemy not only
of man but of man's handiwork.
{Savage 1967, no page)
Conservation attempts to retard the destructive
forces of time upon objects of man's handiwork.
The
International Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works {IIC) defines conservation as:
. . . any action taken to determine the nature
or properties of materials used in any kinds
of cultural holdings or in their housing,
57
handling, or treatment, any action taken to
understand and control the causes of deterioration and any action taken to better the
condition of such holdings • . . and the word
'conservator' shall be construed accordingly
(Keck 1963:199)
When an object has begun to deteriorate for any
number of reasons a decision as to its treatment must be
made.
Enter the conservator.
With extensive training in
chemistry and the physical properties of objects, the
professional conservator advises the curator as to the
measures which should be taken to restore an object to
good condition (Keck 1963, Ruhemann 1963, Marconi 1963).
An unresolved controversy exists in the museum
profession around what Coremans (1974:106) refers to as
the "reconstitution of the original."
As soon as an
artifact leaves its makers hands it begins to deteriorat&l
Over the years it acquires somewhat different characteristics than when it was newly made.
should the object be restored?
To what age then
If an object was made in
1700 A.D. and has been in continual use it will have
changed throughout the intervening years.
Should resto-
ration be to its original-appearance, its appearance in
1800 A.D. or 1900 A.D.?
Burcaw objects to restoration to its original
condition •
• . • it is an object that has been used and
is typical that is important. To erase all
clues of such use is in a way to create an
58
artificiality and to make the object something
of an abstraction. A brand new saw is the
idea of a saw. It becomes a real saw after a
man has sawn boards with it to build a house
(Burcaw 1975:96}.
Coremans points out the inadvertent deception
associated with restoration to the original condition:
. • • the visitor believes he
creation of a revered genius,
may be only the result of the
ventions of various restorers
centuries (1972:106}.
is admiring the
and what he sees
successive interin the course of
All authors agree that it is a complex problem
and that each piece requires individual consideration.
I would agree with Burcaw and Coremans in their
aversion to total reconstitution to the original.
A
Navaho blanket that has been heavily used and subsequently repaired by the user is an example of cultural
process.
For a conservator to remove the repair and re-
weave the piece to its original state is to negate the
object's ethnographic condition.
Stabilization of an
object to prevent further deterioration is essential,
but removal of all evidence of use is to deny the cultural history of the object.
Once the decision concerning restoration has
been made by the curator, in consultation with the conservator, the work is begun.
I will consider in this thesis the basic
requirements of museum conservation laboratories.
59
The first requirement in designing a lab is the
identification of its function to the museum it will
serve (Organ 1968:5).
Will it be required to handle all
types of treatment from basic cleaning to complete restoration of the original condition?
Equipment required
and its physical arrangement will depend on the type of
work to be performed.
Once the major purpose has been identified, two
major constraints must be considered:
penses.
space and ex-
How large a space is available and what is the
size of the budget allocated to equip it?
The space
designated for the conservation lab should be large
enough to accommodate the artifacts to be treated, plus
the equipment necessary to treat them.
Organ (1968:229)
presents a list of materials and their possible treatment needs (see Table 9).
Regardless of the size of the laboratory there
are certain essential conditions which must be met.
Temperature and humidity should be carefully controlled.
Some artifacts requiring extensive treatmentmay remain
in the lab for an extended period of time and must therefore be protected in an environmentally controlled room.
For the same reason adequate security should also be a
concern.
Organ (1968:25) stresses the need for the safety
of lab personnel.
Extensive use of vaporous chemicals
Table 9
Conservation Requirements of Materials and Their Accommodations
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61
can cause fume build-up.
eliminate this hazard.
Proper ventilation is needed to
Proper first aid equipment should
be available to lab workers.
Organ presents (pg. 383) a
list of commonly used dangerous chemicals, their symptoms of overexposure and treatment.
A final considera-
tion prompted by the use of.chemicals is the necessity
for appropriate fire extinguishers.
Guldbeck (1972:13)
discusses the four basic types recommended for specific
kinds of fires.
The type he believes is best suited to
museum needs is the dry powder form (monoammonium phosphate) •
It is capable of extinguishing all classes of
fires (combustibles, inflammable liquids and electrical
equipment) and yet is harmless to the artifacts.
