-·-----------
California State university, Northridge
STUDENT HITCHHIKING AND HEALTH RELATED EXPERIENCES
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Health Science
by
Edward Lee Goldstein
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·January, 1976
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The thesis of Edward Lee Goldstein is approved:
California State University, Northridge
December, 1975
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The author wishes to dedicate this thesis
to the memory of his beloved grandmother
Ida Greenberg
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
ix
, ABSTRACT • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
X
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1
Purpose of Study • • • • • • • • • • • •
3
Statement of Hypothesis
• • • • • • •
4
• • • • • • • • • •
4
Limitations of Study • • • • • • • • • •
19
Definition of Terms
• • • • • • • • • •
19
METHODS OF PROCEDURE • • • • • • • • • •
22
The Questionnaire Survey •
• • • • •
22
Selection and Description of the
Study Population • • • • • • • • • • • •
23
The Survey Instrument
23
Importance of Study
II.
•
..
• • • • • • • • •
• •
. 24
Organization of Completed Questionnaires
25
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION
OF FINDINGS • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
26
Approach to Statistical Analysis of Data
26
Demographic Influence on Hitchhiking • •
28
Relationship between the Distribution
of Selected Variables and the Occurrence
of Health and Social Problems • • • • •
44
Administration of the Questionnaire
III.
L.~--~---~-------------·-~---- -.---- -------~·-~·~--~·-·----·----~--------·--··---------···-~~-----·--·-"
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y-·------~~--·-~;......-·-·----- ~----------~-·--------·---~-------~-------"~""--------~-----------~--~------~---~'--~ -----~
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CHAPTER
1.V.
PAGE
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus Occurrence
of Health And Social Problems • • • • • •
44
Sex of Hitchhiker Versus Occurrence of
Health and Social Problems • • • • • • •
54
Distances Traveled by Hitchhikers Versus
Occurrence of Health and Social Problems
65
S~ary
74
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
77
Summary •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
77
Conclusions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
79
Recommendations for Further Research
• •
80
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
81
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
85
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
~
A.
Sample of the Questionnaire
.
86
B.
Occurrence of Specific Health and Social
Problems Encountered by Hitchhikers • • •
98
c.
Employment Status Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
101
D.
Unit Load Versus Hitchhiking Practices
•
103
E.
Student Classification Versus Hitchhiking Practices • • • • • • • • • • • •
105
Marital Status Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
107
Religion Versus Hitchhiking Practices • •
109
F.
G.
'--G·-·--·--·~---···---··-.--~--------·••~•
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••••••A•_ ...
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
TABLE
Related Crimes • • • • • • •
6
Distribution of the Study Population
by Hitchhiking Status and Sex • • • • •
27
III.
Age Versus Hitchhiking Practices • • • •
30
IV.
Sex Versus Hitchhiking Practices • • • •
31
Race Versus Hitchhiking Practices
• • •
33
Living Arrangements Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
34
Parents' Income Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
36
Source of Income Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
37
Hitchhiking Male Friends Versus
~tchhiking Practices
• • • • • • • • •
39
x.
Hitchhiking Female Friends Versus
Hitchhiking Practices • •
• • • • • •
40
XI.
Main Source of Transportation Versus
Hitchhiking Practices • • • • • • • • •
42
Main Source of Information about
Hitchhiking Versus Hitchhiking
Practices • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
43
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Respiratory Problems
...
46
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Foot Problems • • • • • •
48
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Intestinal Problems
49
I.
II.
v.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
xv.
XVI.
~tchhiking
.
• • •
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Health Problems Related
to Being Out-of-Doors • • • • • • • • •.
vi
50
PAGE
TABLE
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Social Problems with
Strangers • • ._ • • • • • • • • • • • •
52
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of Pedestrian Related Problems
with the Police • • • • • • • • • • • •
53
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus
Occurrence of ~scellaneous Problems
55
Sex Versus Occurrence of Respiratory
Problems
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
56
XXI.
Sex Versus Occurrence of Foot Problems
58
XXII.
Sex Versus Occurrence of Intestinal
Problems • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
59
Sex Versus Occurrence of Health Problems
Related to Being Out-of-Doors • • • • • _
60
Sex Versus Occurrence of Social Problems
with Strangers • • • • • • • • • • • •
62
Sex Versus Occurrence of Pedestrian
Related Problems with the Police • • •
63
Sex Versus Occurrence of Miscellaneous
Problems • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
64
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Respiratory Problems • • • • • • • • •
67
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Foot Problems • • • • • • • • • • • • •
68
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Intestinal Problems • • • • • • • • • •
69
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Health Problems Related to Being Outof-Doors • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
71
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
.
.
D~stance
Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Social Problems with Strangers • • • •
vii
72
TABLE
XXXII.
XXXIII.
PAGE
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Pedestrian Related Problems with the
Police • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
73
Distance Traveled Versus Occurrence of
Miscellaneous Problems • • • • • • • • •
75
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge with sincere
gratitude the assistance given by Dr. Seymour Eiseman,
Thesis Chairman, during the preparations of this thesis;
and Dr. Goteli Krishnamurty for his assistance in the
statistical analysis of this study.
Their combined
efforts, guidance, patience, and contributions made the
completion of this thesis possible.
Special appreciation is expressed to Ida Pollock,
Assistant Director of The Los Angeles Travelers Aid
Association, and also the Los Angeles Police Department
for their assistance.
My gratitude is extended to Barbara Cohen, who aided
me immensely with her extraordinary typing skills.
A special acknoovJledgement is expressed to my family
and Sharon Scheinblum, for their encouragement and
support.
ix
ABSTRACT
STUDENT HITCHHIKING AND HEALTH RELATED EXPERIENCES
by
Edward Lee Goldstein
Master of Science in Health Science
January, 1976
The purposes of this study were to:
(1) determine
the occurrence of hitchhiking among a selected college
population: and (2) identify selected health and social
1
problems hitchhikers might encounter.
1
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A questionnaire survey was the instrument utilized
I to
obtain the data pertaining to this study.
I Square Test
The Chi
for Independence was employed to test for
I relationships
between demographic characteristics of the
study population of college students and the occurrence
of hitchhiking.
The Chi Square Test for Independence was
likewise employed to test for relationships between
selected variables and the occurrence of health and
social problems experienced by hitchhikers.
X
~Analysis
of data revealed that some demographic
I
characteristics were significant in determining hitchhiking practices among college students in the study
population.
Further analysis of data revealed no
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statistically significant relationships between: frequency:
of hitchhiking, sex, and distances traveled, and the
occurrence of health and social problems among hitch-
I
hikers.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Increasing numbers of Americans, it appears,
stickin~
are
£2 their thumbs in the characteristic fashion
of hitchhikers.
Drivers of automobiles are stopping
their cars, and then two complete strangers enter into
a temporary relationship.
This, not always safe condi-
tion, is characterized by a recent newspaper account:
A nude body found near a remote woods road
was identified Sunday as that of Demaris
Synge Gillispie--the eighth young woman to
die in the Boston area under similar circumstances since last summer. Miss Gillispie,
22, a Boston University honor student was
last seen alive Nov. 29, 1972 when she left
her Cambridge apartment to hitchhike to a
Boston night club where she worked part-time
as a waitress ••• {17:1).
The practice of hitchhiking is not a new one.
papers have published articles about hitchhikers.
Ne,.,sThe
inherent health hazards of this practice, in addition to
other potential hazards associated with utilizing this
mode of travel, have been documented as far back as
1925 {42: 11).
1
In 1926, the "hobo, .. and the evolution of the
I hitchhiker were discussed:
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The hobo is a child of the road, by which
he was created. So responsive is he to the
nature of the roads that in no way can the
1
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...... routes of travel change 'l.<lithout touching his
life and habits ••• Always it has offered
prodigial sons an avenue of escape from their
burdens. The more numerous and the better
the roads, the more tempting the invitation
to fly from unpleasant things of life.
The.most conspicuous and romantic of the
hoboes was the 'blanket stiff' who followed
the early trail westward and crowded the
frontier to the ocean ••• He, it was who, built
the railroads ••• Once built, the railways
spelled the doom of the old-style hobo and
created in his stead a 'train-rider.•
As the railway eliminated the pioneer
with his bundle, so a new kind of road, the
paved highway and a ne~<1 mode of travel, the
automobile, threatened the existence of the
train riding hobo ••• The fact is that the automobile tramp has already arrived •••
Hitchhikers are generally young people
with packs on their backs. Though they are
arrayed for hiking, they hike little, once
they have learned to court favor with passing
motorists ••• Again, they are young women out
for experiences or young men spending their
vacations ••• They have -seized their opportunity
to break vvi th conventional life and to gain a
little worldly wisdom, or perhaps the thrills
that sedentary home lives deny them ••• (1:8)
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Over the years, the practice of hitchhiking ha_s
continued with varying degrees of popularity.
The
related dangers, of hitchhiking, to motorists and hitchhikers were recognized early (26:17).
Despite campaigns to control hitchhiking and its
inherent dangers, through state and local ordinances,
people continue to hitchhike (48:19).
The economic depression of 1929; brought loss of
jobs and homes, and hence swelled the ranks of ride-
-
pe~gar~,
comprised formerly of youthful adventurers
(34~17).
Millions of jobless men drifted from town
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r
to town seeking employment ( 20:63) •
I
World War II brought
about another increase in the occurrence of hitchhiking.
I, Emily Post,
the etiquette expert, even encouraged its
practice for women defense workers (25:16).
Homeward-
bound servicemen, in 19451 thumbed cross-country to their
home states.
Many motorists considered the hitchhiker
as a welcome traveling companion.
As highway crimes
spiraled upward, following World War II, states such as
New York, banned the practice of hitchhiking.
The hitch-
hiker had evolved into the stereotype: a potential mugger,
rapist, murderer or robber, someone to be feared (55:10).
There has been much publicity about the dangers
associated with hitchhiking.
A survey of selected litera-
ture revealed that little research was accomplished to
determine the actual occurrence of hitchhiking, and to
what extent health endangering problems occur.
The Purpose of this Study
The purpose of this study was to:
1) determine the
occurrence of hitchhiking among a selected college population: 2) identify selected health and social problems
hitchhikers might encounter.
L _____ _
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I Hypothesis
I
The hypothesis was tested under the null hypothesis,
stated as follows:
1)
There is no relationship between selected
demographic characteristics of college students
who hitchhike and college students who do not
hitchhike.
2)
There is no relationship between selected
variables:
a) frequency of hitchhiking: b)
sex of the hitchhiker: c) distances traveled
by the hitchhiker (in an average year of hitchhiking), and the occurrence of health and
social problems among hitchhikers.
I
I Importance of this Study
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Sociological problems related to the practice of
I hitchhiking
i
were recognized in 1925.
The technical
adviser of the West Side Y.M.C.A. Automobile School-
I warned
motorists against hitch-beggars, in the following
I report:
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In general hitch-beggars are a menace to those
who live in the country. They often get their
food by foraging in farmers• gardens ••• Hitchhiking is becoming a menace both to the
motorists and those who hail automobiles for
free rides. It ought to be considered a
nuisance with both physical and moral dangers
••• Some auto-beggars are so bold as to stand
in the middle of the road, exposing themselves
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r
to all kinds of danger of being run into as
they practically demand a lift ••• (42:11).
Many sociological problems related to hitchhiking
Ihave been
recognized and documented. These include:
1
Murder
(9: 36)
(11: 1)
i(l8:1)
(20:63)
(24: 19)
(29:32)
1(32:3)
(33:2)
(41:11)
(48:19)
~
(9: 36)
(11: 1)
(20:63)
(23:79)
(39: 14)
Car Accident
(9: 36)
(11: 1)
(22: 8)
(33:2)
(34: 17)
(35:1)
(38: 24)
(40: 20)
(42:11)
(45:50)
Assault
(4:4)
(20: 63)
(24: 19)
(27:18)
{39:14)
(40: 20)
(45: 11)
Robbery
(11: 1)
{20:63)
(27:18)
(24: 19)
{27:18)
(30: 14)
(39: 14)
(40:24)
(42:11)
Table I shows data concerned with crimes involving
hitchhikers, in Los Angeles, in 1970.
During the year
(1970), hitchhikers were involved in approximately 5.5
percent of all crimes.
This amounted to 70.2 crimes
per month (5:1).
A Community Relations Officer representing the San
Jose Police Department observed that there had been an
increase of hitchhiking activity, particularly among
females.
It was his feeling that:
Girls are far more vulnerable to sex crimes
and far less able to defend themselves than
boys. Rape is a frequently reported crime
against hitchhikers--despite the relatively
small numbers of female hitchhikers ••• (9:36)
Incidents of fondling, touching, indecent remarks,
and sexual advances go largely unreported to the police
or to the parents of hitchhikers.
Victims do not wish
i to upset their parents, or have restrictions placed on
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TABLE I
HITCHHIKING RELATED CRIMES*
"'
7
their freedom (9:37).
It was reported that it is a common occurrence for
hitchhikers to either be asked if they have any drugs or
if they want any.
Drivers under the influence_ of drugs
or alcohol are extremely erratic and a menace to the
safety of their passengers and other motorists.
Hitch-
hikers have also reported being given food or drink
spiked with drugs.
Two young girls, who had been hitch-
hiking, were recently found wandering senselessly on the
Santa Cruz Mountains Freeway by a patrolman.
They re-
ported that they had been given something to drink by a
motorist who picked them up (9:36).
Currently, California has no laws prohibiting hitchhiking, per se.
safety.
Existing codes are directed at traffic
The laws pertain to where the pedestrian, or
hitchhiker may stand safely, to solicit rides.
California•
Vehicle Code, Section 21461 and 21957 prohibits pedestrians
i
on freeways and freeway approaches.
Section 22520 pro-
1
hibits a driver from stopping on freewaY approaches or on
1
freeways.
These laws exist for ,the purpose of accident
i
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1
prevention (3!30).
I
A genuine hazard to traffic safety is created by
drivers who persist in stopping on freeway ramps to pick
!j up hitchhikers (9:36).
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The Occurrence of Hitchhiking.
A study conducted
by the Travelers Aid Association of America, revealed
that the changes in the American economy such as, its
high unemployment rates, has greatly swelled the numbers
of people who are traveling throughout the United States
today.
Their study involved 5,000 hitchhikers who sought
assistance during a two year period.
Their report showed
that the two age groups having the most notable increase
in hitchhiking practices were the 18 to 21 year olds,
and those over 35 years of age.
Almost half of the polls
also saw a significant rise in teenage hitchhiking (55:10)
This data represented an estimated doubling of the
number of hitchhikers seen during the past five years.
I A profile of the hitchhiker revealed that
I percent of the riders were female, except
I areas
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in larger urban
In these
cities, the females constituted almost fifty percent of
;
I
such as New York and San Francisco.
twenty-five
the
h:::::i::::r~::::::::d (:::::::es where intact
family units hitchhiked together.
Additionally, there
was also a rise in the number of senior citizens who
engaged in this mode of transportation (55:10).Despite the publicity given to the inherent dangers
of hitchhiking, this practice, and attendant problems
seemed to be increasing.
l
The incidence of arrests for
hitchhiking, in New York State, showed an upward trend
9
lduring the period 1965 to 1968.
From the period 1969 to
!
1970, the number of arrests for hitchhiking almost doubled,!.
i totalling to almost 6,000 persons (11:1).
A California State Highway Patrolman said,
11
There
has been at least a twenty-five percent increase in the
number of hitchhikers along the Pacific Coast Highway
(11:1).
Reasons offered for the increased popularity of
hitchhiking were:
1)
High rates of unemployment (53:10)
2)
Rebellion against authority (11:1)
3)
Escape from a predictable, boring environment
to an exciting, unpredictable one (44:1).
4)
Woman's Liberation Movement (9:36)
5)
Increased popu1arity of ecology--decrease
air pollution and traffic (45:50)
6)
Many hitchhikers are not old enough to get a
driver's license, or have not learned to drive
a car (11:1)
7)
Inadequate local transportation (48:19)
8)
Lack of funds for public transportation (51:3)
9)
Provides an opportunity to meet new people
(50:32}
10)
Provides a means of escape from family conflicts and the selective service (44:1}
Health Problems Related to Hitchhiking.
In the
first eleven months of 1972, 474 out of 4,633 persons
seeking assistance from the Travelers Aid Society of Los
I Angeles,
used hitchhiking as their principal mode of
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~ravel.
This accounted for 10.21 percent of all persons
receiving assistance from this agency.
Ida Pollet, Assistant Director of the above mentioned
agency, described the typical hitchhiker who utilized the j
services of her organization.
She said, "Many of the
hitchhikers were ill clad, with old and often torn
clothing.
They were hungry, in need of a place to stay,
and without sufficient funds. 11
She described most of
her clients as being between the ages of 18 and 23 years
of age.
It was her feeling that the hitchhiking youth
was frequently a runaway.
It was further claimed, that
the hitchhiker was often trying to escape from family
conflicts at home, personal relationships, the selective
service, or other problems.
The younger hitchhikers
were described as being "frightened, confused, and
generally maladjusted."
When asked,
11
Why do hitchhikers come to the Travel-
ers Aid Society?", Mrs. Pollet replied:
I
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Many of the young travelers are generally_uncornfortable and are 'fed up' with the hard
life on the road. They come in hungry, many
of whom have not eaten for two or three days.
These men and women are emotionally and
physically exhausted from miles of travel and
little rest. They come in ill clothed, soaking
wet from rainstorms in the winter, and sunburned in the summer. Some of the travelers
have complained of having to sleep out-ofdoors on the ground. Many of the hitchhikers
were physically ill. Some had colds and runny
noses. A few hitchhikers had to be referred to a doctor or emergency hospital for treatment. I found some of the hitchhikers had
j
11
drug related problems. They have even taken
pills while being interviewed in my office.
People with severe mental disorders have come
in or were brought in by friends in order to
obtain help. Some of the mental illness that
I have seen was related directly to drug use.
Hitchhikers have often told me that they had
started their journeys with adequate clothing
and money, but had had their possessions
stolen by motorists, or by fellow hitchhikers.
Some hitchhikers needed help in finding an
alternate mode of transportation because of
physical injuries or emotional upsets. One
20 year old boy fell off of the motorcycle on
which he was a passenger. His arm and
shoulder were broken. Another 20 year old
male twisted his ankle when he fell off a
curb. He was looking at 'all the tall buildings.• A few of the girls who were hitchhiking complained of being threatened, molested,
or even raped by motorists. One emotionally
distraught male runaway, told of a homosexual
attack by his 'benefactor.• He pleaded for
assistance in order to go home to his parents.
Another young boy, aged 17, said he wanted to
go home, but not until he was ' clean. • He
was being treated for syphillis •••
Mrs. Pollet concluded the interview with this remark:
Some of the hitchhikers, who utilized the
Travelers Aid Society, desired jobs to help
answer their needs. Many, however, just
wanted financial assistance, a place to stay
for a few nights rest, and a few good meals
before they hit the road again.*
Observations by Hitchhikers Themselves.
Interviews
with hitchhikers describe life on the road as "not always
a bowl of cherries."
Many hitchhikers have had the un-
pleasant experiences of being stranded without money in
a strange and usually unfriendly town.
*Personal interview, June 1973. ·
They have spent
--~--------------------___j
12
! restless
nights in sleeping bags.
They have slept in
drain pipes, bushes, and parked cars.
They have fought
sleep during a long ride with a stranger--for fear of
what might happen should they fall asleep.
have had to walk miles on sore feet.
Hitchhikers
One young man re-
ported being stranded in the "blistering 11 sun in the New
Mexico desert, for more than four hours.
water or shelter.
j
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I
He had no
By the time he got a ride he ·said, he
I
was delirious from the heat (9: 36).
Another hitchhiker gave a description of the discomfort of spending many hot days without bathing, being
filthy from road dust, and being unable to stop long
enough to wash or change his "one pair of clothes ...
(9:36).
Health Problems Related to Travel.
There are
potential threats to one•s health which are associated
with hitchhiking, e.g., being out-of-doors, and living
on a shoe-string budget.
Many of the problems hitchhikers .
may encounter are those similar to that which could occur
even had they stayed at home.
While a good portion of
these health problems can be easily tended to at home,
hitchhikers might not be prepared to adequately deal with
them on the road.
This can lead to more serious compli-
cations (57:3).
1.
!
L
ResEiratory distress:
One of the most common
medical problems found among people who travel
13
the road is respiratory distress.
This stress
is due in part to getting from place to place,
living under strange conditions, and adjusting
to new routines.
The traveler is more likely
to have complications from respiratory infections (14:169).
2.
The Common Cold:
The common cold is a collec-
tion of signs and relatively mild symptoms,
rather than a single disease.
The common cold
can be caused by a number of invading organisms.
These include: viruses, bacteria, and fungus.
Often the cold can lead to more severe symptoms
and serious illness.
The extent to which one
suffers from cold symptoms and its potential
complications depend on one's body resistance.
It has been estimated that there may be
hundreds of viral infections, alone, which can
cause cold symptoms.
Influenza virus may show
no symptoms, but can result in pneumonia.
"Valley Fever,
11
a fungus infection, may mani-
fest as a cold (6:190).
Tuberculosis, strep-
tococcal and staphyloccal infections are all
caused by bacteria.
Without proper diagnosis,
medication, rest, and nutrition, these diseases
can lead to pneumonia and bronchial disorders.
These _diseases can produce life threatening
14
complications (19:784).
3.
Allergy:
Approximately one person in ten
suffers from a major allergic disorder
as, hay fever, asthma, or hives.
such
Another
forty percent have minor allergic disorders-a food idiosyncracy or skin sensitivity (6:363).
Allergens, the substances a person is
allergic to, may be inhaled or swallowed
(47:111).
One may be allergic to specific
plants such as Poison Oak, Poison Sumrnack, or
Poison Ivy (6:363).
A severe form of allergic reaction is
called anaphylaxis.
This reaction can be
experienced by a person who is severely allergic
to the bites or stings of various insects such
as bees or wasps.
Anaphylaxis can be fatal if
not treated medically (47:114).
4.
Asthma:
In addition to allergic factors, most
cases of asthma have a psychosomatic component.
Severe stress, lack of rest, and emotional
factors may trigger an attack of asthma.
One
who is traveling, particularly under stress,
and being out-of-doors may be susceptible to
an asthma attack.
Without proper treatment,
an asthma attack may cause the anaphylaxis
reaction, previously mentioned (47:113).
15
s.
Physical Injuries:
Cuts, sprains and strains,
bruises, and splinters are common occurrences
among travelers on the road (10:37).
The
above mentioned can lead to infections if the
wounded areas are not thoroughly cleansed.
Tetnus bacillis infections may result from
inadequate treatment (19:841).
6.
Arthropods:
Hitchhikers, being out-of-doors
may be forced to sleep along the roadway or
in the bushes, thus leaving them susceptible
to bites and stings from poisonous arthropods,
such as; Centipedes, scorpions, spiders, ticks,
mosquitos, bees, and wasps.
The bites or stings
of these arthropods can be quite painful and
even dangerous (10:82).
7.
Mammals:
One might come into contact with stray
domestic or wild animals such as: Dogs, cats,
skunks, squirrels, and bats.
The bites or
scratches from both domestic and wild animals
can cause tetnus infections.
The above stated
mammals may be carriers of rabies, an invariably
fatal disease if not
t~eated
immediately
(10:83).
8.
Snakes:
Native to the United States, are two
primary groups of poisonous snakes:
the coral
snakes (Family Eclapidae} and the pit vipers
16
(Family Crotalidae) (19:1190). Bites from these
animals can cause much tissue damage and may be
fatal (10:75).
9.
Malnutrition:
Malnutrition is often found
among hitchhikers who lack sufficient financial
means to purchase adequate food supplies.
One
youthful hitchhiker reported that he journeyed
from Fremont, California to Lubbock, Texas and
back on only fifteen dollars.
His diet con-
sisted mainly of candy and cokes, with a hamburger every three days (9:36).
A young couple
ages 19 and 21 reported that they lived on
fifty cents per meal.
In a two week period,
they spent only seventeen dollars (46:33).
With extended periods of travel one is more
likely to feel the effects of an inadequate
diet (57:18).
Carbohydrates, fats, and pro-
teins are the three basic food nutrients.
Normally, carbohydrates and fats are utilized
by the body to produce life-supporting energy.
Proteins are used for the body's
maintenance.
gro~th
and
The body is not able to function
efficiently with an inadequate diet.
Mal-
nutrition {nutritional deficiencies), fatigue,
and poor general health--all promote poor
resistance to communicable diseases.
17
10.
Personal Hygiene:
Inadequate personal hygiene
l
can cause skin disorders or aggravate already
i
I
I
established dermatological problems, as:
infections (14:62).
fungal·
Proper washing, adequate
diet, along with adequate rest are essential
I
in controlling the severity of acne exacerbation ·
in adolescents and young adults (19:1391).
Dental care is often neglected when traveling.
Poor oral hygiene combined with an in-
adequate diet may result in periodontal diseases"
such as:
Gingivitis, periodontitis, or necro-
tizing ulcerative gingivostomatitis (19:374}.