No matter how good the conservation lab,
prevention of damage is far preferable to treatment after
the fact.
Chapter 3
STORAGE OF ETHNOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS AT
LACMNH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Extensive renovation and expansion of the Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History has occurred
during the past two years.
As a direct result of this
program the Ethnology collections, which were previously
housed in a non-environmentally controlled room, are
scheduled to move to new facilities in 1977.
In this section of my thesis I have developed a
realistic plan for these new facilities, utilizing the
fundamentals outlined in Sections I and II.
Modifica-
tions of these ideals were based on several existing
constraints:
· available space
scope of the collections
. limited budget
. small staff
Environmental Controls
New facilities developed for the Anthropology
Section include two large rooms measuring approximately
68 1 x 40 1 and a ..smaller room approximately 20
1
x 12'.
All rooms are in close proximity to each other," being
62
63
situated one above the other.
All rooms are secure and
are tied into the main security system of the Museum.
Environmental conditions in the new storerooms are ideal.
The air-conditioning system is designed to maintain a
constant relative humidity of 50-55 per cent with a temperature of 60°F.
Fumigation of all artifacts takes
place as they enter the building.
Regular scheduled
fumigation of the new storeroom will occur on a six
month basis.
Equipment
Two types of storage units will be utilized:
··
open shelves and sealed cabinets.
The basic storage unit
will be banks of adjustable steel shelving.
These will
allow.for maximum space utilization and flexibility.
While metal uprights as well as metal shelving would be
the ideal, the budget allows only for the purchase of
steel uprights with wood platforms.
Replacement of these
wooden shelves by metai shelves is planned on a gradual
basis as funds are available.
All wood shelves will be
sealed to prevent acid damage to the artifacts.
shelf unit is 4 feet wide and 8 feet long.
Each
In most cases
two units fastened end to end will be used.
Approximately 100 metal cabinets will be received
from another department at LACMNH and utilized in the new
Ethnology storeroom.
Each cabinet is tightly sealed to
64
prevent insect penetration and each has the additional
advantage of a built-in lock for extra security.
Each
case measures 43"h x 22"w x 20"d, and has sliding drawers
at adjustable heights.
The drawers are wood and will be
sealed to prevent acid damage.
The floors in the new storeroom are concrete,
which have been sealed to prevent excess shedding of concrete dust.
Further protection for the collections is
being sought in the attempt to have resilient flooring
installed.
Such flooring eliminates harmful concrete
dust and provides the additional benefit of a cushioned
surface to reduce any artifact breakage.
Having no bud-
geted monies for this expense, staff and volunteer efforts
are being directed towards soliciting donations of such
flooring.
Layout
The scope of the Ethnology collections at LACMNH
is worldwide.
Not limited geographically, these collec-
tions include objects of every size, shape and material.
In order to provide maximum access to the
collections by both staff and researchers, objects are
stored essentially by culture.
They are initially sorted
by continent, then culture area, and finally by tribal
affiliation.
Within this tribal framework, like objects
are kept together.
In addition to providing quick
65
'
accessibility to objects, maximum utilization of a small
space occurs when objects of a similar size are kept together.
An example of the above system can be seen in
the storage of a Sioux catlinite pipe.
storage purposes would be:
Its breakdown for
North American continent,
Plains Indian culture area, Sioux tribe, catlinite pipe
drawer.
Some objects require special consideration and
are sorted initially by material:
tiles and leathers.
baskets, pottery, tex-
In all of these cases, however, final,,
arrangement is still by culture.
This existing system
will be adhered to in the new storeroom • . Detailed floor
plans can be found in Figures 8, 9 and 10.
Textiles
Two different methods of storage will be utilized
depending on the nature of the object to be stored.
Large, flat textiles will be rolled on cardboard tubes
which have been covered with foil or polyethelene, to
prevent acid deterioration of the textile.
Additionally
polyethelene will cover each rolled textile as a protection against dust.
This tube will be supported by a
central pipe and arranged within the framework of a
4' X 8' shelfless unit.