Poor personal health practices can also
cause eye and ear infections or irritations
(57:14).
Blisters, callouses, corns, and
other foot problems often occur among·travelers
whose shoes are loosely fitted or who are not
used to walking long distances (14:66).
If
not properly cared for, the above mentioned
ai~ents
can lead to infection{s), with poten-
tially fatal results (47:113).
11.
Dysmenorrhea and Sex Related Problems:
Minor
variations in time-of-onset, duration and flow,
secondary amenorrhea, in addition to greaterthan-usual discomfort in women with dysmenorrhea may occur in females who travel long
I
i
18
distances (14:138).
If a female hitchhiker
is sexually active, but does not take the
necessary precautionary measures she employs
at home such as; birth control pills or a
diaphram, she runs the risk of becoming pregnant.
Sexually active women should have periodic
check-ups for venereal infections.
Male hitch-
hikers, too, may become infected with gonorrhea
or syphillis (57:46).
The danger of infection
is quite high--Gonorrhea, for example, is at
epidemic proportions in the United States.
Today, it is the most commonly
re~orted
bacter-
ial disease in this country (52:438).
12.
Communicable Diseases:
The risk of venereal
disease has been mentioned previously in ·terms
of the high incidence of this group of diseases
(52:438).
The traveler may, at times, live in crowded
and unsanitary conditions (57:41).
Food and
water may be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria leading to Staphylococcus or Salmonella
infections (16:180).
Infectious Hepatitis can
also be contracted under these conditions
(57 :41}.
13.
Drug Problems:
Hitchhikers who use drugs, on
19
;'''··-···--'
~---
•••
~·
·• ~--•-•·--·-···
-·•·•--·•·~----
.w~~•• -·~-
..·•···-·- • ,, __,.,, __ , ____ ,, .. ,,-~ .•.,_, ______
-•··-~·••~-------·--···~·-----··•·-~·~···.,•~.-.....•~•-•"•-·-·---~~-·-·-~·•••
~----- •-~---
••- ••• ·• •
j
the road, may experience adverse drug reactions
or bad trips (9:36).
Factors confronting the
traveler which could precipitate an adverse drug
reaction are more numerous than those affecting
the person in familiar environments.
The
stress of living in unfamiliar surroundings,
inadequate diet, and lack of sleep all affect
a person and his reactions to ingested, inhaled,
or injected drugs (57:29).
The need for (health) education to minimize the many
!
problems and possible dangers associated with hitchhiking
is evident (9:36).
Limitations of the Study
This study was limited to a population of randomly
selected male and female college students.
At the time
of this study, the students were enrolled at California
State University, Northridge.
Definition of Terms
To insure uniformity of understanding and interpretation of terms used in this study, the following
definitions are offered:
Hitchhike:
to travel by asking for rides from
passing vehicles (56:863).
20
Hitchhiker:
One who currently hitchhikes, in the
United States, at least one time a
month~
one who
used to hitchhike, in the United States, but does
so no longer.
Proper Nutrition:
Having a daily, balanced diet
with sufficient amounts of proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, vitamins, minerals, and fluids (54:354).
Health:
The continuum of physical, mental, and
social well-being, dynamically interrelated (8:15).
Health Education:
All of the experiences which
favorably influence knowledge, attitudes, and
practices relating
to the individual and the
community health (15:9).
Survey
Questio~naire:
A form of planned collection
of data for the purpose of description, prediction,
or as a guide to action (43:2).
Summary.
The practice of hitchhiking, as a mode of
travel, seems to be increasing throughout the United
States.
There are many potential health hazards as well
as actual dangers associated with the practice of hitchhiking.
These hazards
include~
social related problems,
general health related problems, and problems associated
with travel.
There are also miscellaneous problems
associated with being out-of-doors.
It is necessary to
know the occurrence of hitchhiking and the frequency with
which these problems occur, in order to establish an
21
effective educational program to minimize the inherent
dangers.
.
---..
-· .
-~-----h-"·-·----------------------------
-------------------
-
-------------~------------------- ------~-~-------------~-
:
-----·---
CHAPTER II
METHODS OF PROCEDURE
This chapter presents the survey instrument, a
. description of the sample population, methods used to
collect the data associated with this investigation,
and the procedures utilized for analyzing the acquired
i
·data.
· The Questionnaire Survey
A survey is a form of planned collection of data
for the purpose of description, prediction, or as a guide
to action.
It is also used to analyze the relationship
, between certain variables.
The questionnaire or inter-
.view can be used to gather data.
The questionnaire has
to be specifically designed according to the particular
specifications and aims of the author.
In spite of all
the planning, the data which qnestionnaires yield are
still subject to error (43:2).
The questionnaire survey is often the only means of
'gathering data from sizable populations (12:66).
The
questionnaire survey is often more economical to use than
other methods.
It can be given more easily than the
. interview type of survey (2:24).
;--~ Y~•--•-·--·-·--~---••·-·-~---~••''• --~---•-••·--~------··~_:-- ~-
,o
•• • •
-•··---·-·-------·
22
•
••·-•-··----~··--~--··~·--·~---
- - - - - - - - · - · · - - - -. . - · • • • - • · · - · - - - - - -
-·--••••••-~
23
Surveys have been criticized for their reduced
ability to control important variables, for following
events rather than making them happen (dealing in
retrospect), and for their inability to prove causal
relationships (43:7).
An advantage of the questionnaire survey method is
that it is of an impersonal nature.
The respondent can
be assured of anonymity so he feels more comfortable in
!
answering questions.
He would feel more pressured and
uncomfortable in responding in an interview situation
(49:240).
Selection and Description of the Study Population
The study population was limited to male and female
students enrolled at the California State University,
Northridge, in 1973.
It was determined that the survey
instrument would be administered through selected Health
Education classes offered by the Department of Health
Science.
The population sample was composed of 281
students: 112 males and 169 females.
The Survey Instrument
The questionnaire survey was developed to include
items pertaining to common health as well as social problems.
24
The questionnaire,
(Appendix A), was designed to
(1) Provide demographic data about the sample population,
(2) Identify the occurrence of hitchhiking among those
surveyed, (3) determine the occurrence of selected health
and social problems encountered by students, while
practicing hitchhiking during a one year period.
The questionnaire was pre-tested among five randomly
selected students.
Appropriate additions, deletions, and
modifications were made in those sections which tended to
be confusing.
The questionnaire was, readministered to
five different students.
Results obtained from the pre-
test indicated that the students level of comprehension
concerning the instrument was acceptable for the purpose
of this study.
Administration of the Questionnaire
The final _questionnaires were administered to students
in their regular school classes on April 11, 12, and 13,
1973.
The students were instructed to read and follow
the directions carefully.
i
After an elapsed time of
twenty minutes, the students were instructed to return
the completed questionnaire to their instructor.
25
Organization of Completed Questionnaires
The data given by the respondents was transferred
to coding sheets.
This was accomplished in order to
minimize errors, and to facilitate keypunching of data.
Only numeric codes were used for the data:
the number 1 represented the letter
represented the letter "B 11 •
respondent to
him.
anm~er
11
For example,
A", the number_£
Some sections allowed the
as many questions as applied to
These items were coded in the "Yes" or "No" form.
In coding, the number 1 represented a circled, letter
response communicating a "Yes" response.
The coding of
a number 2, represented an uncircled letter communicating
a "No 11 response.
CHAPTER III
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The findings presented in this chapter were derived
from 262 questionnaires administered to California State
University students on the Northridge campus.
This
chapter will be concerned with the presentation, analysis,
and discussion of findings concerning the study population.
Included in this chapter are:
1)
Data concerning demographic characteristics
of the sample population and possible influences
these might have on hitchhiking practices.
2)
Data concerning relationships between the
incidence of health and social problems, and
selected variables.
3)
A discussion of the findings as they relate
to the stated hypotheses.
Approach to Statistical Analysis of the Data
The completed questionnaires were grouped according
to demographic variables such as sex and hitchhiking
status.
Respondents who failed to complete the survey
or who did not follow instructions were not included in
the statistical analysis of the data.
tionnaires were omitted.
males and 162 females.
Nineteen ques-
The sample consisted of 100
The distribution of hitchhikers
to non-hitchhikers according to sex is found in Table II •
..._______ ····-----·-----------·<-~----- ·-·-~---------------·-·-- ..... --------------------
26
--·-----~------------------------- ~
---- - ···-----·-------- .. - .. -·-------------- .
27
TABLE II
DISTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY POPULATION
BY SEX AND HITCHHIKING STATUS
SEX
HITCHHIKER
NON-HITCHHIKER
(%)
TOTALS
(%)
(%)
MALE
41
(41)
59
(59)
100
(100)
FEMALE
23
(14)
139
(86)
162
(100)
N
64
198
262
28
Chi Square Statistics were computed, using the
Statistical Package For Social Science (SPSS), at California State University, Northridge.
Chi square
statistics were computed to determine the
follo~ng
relationships:
1)
Demographic characteristics of the sample
population (Items 1-11, 13-23) to Hitchhiking
status (Item 12); (Appendix A)
2)
Hitchhiking status (Item 12), Sex (Item 2)
and Distances traveled in one year of hitchhiking (Item 35) to Health and Social problems
(Items 45-118).
(Appendix A)
The data derived from the survey instrument regarding
certain items (24-34 and 36-44), and Part IV were not
utilized in the analysis and treatment of data, at this
time.
Other demographic variables, not discussed can be
found in Appendices "C" through "G".
Demographic Influence on Hitchhiking
The questionnaire, used in connection with this
study, contained twenty-three items concerning demographic
characteristics of the sample population.
The following
is a discussion of selected demographic variables found
; to be significant while using Chi Square statistics at
the .OS level of significance:
Age.
The student•s age distribution, for the study
population, was found to be significantly related to the
The high,e:3t percentage of .....
29
hitchhiking (42.9) was found among the group of students
older than twenty-five years of age.
There were nine
students, accounting for 14.1 percent of the total hitchhiking population, in this age bracket.
The lowest
percentage of hitchhiking (14.9) was found among the
population of students who were eighteen years of age or
younger.
For the distribution of student's ages and their
influence on hitchhiking practices, Chi Square obtained
was 9.57.
Chi Square table value is 7.82 at the .OS
level of significance, with three degrees of freedom
(Table III}.
Sex.
The proportion of males and females was
significantly different for the hitchhiker and the nonhitchhiker populations.
Among the males, 41 percent
were found to be hitchhikers.
Only 14.2 percent of the
female population hitchhiked.
This is significantsince
the total sample population was composed of almost one
and one-half times as many females as there were males.
The total sample population of 262 students was composed
of 61.8 percent female and 38.2 percent male.
For the distribution of the sexes within the study
population and its inftuence on hitchhiking practices,
Chi Square obtained was 22.63.
Chi Square table value
is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance, with one
degree of freedom (Table IV) •
30
TABLE III
AGE VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VA I<JC 1
COU~<T
I
RJH ~CT ILESi TH~ 1<;·2~
CGL i'CT IN !.7 Tu
OL3~~
2!•25
All 25
~OW
TH
!~!-~~!-!J~ ____ :;! ______ ::f------~:I------~:I
:.
I
a: I
72
!
34
;
12
I
NEVER ~ITCHHI<~G I ~~·· I 3&.4 I 17.2 i
&.!.
I
TOT.H.
VAR012
I
1
HITCHHIKERS
8~.1
I
7!.!
I
TOTAL
I
57.4
I
5.3
I
llol
I
4.&
I
3.4
J~.S
31.5
17.&
8ol
1q1
75.6
6'+
24.4
I
-1--------r--------r--------r--------r
<;4
H!.
46
2!
Chi square obtained = 9.57
Chi square .OS (d.f. 3) = 7.82
L._ __
71.~
3J.3
I
27.5
I
l3.U
I
~.6
I
6 • -r-------~r--------!--------1--------I
I
14
I
2 <;
I
: :?
I
·3
I
I
21oS
r
~5.3
I
1~.7
I
14.1 1
!
1'+.q I
2~.7
I 26.1 I
42.~
I
COLIJ'1'<
I
I
2&2
lwQ.J
31
TABLE IV
SEX VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VAROC2
COUNT I
ROW PCT IMAL~
COL PCT I
FE~ALE
________ TOT PCT I
VAR012
NEVER
1.I
~OH
2.I
--------1--------I--------I
1.
I
59 I
!3g I
HITC~HIK~C
____ HIJCHHI K2RS
6.
I
I
29.3
59.0
22.5
I
I
I
I
41
I
I
_ !_ __ 64.1
I
TOTAL
~5.8
53.1
I
I
I
~1--------r--------1
I
___________ COL U''IN
7:.2
23
_I
41.u I
15.6 I
35.9
14.2
8.8
33.2.
61.8
I
I
I
I
-1--------r--------r
1CO
- 162
Chi square obtained = 22.63
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
TOTAL
191\
75.6
64
24.Lt
262
10C.')
32
~·
There was a significantly higher percentage
of hitchhiking among persons of races other than Caucasiane
There were 218 {83.2 percent) persons of the
Caucasian race and 44 (16.8%) persons of races other
than Caucasian, in the total sample population of 262
students.
Only 21.6 percent of the Caucasians hitchhiked,
as compared to 38.6 percent of the members of races other
than Caucasian.
For the distribution of race within the study population, and its influence on hitchhiking practices, Chi
Square obtained was 4.90.
at the
.os
Chi Square table value is 3.84
level of significance, with one degree of
freedom (Table V).
Living Arrangements.
There was a significantly
higher percentage of hitchhiking among students who were
living away from home.
There was hitchhiking among 32.1
percent of the students living away fxnm home as compared
to 19.2 percen·t among students living with their parents.
For the distribution of living arrangements, within
the study population and its influence on hitchhiking
practices, Chi Square obtained was 4.97.
Chi Square
table value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance,
with one degree of freedom (Table VI).
Parents• Income.
It was found that there was a
significantly higher percentage of hitchhiking among the
33
.-----~-------------·-·-------···----
TABI£ V
RACE VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
_____________
VARC12
NEVER
COUNT
R0~1
I
VAR:.H!4
PCT HIHITC
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
ALL
3.I
~R
OTH
5.I
--------1--------I------~-r
1.
HITCHHl~~O
HITCHHIKEKS
I
I
I
I
:71
g6,4
7j,4
I
I
I
65.3
I
73.4
21.?
.!.7.9
21d
83.2
I
I
I
27
I
13.6
I
61.4
I
~C.3
I
I
I
26.6
I
I
I
3~.6
6.5
-r--------r--------1
4~
16.8
Chi square obtained = 4.90
Chi square .05 (d.£. 1)
3.84
=
I
L___ _ _
._
'
TOTAL
193
75.6
I
-r-~------I--------r
6.
I
47
I
17
I
COLUMN
TOTAL
Ii
ROW
~ACES
·''.
64
24.4
262
100.3
34
.---------------------------------
TABLE VI
LIVING ARRANGEI1ENTS VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VARuG5
---------------- ROW
COUNT
-I
PCT IA~~y F~O . PAR~NTS
C0 L
PGT
I M H G1'-1
TOT PCT I
____VARO 12
c
8.!
--------1--------r--------r
1.
I
72 I
126 I
NEVER HITCHHIKED l
I
36.4
67.9
. ___________ _: .. , ..----------1. 2.7. 5
...·'!··j~:!'ir.
7.I
ROW
·-·""'"'<"''·- -
6.
HITCHHIKE~S
I
I
6~.6
8J.8
I
I
TOTAL
1 g 3 ..
75.6
I
-I--------I--------I
I
34 I
JC
I
I
53.1
1
13.0
__ I.
I
32.1
I
I
I
4 8.1
~6.9
I
11.5
I
19.2
I
-r--------1--------r
1C6
1S6
COLUMN
_________________ TOTAL _
Ltu.s __
59.5 __
Chi square obtained = 4.97
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
. I
262
1CC.J
.
35
children of parents with lower yearly incomes.
There was
hitchhiking among 46.2 percent of the students whose
parents made five thousand dollars or less and 22.9
percent among students whose parents made sixteen
thousand dollars or more a year.
For the distribution of parents• yearly incomes
within the study population and its influence on hitchhiking practices, Chi Square obtained was 7.50.
Chi .
Square table value is 5.99 at the .05 level of significance, with two degrees of freedom {Table VII).
Source of Income.
There was a significantly higher
percentage of hitchhiking among students who were selfsupporting.
There was hitchhiking among 33.6 percent of
the students who '\'iere self-supporting and only 16.8 percent among students supported by their parents.
For the distribution of sources of income within
the study population and its influence on hitchhiking
practices Chi Square obtained was 9.08.
Chi Square
table value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance,
with one degree of freedom (Tab_le VIII).
Hitchhiking Male Friends.
Hitchhikers had a signi-
ficantly higher percentage of male friends who also
hitchhiked, as compared to those hitchhikers who had no
hitchhiking male friends.
Of those who had no other
hitchhiking friends 16.1 percent were hitchhikers, whereas
36
TABLE VII
PARENTS' INCOME VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
'.
l
VARCC7
COUNT I
ROW
ROW PCT 1~5,~0~ 0 ~6,0~C-! !!6,:JJ
TOTAL
_______ .COL PC T I R LESS
.!. 5, iJ ~..;
OR M0~E
TOT PCT I
1.1
2.I
3.I
VAR012
--------1--------I--------I--------I
1.
I
14 I
83
I
101 I
NEVER HITCrlHIK~C I
7.1 I
~1.9
I Si.J I
6.
HITCHHIKEKS
COLUMN
TOTAL
I
I
53.B
5.3
I
I
7g.:
31.7
I
I
77.1
I
38.3 -:
I
I
I
13.7
46.2
I
I
I
34.4
21.(
I
I
I
46.q
22.g
11.5
-1--------r--------r--------r
I
12 I
22 I
30
I
4.6
-I--------1--------I--------I
26
1C5
131
g.~
Chi square obtained= 7.50
Chi square .05 (d.f. 2) = 5.99
I
I'--------------
d.4
I
I
I
40.1
sa.J
&4
24.4
26 2
1uC.CI
I
I
37
TABLE VIII
SOURCE OF INCOME VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
COUNT
ROW PCT
-- --- -- - --------- -- -COL PCT
TOT PCT
VAR012
•
..:..
NEVER. HITCHHIJ<.:::G
-·-
I
VA RC: B
R.OW
ISELF-SJP PARENTS
TOTAL
2.!
I
l.I
I FO ;;y I;j:;
--------1--------r--------r
. I ?g I 119 I
----------~----
________ -·
HITCHHIKERS
6.
I
I
I
lg. '-1
66.:..
3u. 2
I
I
I
o:;.1
8 3. 2
45.4
I
I
I
I
I
I
62.5
13.6
I
1
37.5
16.8
I
I
------·----- -----·-· ____ I
COLUMN
TOTAL
I
4:---I-------I
24 I
~I~----
. 15. 3 . I
9. 2
I
-1--------I--------I
143
~19
45.4
Chi square obtained = 9.08
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
54.6
191\
?5.6
64
24.4
__
262
:l.JO.o
38
the percent of hitchhiking among those who had other
hitchhiking male friends was 28.6.
For the distribution of hitchhiking among students'
male friends and its influence on hitchhiking practices
Chi Square obtained was 4.25.
Chi Square table value
is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance, with one degree
of freedom (Table IX).
Hitchhiking Female Friends.
Hitchhikers had a
significantly higher percentage of female friends who
also hitchhiked, as compared to those hitchhikers who
had no hitchhiking female friends.
Of those who had no
other female hitchhiking friends, 17.6 percent were
hitchhikers, whereas the percent of hitchhiking among
those who had other hitchhiking female friends was 33.9.
For the distribution of hitchhiking among students'
female friends and its influence on hitchhiking practices,
Chi Square was _8.29.
Chi Square table value is 3.84 at
the .OS level of significance, with one aegree of freedom
(Table X).
Nain Source of Transportation.
There was a signi-
ficant relationship between the distribution of categories of transportation and hitchhiking practices.
Of
the students who owned their own cars, 28.4 percent were
hitchhikers and 71.6 percent were non-hitchhikers.
Of
the persons using their family's car, only 10.3 percent
39
,..-----'----'"------------------------------------,
TABLE IX
H:i:TCHHIKI1i"G 1~.LE FRIENDS VERSUS
HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VAR:22G
COUNT I
ROW
ROW PCT INC~E
SOME
___________ COL PCT I
____ ... __ .
TOTAL.
TOT PCT I
1.1
5.I
VAR012
--------I--------I--------1
1. I
73
I
125 I
________NEVER_ HI TCHHI
HITCHHIKL~S
~
c0
6.
I ... .3 S • q
I
BJ.g
·---~·-
--- -· -------· ----·ca·L u r---1
r~
TOTAL
I
I
27.9
I
I
I
2i.9
16.1
I
I
. 63•~
7!.4
47.7
I
I
I
-1--------I--------I
I
14 I
5u
I
I
--- ··-- ···
I
5.3
I
7d.1
28.6
!9.1
I
I
I
-1--------r--------r
-- -· - 7
17 s
8
33.2
66.8
262
100.0
Chi square obtained = 4.25
Chi square .05 {d.f. 1) = 3.84
I
L ______
-----=~-J
40
TABLE X
HITCHHIKING FEMA-LE FRIENDS VERSUS
. HITCHHIKING PRACTICES.
VAR021
_ . COUNT T
SOME
----------- ROW PCT I NONE
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
1.1
VARO 12
~OW
TOTAL
5.I
--------r--------r--------1
1.
I
126 I
72
I
NEVER ~ITCHHIKED I
63.6
~
48.1
I
I
I
I
42.2
10.3
I
I
I
I
82.4
I
36.4
I
66.1
27.5
I
I
57.5
33.9
I
I
198
7S.o
6.·--1--------I--------r
I
27 I
37
I
HITCHHIKERS
COLUHN
TOTAL
!_ 17.6
14.1
I
-1-~------r--------r
1~3
___ 58,4 ....
Chi square obtained = 8.29
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
1G9
_ 41•6
2&2
lJ:i.J
41
were hitchhikers.
Among those students using the bus or
other transportation, 17.2 percent were hitchhikers.
For the distribution of categories of main sources
of transportation and its influence on hitchhiking
practices, Chi Square obtained was 6.67.
Chi Square
table value is 5.99 at the .OS level of significance,
with two degrees of freedom (Table XI).
Main Source of Information about Hitchhiking.
There
was a significant relationship between the distribution
of categories, pertaining to' sources of information about
hitchhiking, and students' actual hitchhiking practices.
Among those receiving education, regarding hitchhiking,
from friends, 23.6 percent were hitchhikers.
out of
the total sample population of students, twenty-six (9.9
percent) stated that they were educated in the school
classroom.
Of these 19.2 percent were hitchhikers.
For the distribution of sources of information about
hitchhiking practices and its influence on the incidence
of hitchhiking, Chi Square obtained was 35.11.
Chi
Square table value is 7.82 at the .OS level of significance, with three degrees of freedom (Table XII).
42
,----------------·-----·--
TABLE XI
MAIN SOURCE OF TR~NSPORTATION VERSUS
HITCHHIKI.L·;G PAACTICES
VARu22
- - - - - - - -·-----ROW
C0 UN
T
I:YOU~ O~N
PCT
FAMILY C BUS 0~ 0
-~OW.
COL PCT I CAR
AR
THER
TOTAL
TOT PCT I
~.I
2.!
?.I
_VARO 12 ·-·--· _. _ --------I-------·- I-------- I-------- I
1.
I
13g :
35 I
24 I
198
NEVER HITCHHIKEC I 7J.2 I 17.7 I 12.1 I
75.6
I 71.6 I
39.7 I 82.8
I
----- .... I
HITCHHIK~~S
6.
1
---------------------· 1
I
COLU~N
___________ T 0 TAL
53•1
I
13• 4
I
9 • 2.
I
85e9
23.4
21.C
I
I
6.3 I
1~.3 _ I
1.5 I
7.8
17.2
t.J
I
I
I
7 ~. Q
___ 14 • 9
-I--------I---·----1--------I
I
5S
I
4
I
5
I
Chi squa.re obtained = 6. 6 7
Chi square .OS (d.f. 2) = 5.99
i
I
I
I
-I--------I--------1--------I
194
39
29
~----------------------
_
11· 1
64
24.4
262
.... 1 :J ~ • Q
43
TABLE XII
MAIN SOURCE OF INFORH.~TION ABOUT
HITCHHIKING VERSUS HITCHHIKING
PRACTICES
- - - - - - COUNT I VA~JZl
~J~ PCT IF~I~~JS
CJL PCT I
------·--·-- _ tUT PCT I
~ASS
l.I
IA
HED
PE~SC~5L
cX~~~I~
l.I
....
SCHeJL 0
r
<
~J~
OT~~~
b.I
--------1--------r--------r--------r--------I
55
1
I
14
i
21
I
VAR01Z
! ,
I
NEVER HITCHHI(E( I
-------
__ HilCHH1Kc'<S
6.