Location of these textiles will
be on the upper floor in the units adjacent to the
, stairwell.
!
'
66
Figure 7.
Storage Unit for Rolled Textiles
Miscellaneous textiles such as shirts, pants,
hats, belts etc. will be stored in sealed cabinets.
As
few items as possible will be placed in each drawer.
If
layering is necessary, the system in use at the San Diego
Museum of Man will be implemented.
Each piece to be
layered is separated by a piece of muslin slightly larger
than the specimen.
The muslin is hemmed at two ends and
has a dowel running through these ends.
When pieces need
to be removed from the drawers they are thus individually
supported to prevent strain on the textiles and the dowel
rods provide handles by which to grip the muslin.
Each
muslin support is carefully labelled with the number of
the specimen which it holds.
Location of these textiles
will be on the bottom floor adjace·nt to the conservation
lab.
67
Wood
Since the artifacts made of wood vary greatly in
size, their storage will be both on open shelves and
within sealed cases.
Fugitive paints on specimens will
be protected by enclosing the artifacts in clear po,lyethelene bags.
Large boats will be stored on the bottom
floor on large, open racks.
Basketry
Because of the large number of baskets in the
collections at LACMNH and because of their fragile nature,
these items will be kept together and arranged by culture
within themselves.
the upper floor.
Storage will be on open shelves on
Protection from dust build-up will be
provided by large sheets of muslin attached to the outside of the storage units.
Ivory, Bone
Objects of these materials will be housed in the
sealed cases on the lower level.
Such cases· afford maxi-
mum protection from insects and dust.
In the case of
small, 'fragile ivories, the drawers will be compartmentalized and padded to fit the individual specimen.
Feathers, Leather, Fur
Such specimens will be kept in the sealed cases,
I size permitting.
I
I
Where size does not allow, the objects
68
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F
Africa
Africa
I)
TABLE
TABLE
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Laboratory
r j r 1lr
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LACMNH Anthropology Storeroom (GE-7) Proposed Layout
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70
will be kept on the large shelving units.
facilities for furs have not been provided.
Cold storage
Fur objects
will be stored within the sealed cases and thus be maximally protected against insects.
Paradichlorobenzene
crystals will be used to further guard against insect
pests.
Conservation Laboratory
Currently at LACMNH conservation facilities are
non-existent.
With the upcoming move to the new wing,
space for such a laboratory will become available.
This
room will be environmentally controlled and in close
proximity to the new ethnological storeroom on the lower
floor.
With no County funds available for its
development, the LACMNH Ethnology staff is currently
seeking grant monies and private funding to support it.
Initially the lab will be concerned primarily
with basic conservation:
examination, cleaning, and
strengthening of the specimens.
Having no professional
conservator on the staff, all work will have to be limited to those operations not requiring complex chemical
conservation.
Equipment essential to basic conservation
functions include:
· microscope
· ultrasonic cleaning
· ultraviolet examination light
71
· drying oven
• refrigerator
• photographic equipment
airbrasive cleaning unit
· work counters and sinks
• conservation library
Future plans call for a gradual elaboration of
the laboratory until ultimately a full time conservator
and his staff can operate a much larger, regional center
for the conservation of ethnological materials.
J
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Door
11' Cabinets
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neath
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Equipment)
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Figure 10.
LACMNH Conservation Lab Proposed Layout
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Scale in Feet
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'.
Chapter 4
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPUTERIZATION
Classification and storage of museum collections
by some organized system is imperative for ease of retrieval.
Several methods can be suggested by the objects
themselves:
geographic provenience, culture, function,
material, or any other number of its attributes.
Donor,
collector, date of acquisition or manufacture might be
additional categories.
Any classification system must
meet the specific needs of the museum concerned.
Museums
with limited collections might find storage by donor very
satisfactory&
Larger institutions with diverse collec-
tions intended primarily for research purposes would most
likely find storage by culture more useful.
The Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History
falls into the latter category.
Development of their
classification system was designed to meet the requirements of a large institution having diverse collections
to serve students and researchers.
Several existing sys-
tems were examined during the development phase.
The
finished product is largely the result of modifications
to systems in use at the Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia and the Heard Museum, Phoenix.