. ----- --- --- COLl!l1tl
TOT~L
l~3
54,5
75.6
-!--------I--------I--------r--------1
I
17 I
lg
I
2"3
I
5
I
I
26.6 I 29,7 I E d I
7.3 I
2'to'+
~s.;
I
7,!
I
1'18
I
27od
I
TOTAL
.,.o
I
I
75.:..
21.J
I
!
4!.?
I
I
37.1
3.3
I
!
::.3
I
I
23.&
6.5
I
I
l5.C!
7.3
I
62.~
~.i
I
I
1'3.2
~.:
:.~
I
I
I
I
-1--------I--------r--------I--------I
72
27.5
12 7
~3.5
Chi square obtained = 35.11
Chi square .05 (d.f. 3) = 7.82
37
1~.1
26
q,g
6:0
26 2
1JQ,u
44
Relationships Between the Distribution of Selected
Variables and the Occurrence of Health and Social Problems
The following is a discussion of the distribution of
selected variables (frequency of hitchhiking, sex, and
distances traveled, as they
~elate
to the occurrence of
health and social problems experienced by hitchhikers.
Chi Square statistics were utilized at the .05 level
of significance.
The questionnaire contained seventy-
three variables concerning health and social problems.
These were collapsed into nine categories: respiratory
problems, foot problems, communicable diseases, intestinal
problems, teeth problems, health problems related to
being out-of-doors, social problems with strangers,
pedestrian problems with the police, and miscellaneous
problems.
Frequency of Hitchhiking Versus Occurrence of Health and
Social Problems
Analysis of data revealed no significant relationships for any of the nine health and social problem
areas, when their distributions were related to the
frequency of hitchhiking while utilizing Chi Square
statistics.
The frequencies of students' hitchhiking
were divided into three categories: occasionally,
frequently, and no longer.
.
.
------~~---~--------------~----·------··------~-------------------
Twenty students hitchhiked
-------------------·--···-·------------------------------.-------·--·-··---- ...
'
--.------~----
45
occasionally, four students hitchhiked frequently.
Forty students used to hitchhike, but did so no longer.
Selected categories of health and social problems
are discussed below:
Respiratory Problems.
The frequency of hitchhiking
· was not significantly related to the occurrence of
respiratory problems.
Twenty-three students, representing
35.9 percent of the hitchhiking population, experienced
respiratory problems.
There were respiratory problems
among 40 percent of the students who hitchhiked occasionally and 30 percent of the students who no longer hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 3.41.
Chi Square table
value is 5.99 at the .05 level of significance, with two
degrees of freedom (Table XIII)
(specific respiratory
problems in Appendix B).
Foot Problems.
The frequency of hitchhiking was not
significantly related to the occurrence of foot problems.
There were twenty-three students, representing 35.9 percent of the hitchhiking population, experiencing foot
problems.
There were foot problems among 35 percent of
the occasional hitchhikers and 35 percent of the students
who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 0.37.
Chi Square table
value is 5.99 at the .05 level of significance, with two
4E
TABLE XIII
FREQUENCY OF
HITCHrii~ING
VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF RESPIRATORY PROBLEHS
COUNT
- - ----- ------ ---ROW PC T
COL PCT
TOT PCT
VAR012
VAR119
I
I YES
NO -- -- --- -- ~:) fl
I
TOT4L
I
1.I
2.!
~---~---r--------e--------I
I
!
I
4C.~
8
I
12
I
--- -- -- I
4o 7
I
1 .. 6
I
JU.C
I
7~.C
I
62.5
18.7 I 43.7 I
-I~-------r--------I
COLUMN
23
~l
TOTAL
35.9
64.1
6~
1J~.~
OCCASIONALLY
2.
I
2a
I 60.S I 31.2
34.8 I
2g.3
I
12.5 I
13.7 I
----~-~---------------·--------I~-------- I-------- I .. -·- ----3.
I
3 I
1
I
!t
FREQU~NTLY
I 75.C I 25.~ I
5.3
I 13.S I
2.4 I
5.
-1--------r--------r
I
12 I
2e I
NO LO~GER
I
----- - ---- --·-·--- -- ------·---- ---I
I
52. 2
Chi square obtained = 3.41
Chi square .05 (d.£. 2) = 5.99
I
0 a. 3
I
~)
47
degrees of freedom (Table XIV)
(specific foot problems
in Appendix B).
Intestinal Problems.
The frequency of hitchhiking
was not significantly related to the occurrence of intestinal problems.
Twelve students, representing 18.7
percent of the hitchhiking population, experienced
intestinal problems.
There were intestinal problems
among 20 percent of the occasional hitchhikers and 17.5
percent of the students who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 0.16.
Chi Square table
value is 5.99 at the .OS level of significance, with two
degrees of freedom (Table XV)
(specific intestinal prob-
lems in Appendix B).
Health Problems Related to Being OUt-Of-Doors.
The
frequency of hitchhiking was not significantly related
to the occurrence of problems related to being out-ofdoors.
Thirty-four students representing 53.1 percent
of the hitchhiking population had health problems related
to being out-of-doors.
There were health problems among
60 percent of the occasional hitchhikers and 52.5 percent
of the students who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 1.66.
Chi Square table
value is 5.99 at the .05 level of significance, with
two degrees of freedom (Table XVI}
(specific health
problems related to being out-of-doors in Appendix B).
48
------------------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
TABLE XIV
FREQUENCY OF HITCHHLGNG VERSUS OCCUP..RENCE
OF FOOT PROBLEMS
-----·- -- .. --
VA.~12
COUNT I
ROW PCT IYES
COL P~T I
U
NO
-- . -- . ---- - - -T 0 T P C T I
VAR012
OCCASIONALLY
2.
I
I
I
I
---FREQUE:NTL Y
3.
·- - --- - . -- - - . --- 5.
NO
1•I
. .
2• I
--------r---~----I-·------I
LO~G::R
7
I
.3~.4
I
35.~
10.g
I
I
13
I
I
2D.3
I
I __ ~-~ 5 • 3
31.7
I
2
~ . 5 J• 1
I
8.7
I
3.1
I
I
I
2
5~ • ~
I
I
55.u
!
4J.o
I
I
4.9
3.1
I
I
I
~
I
52.5
-r--------r--------1
I - .. l '• - I
2 5 I __ _ !t C
I
f
35.0
60.9
21.9
I
63.~
I
I
COLUMN -~--------~--------I
23
4l
TOTAL
35.9
Chi square obtained = 0.37
Chi square .05 (d.f. 2) = 5.99
I
2J
31.2
65.~
-I-~-~----r~---~---1
-. I
~JW
TOT~L
L ____
64.l
49
TABLE XV
FREQUENCY OF HITCHHIKING VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF INTEST I~!AL PROBLEHS
----·---··----------- --- . . . ....
-----
~AR012
VAR12 2
COU.NT
I
ROW PCT IYES
COL PCT I
------.TOTPCTI
NO
··---··--- ---·
~
I
20.0
I
6.3
I
25.C
8.3
1.6
-- -----I --3 3. 3
3.
--- fREQU:: ~TL Y
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
TOTAL
25.!
I
18.7
20
31.2
I
~
5.3
~.7
I
I
I
az.s
r
52.~
75.~
5.8
63.5
51.6
I
I
·I--------1--------I
12
52
Chi square obtai~ed = 0.16
Chi square .05 (d.f. 2) = 5.99
I---·----------------
3 c. r.:i
I
I--------I
33 .I
.. 5 • __-I-~-----I .. . . . 7
I
I !7.5 I
I
58.3 I
I
1G.9 I
COLU"iN
8~.~
-I--------r--------I
I
1 I
. 3
I
·r
I
~J~
TOfAL
1.I
2.I.--------1--------r--------r
2.
I
I
16 I
OCCASIONALLY
NO LONGE:K.
_-----·- ---------------··-
81.3
.. ;
so .
TABLE XVI
FREQUENCY OF HITCHHIKING VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF HEALTH PROBLRT·IS RELATED TO BEING
OUT-OF-DOOH.S
VAR124
ROW ?CT IYES
~0
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
1.!
COUNT
I
RJW
2.1
VAR012
--------I----~---I--------I
2. I
12 I
8 I
OCCASIONALLY
I 60.0 I 4~.0 I
I 35.3 I 26.7 I
I 18.7 L
12.5 I
3. -I-~------I--·-----I
I
1 I
3 I
FRE:QU~tJTLY
-- ---- - --NO L0'4GE:R
-- --------- --
-
I-- 25.C
I
I
I
2.9
1.6
I
I
- - 5. - - I
I
· 21
52.5
I
I
75 • .- _ I
1~.~
~.7
I
I
19
I
I
TOTAL
2J
31.2
4
--5.3 -
-I~-------I--------r
I
61.8
I
~.tl.S
63.3
I
I
32.8 I
29.7 I
-I- .. ------- I-------- I
COLUMN
3"+
3~
TOTAL
53.1
Chi square obtained = 1.66
Chi square .OS (d.f. 2) = 5.99
46.9
54
1o~.il
51
Social Problems with Strangers.
The frequency of
hitchhiking was not significantly related to the
renee of social problems with strangers.
occur~
Thirty-two
students, representing 50 percent of the hitchhiking
population, experienced social problems with strangers.
There were social problems with strangers among 50 percent of the occasional hitchhikers and 50 percent of the
students who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 0.00.
Chi Square table
value was 5.99 at the .OS level of significance, with
two degrees of freedom (Table XVII)
{specific social
problems with strangers in Appendix B).
Pedestrian Related Problems with the Police.
The
frequency of hitchhiking was not significantly related
to the occurrence of pedestrian related problems with
the police.
Twenty-one students, representing 32.8 per-
cent of the hitchhiking population, experienced pedestrian
related problems with the police.
There were pedestrian
related problems with the police among 45 percent of the
occasional hitchhikers and 27.5 percent of the students·
who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 1.97.
Chi Square table
value was 5.99 at the .05 level of significance, with
two degrees of freedom (Table XVIII)
{specific pedestrian
related problems with the police in Appendix B).
52
TABLE XVII
FREQUENCY OF HITCrlliiKING VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF SOCIAL PROBLill11S tilTH STRANGERS
COUNT
--------- -- -·-··~OW PCT
COL PCT
TOT PCT
VARO 12
VAR125
I YES
I
I
1.I
. 2.
------ ---------·- --------FREQU~NTLY
3.
-I
I
I
-
1 C -·I
52.~
31.2
LO~G::R
5.
15.6
I
I
I
I
2
50.0
&.3
I
I
I
5G.v
31.2
15.6
I
I
2
6,3
5C.~
I - . 3.1
2J -
31.2
I
I
I
I
!t
5.3
I
-1--------r--------r
I
20 I
2r
I
I
I
-·-- ------ ·-- ------ .--- T 0 T A L .
. . 1 ~ - I-
-r--------r--------1
-------- I
COLUMN
I
I
I
-----·------------1----- 3.1
NO
2.I
~---~---r~-------r--------r
OCCASI3NALLY
~~--
I
5u.O
I
31.2
I
--62.5
I
s:.L
I
31,2
I
62.5
I
-r--------r--------1
32
32
5 J • (; -- -·- - 5 .j
Chi square obtained = 0.00
Chi square .05 (d.f. 2} = 5.99
• \, .. -
&C.
1J).j.
53
TABLE XVIII
FREQUENCY OF HITCHHII\:ING VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF PEDESTRIAN H.ELATED Pi:;;.OBLE.NS 'WITH THE POLICE
~-------~---------
COUNT
-- --VAJ;:_126I
- --- ---------
NO
ROW PCT !YES
COL PCT I
-TOT PCT I
1.I
-2.1
~~--~---I~-------I--~-----I
VA RO 12
OCCASION~LLY
-----~----------
----··.
---
---FREOU:: NT l 'f
------
2.
4
••
....... -
3.
I
I
~5.~
9
I
1~.1
I---- .1-. 2. g
I
I
11
I
I
I
17.2
I
I
I
I
I
75.~,;
7.~
~.7
:.
55.L
2 5. 6
-I-~----~-r--------I
I
I
I
- .. I
1
4,8
1.6
2S.C
------------5•--- I--- - 11
I
I
I
LO~GER
COLUMN
TOTAL
---- ---~--
I
3
27.5
S2.4
17.2
I
I
I
I
29
72.?
67.~
4?.3
Chi square obtained = 1.97
Chi square .OS (d.f. 2) = 5.99
57.2
5.3--
I--
I
I
I
-1--------r--------r
... 3
21
32.8
*
I
I
I
I-
-1-------~r-----~--r
NO
2J
31.2
:.Q __ _
~2.5
5 ,..
1 ul. J
54
Miscellaneous Problems.
The frequency of hitchhiking
was not significantly related to the occurrence of miscellaneous problems.
Fifteen students, representing
23.4 percent of the hitchhiking population, experienced
miscellaneous problems.
There were miscellaneous problems
among 10 percent of the occasional hitchhikers and 30
percent of the students who no longer hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 2.98.
Chi Square table
value was 5.99 at the .OS level of significance, with
two degrees of freedom (Table XIX).
Sex of the Hitchhiker Versus Occurrence of Health and
Social Problems
Analysis of data revealed no significant relationships between the sex of the hitchhiker and the occurrence
of health and social problems.
Selected categories of
health and social problems are discussed below:
Respiratory Problems.
The sex of the hitchhiker
was not significantly related to the occurrence of
respiratory problems.
1
There were respiratory problems
among 36.6 percent of the males and 34.8 percent of the
females who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.02.
Chi Square table
value was 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom {Table XX).
55
TABLE XJX
FREQUENCY OF HITCHHIKING VERSUS OCCURRENCE
OF MISCELLt"\.J:.JEOUS PROBLENS
VAR127
COUNT I
·"-··--------------ROW PCT I'fES . ------ N.O - _________ R,JifCOL PCT I
TOT~L
TOT PCT I
l.L
2.I
VAR012
-------·I--------r--------1
2.
I
2 I
18 I
20
OCCASIONALLY
I l~.r I 9~.0 I 31.2
I
I
----------- -----~------~----~-1
FREQU~NTLY
3.
I
I
I
13.3
3.1
I
I
36.7
28.1
25.U
6.7
1.6
I
75.~
I
I
--------I-------I - ·-·- -·- - -4 ---1 I
3 I
I
I
3C.C
I 7~.C
_________________________ I . __ BJ. G _ I ___ 5?. 1
18.7 I
~3.7
I
I
NO
LO~~ER
5.
COLUMN
---- -- -------TOTAL
I
I
I
6.1
4.7
----------------------------- .. I
---
-1--------r--------r
I
12 I
28 I
I
I
Chi square obtained= 2.98
Chi square .OS (d.f. 2) = 5.99
7&.6
5.3
~0
52.5
I
-1--------r--------r
15
49
- 23.4
~
S*
1JO.J
56
TABLE XX
SEX VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF RESPIRATORY PROBLEMS
-· --------- ---------- ...
-·-· VAR11g -- · ---------·---------------·-----
COUNT I
ROW PCT !YES
COL PCT I
------- -VARIJC2
--·---TOT PCT I
MALE
I
..
~0
. 1. I
~)fJ
-
2. I
---~----I--------r--------1
1. I
15 I
26 I
-- - -- -- --'----- --------- - ------FEiiAL~- --
I
36.6
6 5. 2
I
23.~
---------I ... .34.8
I
34.d
I
12.5
I
6 3. 4
I
I- 65.2
I
I
I
36.5
23.4
I
I
-r-~------r--------r
,~
35:9
Chi square obtained = 0.02
Chi square .OS (d.£. 1) = 3.84
•
I
63.~
r 40.b I
-r---~----r--------r
2. I
~
I
15 I
- ----- C 0 L U MN
TOTAL
/
I
41
64.1
TOTAL
. -- -------~1
5~.1
23
35.3.-
57
Foot Problems.
The sex of the hitchhikers was not
significantly related to the occurrence of foot problems.
There were foot problems among 39 percent of the males
and 30.4 percent of the females who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.17.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXI).
Intestinal Problems.
The sex of the hitchhiker was
not significantly related to the occurrence of intestinal
problems.
There were intestinal problems among 17.1.
percent of the males and 21.7 percent of the females
who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.02.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXII).
Health Problems Related to Being Out-Of-Doors.
The
sex of the hitchhiker was not significantly related to
the occurrence of health problems related to being outof-doors.
There were health problems related to being
out-of-doors among 51.2 percent of the males and 56.5
, percent of the females who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.02.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with one
. degree of freedom (Table XXIII).
58
TABLE XXI
SEX VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF FOOT PROBLEHS
COUNT
ROW PCT
COL PCT
TOT PCT
RJW
----- TJfAL
2.I
~-------r-~------r--------1
VAROC2
--
VAR120
I
IYES
~0
I
!
1.1
1a
HALE
I
--I
I
--------- --- - -- ----------2•
FEMAL~
...
COLU~N
TOTAL
69.6
I
23.Q
I
I
30.4
30.4
I
I
25
6!.0
I
39.1
I
61.~
I
I
I
I
-I--------I--------1
I-7
I
16- I
I
~-
16
39.0
10.9
I
I
I
69.t
39.~
25.j
I
I
23
35.9
I
·I--------I--------I
23
41
35.9
64.1
Chi square obtained = 0.17
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
j
I
59
TABLE :XXII
SEX VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF
-- --- --- -------- --- COUNT . I
VAPi22
ROW PCT I"YES
TOT PCT I
RJ,.,
NO
COL PCT I
1.1
2.1
f)T~L
......... ------I--------r--------I-- --·--
II A~J 0 2
1.
MALE
I
I
I
7
1 7-. 1
58.3
----- -------------------·- --·· . -I -- 1 C. 9
2.
FE HAL::
------- ---
PROBLEMS
I1~ESTINAL
----------------TOTAL
34
82• 9
I
3 3. 1
I
78.3 . I
65.~
I
I
I
21.7
I . 3-.. • 6
r
2~.1
52
23
35.9
I
I
-I~-------r--------1
12
~1
6~ •l
I
-1--------r--------r
I
5 I
18 I
·-------- -- . . - - - I - J.;.1. 7
I
.7.8
COLUMN
I
I
!
I
5~
.. __ --1...8.7 -- ------81.3 -- ... 1)! • J --
Chi square obtained = 0.02
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1} = 3.84
60
TABLE XXIII
SEX VERSUS OCCURRE':.TCE OF HEALTH PROBLEl1S
RELATED TO BEING OUT-OF-DOORS
..
- ...
VA R124
. ___ - _ ___ _ . __ ---
'fARO Q 2
--t1ALE
--------
-
FE HALE
----·--
COUNT I
~),.
ROW PGT IYES
~0
C 0 L PC T I
. . _ -__ __ ___
TOTAL
TOT PCT I
lei
2.1
----~---I--------r--------I
1. I
21 I
2r I
----I---51. 2- I
I
I
61.8
32.8
I
I
I
5&.5
I
I
I
'+8. 8
66.7
31.i
I
I
I
~3~5
I
- --- - 2 • --I--------I--------I
I - !. 3 I
1 :J
I
I
.
COLUMN
-------------~----~-----·
I
3 8 • 2·
2~.3
-·I---------~
TOTAL
Chi square obtained = 0.02
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
33• 3
15.£
I
I-------- II
23
35.9
s~
1JC.O
61
Social Problems with Strangers.
The sex of the hitch-
hiker was not significantly related to the occurrence of
social problems with strangers.
There were social prob-
lems with strangers among 51.2 percent of the males and
47.8 percent of the females who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.00.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance, with one
degree of freedom (Table XXIV}.
Pedestrian Related Problems with the Police.
The
sex of the hitchhiker was not significantly related to
the occurrence of pedestrian related problems with the
police.
There were pedestrian related problems among
36.3 percent of the males and 26.1 percent of the females
who hitchhiked.
Chi Square obtained was 0.34.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXV}.
Miscellaneous Problems.
The sex of the hitchhiker.
was not significantly related to the occurrence of miscellaneous problems.
There \vere miscellaneous problems
among 26.8 percent of the males and 17.4 percent of the
females who hitchhike.
Chi Square obtained was 0.30.
value is 3.84 at the .OS level of
Chi Square table
sign~ficance,
one degree of freedom (Table XXVI).
with
62
TABLE XXIV
SEX VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF SOCIAL PROBLENS
WITH STRANGERS
COUNT
.I
VAR-125
---- -- - - - -- --- R0 W P GT I Y ES
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
~0
-
-- -· --
1.I
2.!
R3il
TOfAL
VARCJ02
----~---r-~------r--------r
----- - --------- 1. -I----- 21
I ·· ·· 2~
I
HALE
I 51.2 I ~3.5
I
65.6 I 62.5
32.8 I
31.2
I
-·- -- -I .. -- .. ---- I - ------2.
I
11 I
12
I
I
47.8
I
52.2
I
-- ----- -------------------- - ---- I - 17. 2
I
18. 7
I
FE HAL::
I
I
I
I
I
COLUMN
TOTAL
34.~
I
37.5
I
23
35.3
·I--------1--------I
32
32
Su.O
SC.(;
Chi square obtained = 0.00
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1)
3.84
=
II
f
I
t__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j
63
TABLE XXV
SEX VER..SUS OCCURRENCE OF PEDESTRIAN
RELATED PROBLEHS HITH THE POLICE
--- --- -----·-·---··
MALE
COUNT
I
NO
RJ~
ROW PCT IY~S
fJTAL
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
1.1
2.!
---------1--------I--------I
1. I
15 I
26 I
I 36,6 I 63,4 I
I 71.~ I 6~.5 I
---- - ---- -- - -··-- --------·-- ·------ -I
FEMALE
VAR126
2.
2 3. 4
I
4 v• 6
I
26.1
I
73,9
I
-1--------r--------r
I
6 I
17 I
I
·--···-·· --:__________________ I --- 2 8. o .. I
I
g.4 I
.3 g. 5
COLUHN
·TOTAL
-67.2-
26.t
I
I
-1--------r--------r
21
43
32.8
Chi square obtained = 0.34
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
23
3S~9
64
TABLE)~
SEX VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF
--------- --
--
-
MISCE~lliOUS
VAR127-
PROBLEMS
- ----- --- ------------
COUNT I
~)iol
ROW PCT IYES
TOTAL
COL PCT I
-------~----TOT PCT I
. - .1. I - ---- --2. I ----------·---VAR002
--------I-·------1--------I
1•
I
i i
I
3.~
I
:.. 1
I 26.5 I 73.2 I 6~.1
HALE
-I--73.3
I
&1.2
I
I 17.2 I
~6.9
I
-I--------r--------1
2. I
4 I
19 I
23
___ FE MAL::
_ ··- .. .. ..... I ··- 1 7. 4
I
8 2 • o I .. 3 5 • 3 .
I
26.7 I
3~.8
I
I
6.3 I 29.? I
-I--------I--------1
15
49
---- ----·- --·-----COLUMN
23.r.
76.6
TOTAL
Chi square obtained = OM30
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
j
I
L_
65
Distance Traveled by Hitchhikers Versus the Occurrence
of Health and Social Problems
Analysis of data revealed no significant relationships between distances traveled by the hitchhiker and
the occurrence of health and social problems.
Two distance categories were analyzed to determine
the relationship, if any, to the occurrence of health
and social problems.
The two distance categories were;
300 miles or less; 301 miles or more.
the
stud~nts,
Forty-five of
representing 73.8 percent of the hitch-
hikers, traveled 300 miles or less.
Sixteen students,
representing 26.2 percent of the hitchhikers, traveled
301 miles or more.
Since three persons did not answer the question
about distances traveled (Item 35), statistics were based
on the remaining sixty-one hitchhikers.
Selected cate-
gories of health and social problems are discussed below:
Respiratory Problems.
Distances traveled were not
significantly related to the occurrence of respiratory
problems.
There were respiratory problems among 35.6
percent of the students who hitchhiked 300 miles or less,
and 25 percent of the students who hitchhiked 301 miles
or more.
Chi Square obtained was 0.12.
Chi square table
value is 3.94 at the .OS level of significance, with
66
·one degree of freedom (Table XXVII).
Foot Problems.
Distances traveled were not signi-
ficantly related to the occurrence of foot problems.
There were foot problems among 31.1 percent of the
students who hitchhiked 300
~iles
or less, and 43.7 per-
cent of the students who hitchhiked 301 miles or more.
Chi Square obtained was 0.37.
Chi Square table
value was 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom {Table XXVIII).
Intestinal Problems. Distances traveled were not
significantly related to the occurrence of intestinal
problems.
There were intestinal problems among 13.3
percent of the students who hitchhiked 300 miles or less,
and 25 percent of the students who hitchhiked 301 miles
or more.
Chi Square obtained was 0.48.
Chi Square table
value was 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXIX).
Health Problems Related to Being Out-Of-Doors.
Distances traveled were not significantly related to the
occurrence of health problems related to being out-ofdoors.
There were health problems related to being out-
of-doors among 51.1 percent of the students who hitchhiked 300 miles or less, and 56.2 percent of the students
who hitchhiked 301 miles or more.
67
TABLE XXVII
DISTANCE TRAVELED VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF
RESPIRATORY PROBLEHS
COUNT
I
VAR119
ROW PCT IYES
TOT PCT I
NO
_ --·--
--------------------- COL PCT I
VAR035
1.1
2.!