73
74
The Heard system consists of a three-part
identification of the object by continent, culture area,
and tribe.
An example of such a sequence would be:
sw
NA
North America
NA
Southwest
Navaho
Elabora·te lists of continents, culture area and tribes
were organized by the Heard Museum to accommodate their
collections.
The Museum of Anthropology at Columbia developed
their system
II
for~two
potential users:
. . those who will be conducting
an ethnological inventory."
and
II
• the small museum who may be
considering cataloguing its collections" (Schneider 1970:1).
Classification is by culture and object.
Culture codes
were taken directly from Murdock's (1963) Outline of
World Cultures.
Most significant was their attempt to
compile an elaborate object dictionary attempting to
standardi.ze terminology:
i.e.
Trousers
not
Pants
Lacking the manpower needed to design a totally
new system, LACMNH staff sought an already existing systern which could be modified to suit their needs.
~Fur-
thermore, duplication.of efforts seemed a waste of time.
J
75
Whatever system was chosen would have to fulfill specific
requirements:
1)
The system had to be all inclusive
regarding world cultures and objects
since LACMNH collections encompassed
tribes from the entire world.
2)
The system had to be simple to understand
and implement, as volunteer labor would
be used to process materials.
3)
Future computerization of the catalog
required that t.he system be able to mesh
with such a project without re-processing
all materials.
The culture code used by the Heard Museum
satisfied the need for world culture codes.
Elaboration
of the tribal listings was necessary but the Heard system
was flexible enough to accommodate additions.
Further~
more such a system could be easily learned by anyone
since there was a direct correlation between code and the
word i t represented.
NA
SA
AF
North America
South America
Africa
Murdock's system arbitrarily uses numerical
representations of words coded and thus is more difficult
to memorize.
Such arbitrariness also seems to have a
greater potential for mistakes to occur in the cataloguing process.
The object dictionary of the University of
Missouri Museum of Anthropology was found to be fairly
complete.
Where terms were lacking, additions could be
76
made without disturbing the system.
Most importantly it
was on a fairly specific level, with all terms included
(and excluded) being carefully defined (see Figure 11) .
Furthermore this dictionary has the extra
advantage of being fairly well-known and accepted by many
museums considering computerization in the future.
It
seems generally agreed upon that this. attempt at terminology standardization will serve as the foundation for a
comprehensive guide to standard ethnological terminology
for museum catalog use.
The system in use at LACMNH uses the culture code
of the Heard Museum and the object dictionary compiled by
the Missouri Museum.
This information is attached to
each object with Museum accession number and donor name.
Storage of the objects follow this system exactly.
Con-
tinent, culture area, tribe and specific object (where
space permits) determine the artifact's location in storage.
Experience has determined that retrieval of objects
is requested most often by culture and specific object.
This system ideally satisfies these retrieval needs.
Within this retrieval system the artifact's .environmental
needs are accomplished by provisions already outlined in
Chapter 3.
Data retrieval concerning the collections at
LACMNH is currently difficult.
The size of the collec-
tions (300,000 - 500,000 items) as well as the
77
BOW DRILL MOUTHPIECE (Manufacturing) - Wheel-like or
--- elongated top to a bow drill. This is held in the
mouth to steady the shaft while one.hand holds the
item to be drilled and the other hand moves the bow
to turn the drill. Frequently mistaken for other
items.
general category:
BOW DRILL
BOW GUARD
use:
BOW GUARD (BRACELET) ARM ORN
BOW GUARD (BRACELET) ARM ORN (Personal Adornment) a bow
guard is a leather cuff used to protect the wrist
from the bow string. If it is decorated with a silver ornament or is a wide silver bracelet, then
BRACELET should be added to the description.
includes:
KETO, KETOH
WRIST GUARD
general category:
ARM ORN
,
BRACELET
Hunting Equipment
War Equipment
ORN
BOWL CONT
(Household) - A bowl is a vessel with an
----open mouth; the· height of the item never greater than
the diameter.
includes:
KAVA BOWL
MIXING BOWL
POI BOWL
SOUP BOWL
general category:
CONT
specific items:
OIL BOWL CONT
SEED BOWL CONT
TEA BOWL CONT
TOBACCO BOWL CONT
related items:
DISH
Figure 11.