R)W
__fJfAL-
~~------1--------r--------r
1.
I
16
I
29
I
7J.7
I
-- JOC HIL::S OR LES I
35.6
I
64.'-t
I
26.2
I
~7.5
I
BC.J
I
I
I
-I~-------1--------I
:..
J__
4- I
301 MILES OR HOR I
25,t
I
I
2C.O !
I
6.6 l
COLUHN
TOTAL
12
75.~
29.3
19.7
I ..
I
I
I
~1--------r--------r
2D
32.8
Lt1
&7.2
•~
73.8
-15-~
25.2
51
103.J
Chi square obtained = 0.21
Chi square .os (d.£.1) = 3.84
l
~----------------_j
68
TABLE XXVIII
DISTANCE TRAVELED \~RSUS OCCURRENCE OF
FOOT PROBL&.'1S
-----····------·-------·..
VA R12 C ... -------·--··-·--·-··---- -----·------
COUNT I
~OW PCT !YES
COL PCT I
VAR035
~0
-------- TOT PCT I
300 MILES
.. 1.I
...... -2. I
--------I--------1--------I
0~
----·--------·---
1.
L~S
I
I
.. I
I
4.
TOTAL
I
I
6~.9
I
5J.8
I
I
I
9
56.2
22.5
14.d
I
I
I
I
I
.. 66.7
23.G
31
77.5
I
I
I
-I--~-----1--------I
I
----3011iiLE:S.. OR i10R. I
I
I
---------------COL U:-IN
14
31.1
7
43.7
33.3
11.5
I
I
-1--------r--------r
2 1 ----- - - - 4 (;
3 ...
~
Chi square obtained = 0.37
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
.
65.6
R)~
TOT~L
~5
73.6
15
2:,.2.
51·- -·-
1JO.O
69
TABLE ::iQCIX
DISTANCE TRAVELED VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF
INTESTINAL PROBLE!--lS
VA~,122
COUNT T
---------------- R.OW PCT IYES
-~0 ·-· ---··---RJif -COL PCT I
TOTAL
TOT P:T ~
l.I
2.f
WARD35
--------!~-------1--------!
- -1.
I
6
I
39
I
t.t5
3JO HIL~S 0~ L~S I 13.3 I
85.7 I 73.8
I 6~.G I
76.5 I
___ ··---·
----~~-~---
- 4.-·· . II
--·-~
9.8
~I~----~--
301 HILES OR HOR I
I
4
25.~
4D.C
--·---------------------------·-····-I .. 5. 6
COLU~N
TOTAL
I
63e9 I
I-------I
I
12 I
I
I
I
75.~
23.5
19.7
I
I
I.
-I~-------1--------I
1G
16.4
51
83~6
Chi square obtained = 0.48
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
---------------------------
16
2~.2
51
13C.J
70
Chi Square obtained was 0.00.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance,. with one
degree of freedom (Table XXX).
Social Problems with Strangers.
Distances traveled
• were not significantly related to the occurrence of social
problems with strangers.
There were social problems with
strangers among 44.4 percent of the students who hitchhiked 300 miles or less, and 75 percent of the students
who hitchhiked 301 miles or more.
Chi Square obtained was 3.28.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .OS level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXXI).
Pedestrian Related Problems with the Police.
Distances traveled were not significantly related to the
occurrence of pedestrian related problems with the police.
There were pedestrian related problems with the police
among 26.7 percent of the students who hitchhiked 300
miles or less, and 50 percent of the students who hitchhiked 301 miles or more.
Chi Square obtained was 1.95.
i
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXXII).
Miscellaneous Problems.
Distances traveled were not
significantly related to the occurrence of miscellaneous
problems.
There were miscellaneous problems among
71
.,
.
TABLE XXX
DISTAl~CE TRI~VELED
VERSUS OCCUPJrnNCE OF
HEALTH PROBLEr.1S .REI.u-'\TED TO BEING
OUT-OF-DOORS
VAR12it
COUNT I
R.OW PCT !YES
NO
COL PCT I
. TOT PCT I
. _i.I
2.1
VAR035
--------I--------r--------1
1.
I
23 I
22 I
300 MILES OR L~S I
51.1 I
~R.9
I
--I
I
--3l1 HILES
0~
4.
71.9
37.7
I
I
73.3
3S.1
I
I
-r~-------r--------r
I
HOR I
I
I
COLUMN
TOTAL
g
56.2
28.1
14.8
I
I
I
I
7
~J.7_
24.1
11.5
I
I
I
I
·1--------I--------I
32
29
52.5
47.5
~),;
rorAL
~5
73.8
1~
25.2
51_
1J:i.O
Chi square obtained = 0.00
Chi square .OS {d.£. 1) = 3.84
\
I
L-------~----------------------------------~~-------
_j
72
TABLE XXXI
DISTANCE TRAVELED VERSUS OCCURP~NCE OF
SOCIAL PROBLEHS WITH STRANGERS
VAR125
ROW PCT I YES
COL PCT I
TOT PCT I
1.1
--------------.COUNT
~~ -- VA
R0 3 5
I
2.!
--- - .. -- -- - --- I --- -- --- I - - - - - -- - I . --
30J MILES OR
1.
L~S
I
I
I
2~
~4.4
62.5
I
I
I
25
5S.S
86.2
I
I
I
---------------------------I - 3 2. 8 I
4 1. ;:
I
-I~~~-----I--------I
4. I
12 I
4 I
301 HILES 0~ ~OR I
75.1
I
25.L
I
--- ----- ..... --- _______ - _ ---- .. _ l ....3 7. 5 I
13. B I
COLU~N
- -.----- ---------- T 0 TAL
I
19.7 I
6.b I
-1------~-r--------r
32
29
--
52• 5
RJI'#
TOTA;,.
~5
73.8
. . - --
io
2~.2
S1
- . 4 7 • 5 - . -- 1 J U• u .
Chi square obtained = 3.28
Chi square .OS (d.f. 1) = 3.84
I
~------------~-------------------------J
73
---·-·-·-···----·----------·--------,
TABLE XJOCII
DISTANCE TRAVELED VERSUS OCCURENCE OF
PEDESTRIAN RELATED :?R03LE.MS tVITH THE POLICE
COUNT
ROW PCT
COL r:T
TOT PCT
VAR1.26
I
IYES
I
I
NO
~JW
l.I
2.I
TOTAL
--~-~---I--------I--------I
1.
I
1~
I
33 I
45
30C MILES OR L~S I 2S,7 I 73.0 I 73.8
I
6 t~~ • \;
I
8 t: • S I ·
I
1 9 .• 7 1
54. 1
I
V ARO 35
3J1 MILES
0~
4.
MO~
·1--------i--------I
!
8
I
8
I
I
I
sn.~
~~.o
I- 13.1
COLU~N
r
.!
Su.~
1g,s
.13.1
I
I
15
2~.2
I
-r----~---r--------r
TOTAL
2G
32.8
Chi square obtained= 1.95
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
I
I
i
I
I
1-----------------
'+1
67.2
1J
~1
j •
J
74
' 20 percent of the students who hitchhiked 300 miles or
less, and 31.2 percent of the students who hitchhiked
301 miles or more.
Chi Square obtained was 0.33.
Chi Square table
value is 3.84 at the .05 level of significance, with
one degree of freedom (Table XXXIII).
Summary
The findings presented in this chapter were derived
from 262 questionnaires administered to California State
University students on the Northridge campus.
From
among these students, sixty-four were found to be hitch·hikers.
The distributions of selected demographic variables
were significant in determining hitchhiking practices
among the sample population of students.
The first null
hypothesis: . "There is no relationship between selected
demographic characteristics of college students who hitchhike and college students who do not hitchhike" (p. 4),
was rejected at the .05 level of significance.
The distributions of selected variables (frequency
of hitchhiking, sex, and distances traveled during one
year of hitchhiking) were found not to be statistically
significant, when comparing them to the occurrence of
health and social problems among nine problem areas.
One must conclude that there was insufficient evidence
75
TABI..E XXXIII
DISTANCE THAVELED VERSUS OCCURRENCE OF
MISCELLA1lliOUS PROBLE}ffi
VAR12T
COUNT
I
ROH PCT !YES
TOT PCT I
---·----------------- COL PCT I
VAR035
- -
~)~
NO
------ TJfAL-
1.1
2.1
-~------1--------r--------r
1.
I
----30!) MILES 0~ L::S I
I
9
2!1.~
I
64.3
14.8
3J1 MILES OR MOR I
I
I
31.2
35.7
8.2
4.
COLUMN
TOTAL
I
I
I
36
BC.u
I
76,6
59.C
I
I
63.8
I
I
-1--------r--------r
I
-. 5. I
.. 1~- I.
I
23.~
lB.w
I
I
I
·I---------1-------I~14
47
23.0
77.~,
Chi square ohtained = 0.33
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
I
l
I
I
1------------------·-----------------
~5
73.3
1o
2~.2
?>1
1J J • J
76
to reject the second null hypothesis:
"There is no
relationship between selected variables:
of
hitchhiking~
a) frequency
b) sex of the hitchhiker: c) distances
traveled by the hitchhiker (in an average year of hitchhiking), and the occurrence of health and social problems
among hitchhikers" (p. 4).
•·• 0 •-
··"'-'''
•'-~
•
-•-'<,0<-~·-•,
.. •
•
•
••.
' . _ , _ . _ __
-~-----•••••
--~->~• .-.-oo • • - • -~•
----~--------··- - - - - - · ·
-~
• ._
~----~----
-~-- • • • - - - - - -
---·-~--~-~-"----~~-L·-----'
---------
~--
'''"''•'• •• ,..,,.-,., ••
'
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter contains the summary of this report,
conclusions and recommendations derived from the major
findings of this study.
This study concerned the occur-
• renee of -hitchhiking and health related probl.ems hitchhikers might encounter.
Summary
The Purpose of this Study.
The purpose of this
study was to determine the occurrence of hitchhiking
among a selected college population.
The study was
also focused upon identifying various health and social
problems hitchhikers might encounter.
Null Hypotheses
1)
There is no relationship between selected
demographic characteristics of college students
who hitchhike and college students who do not
hitchhike.
2)
There is no,relationship between selected
variables:
a)
frequency of hitchhiking:
b)
sex of the hitchhiker:
77
78
c)
distances traveled by the hitchhiker
(in an average year of hitchhiking),
and the occurrence of health and social
problems among hitchhikers.
The Study Population. The study population was drawn
from male and female students enrolled at California State
: University, Northridge.
The population consisted of 262
students.
Method.
A questionnaire survey was the instrument
, used to collect data for this study.
Method of Procedure in Testing Null Hypotheses
1)
The Chi Square Test For Independence was
employed to determine the relationships, if
any, between selected demographic characteristics
of college students and the occurrence of hitchhiking.
2)
The Chi Square Test For Independence was
employed to determine the relationships, if
any, between selected variables; frequency
of hitchhiking, sex, and distances traveled
by the hitchhiker and the occurrence of health
and social problems among hitchhikers.
Major Findings from the Questionnaire Survey.
Statistically significant relationships were found when
79
the occurrence of hitchhiking and the following demographic
variables were compared:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Age
Sex
Race
Living Arrangements
Parents 1 Income
Source of Income
Hitchhiking Male Friends
Hitchhiking Female Friends
Main Source of Transportation
Main Source of Information about Hitchhiking
There were no statistically significant relationships
between the occurrence of health and social problems and
the follo\11ing variables:
1)
2)
3)
Frequency of Hitchhiking
Sex
Distances Traveled by Hitchhikers
Conclusions
The conclusions contained in this section were
derived from the finding of the data gathered from a
specific study population.
These findings must be
limited t_o the study population at California State
Universit~,
1)
Northridge.
The conclusions are:
Analysis of the data revealed that same demo-
graphic characteristics were significant in determining
hitchhiking practices among college students in the
study population hence the first null hypothesis was
rejected.
-
2)
Analysis of data revealed no statistically
80
significant relationships between: frequency of hitchhiking,. sex, and distance traveled: and the occurrence
of health and social problemse
There was not sufficient
evidence to reject the second null hypothesis.
Reco~mendations
for Further Research
The following recommendations are based on the major
findings and conclusions derived in connection with this
study:
1)
Further research should be done in determining
whether the occurrence of hitchhiking and its documented
dangers are widespread enough, in other study populations
to warrant a unit of study in the health education classroom setting.
2)
Further research is needed in the study of
adequacies of public transportation systems and their
influence on health problems associated with different
modes of travel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Anderson, Nels.