Sample page, University of Missouri Museum
of Anthropology.
78
disorganized format o£ the data, make traditional methods
of retrieval tedious.
Recognition of these problems has
prompted the LACMNH staff to seek to convert to machine
retrieval in the near future.
Punch cards have been
deemed insufficient for the size of the LACMNH collections.
Manipulation of large amounts of data require
storage on magnetic media:
tapes or discs (Chenhall
1971) .
The development of mechanized retrieval will
follow the steps in Table 10.
At the present phase of
development, computer program selection is inappropriate.
Numerous options are currently available--Selgem,
Griphos, Gipsy, Taxir.
(See Chenhall 1975)
Each will be
evaluated when data identification (phase I) and data
documentation (phase II) have been completed.
Flexibility is being maintained by adopting a
I
the appropriate program. Standardization of terminology
I
is a concern if a national data bank is to be established.,
classification and coding system capable of meshing with
A catalog sheet has been developed by LACMNH with these
future plans in mind.
(See Figure 12)
for its use has also been outlined.
A specific format
I
79
Table 10
The Structure of Computerized Catalog Systems
Phases
Key Decisions
Functions
I
Data
identification
Object
selection
Data
determination
II
Data
documentation
Forms
design
Recording
for entry
Collection, processing, and
sorting of specimens
Attribute identification
Classification
Coding
Format
Punch cards, terminal keyboard, paper tape, magnetic
tape, magnetic cards, optical character scanner
III
Data entry
Input to
computer
Batch processing, real-time
processing
Verification
Automatic (with machine
checks for terminology and
syntax), manual (off-line)
Hard copy or display format
IV
Error
correction
File
maintenance
v
File inquiry
(data
analysis)
Sorting
Merging
Indexing
Storing
File search
(retrieval)
Sorting
Summarizing
Research design criteria
(search and sort parameters)
Calculations
Statistical tests
Report
generation
Format
Adapted from "Computer-Aided Decision.;...Making Procedures
for Archaeological Field Problems" (Sylvia W. Gaines,
Ph.D. diss., Arizona State University, 1972).
Figure 12.
Sample Catalog Card, Los Angeles County Museum of Natura
Ethnology Section
co
0
CONCLUSIONS
In this thesis I have endeavored to bring
together a diverse array of literature on the causes of
deterioration of materials and apply it directly to
ethnological collections housed in museums.
Uncovering
the causes of deterioration led to the search for preventative measures.
The environment surrounding an artifact
has been seen to be crucial to its survival.
Methods of
stabilizing that environment and to what specifications
have been examined closely.
From this theoretical discussion on a rather
abstract level, I proceeded to reality . . The Los Angeles
County Museum of Natural History was faced with a large
ethnological collection in rapidly deteriorating condition.
Recognition of this problem and the attempted so-
lutions have been discussed.
Briefly mentioned were the computerization
interests of LACMNH.
Reaction to computer use throughout
the museum profession has been mixed.
Some have typecast
the computer as a mysterious black box, while others see
it as the cure-all for every catalog-related problem.
The truth is somewhere in between.
To think of the computer as a -panacea is to
misconceive it just as much as to think of it
as a mechanizing monster. Both stereotypes
overestimate the role of the computer in research (complimenting each other in that
81
82
l
respect} , for computers do .not hand down
verdicts, but report results which one must
judge, and which can be no better than the
preparation for them (Hymes 1965:19).
Automatic data processing equipment changes daily.
The
state of the art has progressed so rapidly in the past
ten years that the possibility of less technicallyoriented solutions
ded.
t~
museum problems has greatly expan-
A study of museum computer use could easily be the
subject of another thesis.
This thesis has explored a much neglected area:
the general care of irreplaceable artifacts from their
placement in storage to their speedy retrieval out again.
Since museum collections contain the remnants of rapidly
declining cultures, it is imperative that this surviving
record remain intact.
Museum studies have advanced slowly but steadily
with several universities offering museology degrees.
(See Burcaw 1971)
As more and more graduates of these
programs enter the profession, museum facilities can be
expected to improve greatly.
p
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