"A New Race of Hoboes Takes the
Road," New York Times, April 11, 1926, sec. III.
2.
Blacksrom, c. H. Survey Research, Published by
Northwestern University Press, 1972.
3.
"California Driver's Handbook," Revised 1971.
4.
Cavanaugh, Jack.
"A New Twist to Hitchhiking,"
Chicago Tribune, February 2, 1932.
s.
11
Data:
Crimes Involving Hitchhikers,
Police Department, 1970.
11
Los Angeles
6.
Diehl, H. s. Textbook of Healthful Living, Published by McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
7.
Dunn, o. J. Basic Statistics, Published by John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1966.
8.
Fodor, J. T. & Dalis, G. T. Health Instruction
Theory and Application, Published by Leo & Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1966.
9.
Gensiracusa, Jeannine.
"How Safe Is Hitchhiking?"
The California Highway Patrolman, June 1972,
Vol. 36, No. 4.
10.
Golding, David. The Camp Physicians Manual, Published by Charles c. Thomas, Florida, 1967.
1.1.
Grimm, Tom.
"The Thumb As A Travel Agent," New
York Times, December 13, 1970, sec. X.
---
12.
Hayman, John. Research in Education, Published by
Charles E. Mewwill, Ohio, 1968.
13.
Issac, Stephen & Michael, w. Handbook of Social
Research, Published by Robert R. Knapp~ California,
1972.
14.
Kean, B. H. The Traveler's Medical Guide for
Physicians, Published by c. Thomas, Florida,
1966.
81
82
15.
Kilander, H. F. School Health Education, Published
by Macmillan Co., New York, 1968.
16.
Kogan, Benjamin. Health---Man in a Changing Environment, Published by Harcourt, Brace, &
World, Inc., New York, 1970.
17.
Los Angeles Times.
Dead," 1972.
18.
Los Angeles Times.
"A Hitch in Tragedy," Section 11,
January 19, 1972.
19.
Merck Manual. Published by Jerck Sharp & Dohme
Research Laboratories, 1966.
20.
Newsweek. "A New Rule of Thumb," Vol. LXXIII,
No. 24, June 16, 1969.
21.
New York Times.
"Two Jersey State Troopers Resign,"
Sec. 26, March 11, 1971.
22.
New York Times. 11 Girl Dies When Car Strikes
Hitchhikers," Sec. 35, July 10, 1971.
23.
New York Times. "Oceanside Girl, 15, Raped While
Hitchhiking at Night, 11 Sec. 1, 1971.
24.
New York Times.
1970.
25.
11
New York Times.
Emily Post Gives the Nod to Hitchhiking and Frames Rules for 'Defense Debutantes,'"
December 23, 1942.
26.
New York Times.
"Hitchhikers Thumb the Wrong
Driver, 11 August 5, 1939.
27.
New York Times.
1938.
28.
New York Times. 11 Two Woman Hitchhikers Held for
Murder," August 26, 1938.
29.
New York Times.
1937.
30.
New York Times. · "Hitchhiker Now Robbed,
1937.
31.
New York Times.
July, 1936.
11
"Boston Coed, 8th Victim Found
Soldier Set on Fire," February 16,
"Man Shot by Hitchhiker,_" March 24,
"Hitchhikers Kill for $10," May 22,
11
July 18,
"Motorists Rob Hitchhikers, ..
83
32.
New York Times.
13, 1936.
33.
New York Times. "Hitchhiker Called a Growing
Menace, 11 Sec. II, August 25, 1935 ..
34.
New York Times;. "Laws Now Curb Hitchhikers, ..
September 1, 1935.
35.
New York Times.
"Hitchhikers Fined for Soliciting
Rides, 11 Sec. X, September 8, 1935.
36.
New York Times.
22, 1932.
37.
New York Times.
"Descendents of Vigilantes Make
War on Hitchhikers," Sec. III,. March 16, 1930.
38.
Ne~J
39.
New York Times. "Hitchhikers Taboo in Jersey,"
September 23, 1928.
40.
New York Times.
"An Unkind Return," Section III,
November 20, 1927.
41.
New York Times. 11 Hoboes Educate Their Auto Hikers,
November 13, 1926.
42.
New York Times.
"Advised Walking for Motor-Ride
Beggars, 11 Sec. IX, June 21, 1925.
43.
Oppenheim, A. N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude
Measurement, Published.by Basic Books Inc., New
York, 1966.
44.
Oswald, Robert M.
"A Psychologist's Look at the
Hitchhiking Fad, n Ne~J York Times, Sec.· XI, December
13, 1970.
45.
Reinhold, Robert.
"Hitchhiking Curb Aimed at
Drivers," New York Times, June 20, 1971.
46.
Roberts, Steven.
"Youths Seeking Freedom on the
Road, 11 New.York Times, July 15, 1971.
47.
Rule, Colter. A Traveler's Guide to Good Health,
Published by Doubleday & Co., New York, 1960.
48.
Seidenbaum, Art.
uA Hitch in Tragedy," Los Angeles
Times,
January
19,
1972.
-·
___ ··-
:,
"Honor Hitchhike Martyr," December
"Warns on Hitchhikers," February
York Times.
"Letters to the Editor--Against
Giving Lifts," August 13, 1929.
·-·--·-·--·-·~·~~--
.
11
84
49.
Selltiz, Claire; Jahoda, Marie; & Cook, Stuart.
Research .Hethods in Social Relations, Published
by Holt, Reinhardt, & Winston, New York, 1967.
SO.
Shea, Terrance. "Easy Riders,
April 10, 1973.
51.
Silha, Stephen. "Persistent Hitchhikers Bloom
Along with Spring Weather," Christian Science
Monitor, Western Edition, Vol. 122, No. 5,
November 1971.
52.
Speck, w. "Gonorrhea Increase," American Journal
of Diseases of Children, Vol. 122, No. 5, November
1971.
53.
Turabian, Kate. ~ Manual for Writers of Term PaQers,
Theses, and Dissertations, Published by University
Press, Chicago, 1967.
54.
Tuttle, W. Textbook of Physiology, Published by
Mosby Company, St. Louis, 1965.
55.
Washington Post.
Sec. L, 1972.
56.
Webster's New 20th Century, Unabridged Dictionary.
Published by New World Press, Cleveland, 1964.
57.
Young, Robert. How to Stay Healthy lv.hile Traveling,
Published by Robert Young, 1972 •
................
_
11
National Observer,
"Traveling by Thumb Express,
11
..................-.~-----··---~----~-·--· .... ------- ··--------- .. --~----------------------..-- ................... ---·~··· ···- ....... --- .... ..
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
85
86
SURVEY OF HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
Your class has been selected to take part in a
study of hitchhiking practices of college students.
The
purpose of this study is to obtain information on the
incidence of hitchhiking and the related health problems
that students may encounter while traveling.
You are taking this survey on a voluntary basis.
In order for the information you supply to be utilized,
please follow the instructions below:
1.
Do not put your name or any other identifying
mark on the questionnaire. This is not a test
and it is not going to be graded. All information
given will be confidential and anonymous.
2.
Read all directions and questions carefully.
Answer questions honestly to the best of your
ability and recollections.
3.
Mark only the questions that apply to you.
4.
Please note that some questions may require
more than one response. They are indicated in
your directions. Unless specifically asked to
do differently, circle only one letter per question.
5.
~llien it is necessary to explain something,
answer only when there is space provided and the
question asks for an explanation.
6.
When the questionnaire is completed, please
follow the administrator's directions as to how
it should be returned.
Thank you for your cooperation.
87
Part I--PERSONAL
CIRCLE THE ONE LETTER WHICH BEST DESCRIBES YOU
1.
Your age:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
2.
Your sex:
A.
B.
3.
c.
D.
E.
c.
D.
E.
Black
Oriental
White
Brown
Other
With whom do you currently reside?
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
6.
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish
Other
None
Your racial background:
A.
B.
5.
Male
Female
Your religious preference:
A.
B.
. 4.
Less than 17
17-18
19-20
21-25
Older than 25
Live alone
Spause
Fiancee
Roo~~ate of the same sex
Roommate of the opposite sex
Relatives other than parents
Roommates of both sexes
Parents
Occupational status:
A.
B.
C~
Employed part-time
Employed full-time
Unemployed
I
88
7.
Parents' combined yearly income:
A.
B.
c.
8.
Your one main source of financial support:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
9.
Full-time
Part-time
Student classification:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
11.
Self-supporting
Parents
Spouse or fiancee
Friends
Welfare
Scholarship or loans
GI Bill
other (specify)
Current unit load '(full-time is 12 or more units):
A.
B.
10~
$5,000 or less
$6,000-$15,000
$16,000 or more
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Graduate
Marital status:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.-
Single
Married
Separ?-ted
Divorced
Wido~ted
89
Part II--INCIDENCE OF HITCHHIKING AND RELATED
PRACTICES OF HITCHHIKERS
CIRCLE ONLY ONE LETTER, UNLESS ASKED TO CIRCLE MORE
THAN ONE
12.
Frequency of hitchhiking (in
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
13-19.
:Fa·tl1er
B.
Mother
Older brother
Younger brother
Younger sister
Older sister
No other members
Male friends who currently hitchhike:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
None of my friends hitchhike
Less than 25%
Between 25% and 50%
About 50%
The majority of my friends hitchhike
All my friends hitchhike
Female friends who currently hitchhike:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
i
Never hitchhiked, or only a few times
Occasionally (one to four times a month)
Frequently (two to four times a week)
Daily (five or more times a week)
I used to hitchhike but no longer do
A.
c.
21.
only):
Family members who currently hitchhike
(Circle all letters that apply to you}:
D.
E.
F.
G.
20.
u.s.
None of my friends hitchhike
Less than 25%
Between 25% and 50%
About 50%
The majority of my friends hitchhike
All my friends hitchhike
i
22.
Your own main means of transportation:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
Your own car
Family car
Friend's car
Motorcycle/scooter
Hitchhiking rides with strangers
Bicycle
90
G.
H.
23.
Bus
Walking
Your one main source of information about the
practice of hitchhiking--the disadvantages
versus its advantages:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
Friends
Parents
TV, radio, newspapers, and magazines
Own experience
School classroom
Other (specify)
: IF YOU HAVE NEVER HITCHHIKED IN THE U.S. OR HITCHHIKED ONLY
, A FEW TIMES, PLEASE ANSWER QUESTION 24. THEN TURN 'rO
PAGE 9 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND FOLLOW THOSE DIRECTIONS.
IF YOU HAVE HITCHHIKED IN THE U.S. CURRENTLY OR IN THE
PAST, PLEASE OMIT QUESTION 24 AND CONTINUE ANSWERING
WITH QUESTION 25.
24.
The one main reason you do not hitchhike or
have hitchhiked only a few times is:
A.
B.
c.
D.
25.
Your one main reason for hitchhiking is/was:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
26.
Your parents do not approve
You think hitchhiking is too dangerous
You always have transportation
Other (specify}
Lack of money for bus fare
No convenient bus lines in your neighborhood
You don't like to depend on friends or
relatives for transportation
You find hitchhiking a cheap and exciting
way to travel
Other (specify)
Time of year you do/did the most hitchhiking:
A.
B.
c.
D.
Summer
Winter
Spring
Fall
91
27.
Most frequent destination when hitchhiking:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
28.
Time of day most of your hitchhiking is/was
done:
A.
B.
c.
D.
29.
c.
D.
c.
D.
(morning to
p.m.
(afternoon to
a.m.
{evening to
a.m.
(midnight to
Less than 12 years old
12-15 years old
16-20 years old
21 years or older
Less than one mile
One to five miles
Six to twenty miles
More than twenty miles
Number of rides needed to get to your
destination:
A.
B.
c.
32.
p.m.
Distances traveled on an average hitchhiking
trip (other than cross-country trips}:
A.
B.
31.
Between 6 a.m. and 12
afternoon)
Between 12 p.m. and 6
evening)
Between 6 p.m. and 12
midnight)
Between 12 a.m. and 6
morning)
Age at which you started hitchhiking:
A.
B.
30.
School
Work
Friend's home
Leisure places (beach, camping trip,
movies, etc.)
Other (specify)
One ride
Two rides
Three or more rides
People with whom you usually hitchhike:
A.
B.
c.
D.
Alone
Member of same sex
Member of opposite sex
Members of both sexes together
92
33:
Your physical appearance and dress while
hitchhiking:
A.
B.
c.
34.
Weapons usually carried when hitchhiking:
A.
B.
c.
D.
35.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Less than 20 miles
20-100 miles
101-300 miles
301-500 miles
501-1,000 miles
1,001-3,000 miles
More than 3,000 miles
Have you ever hitchhiked cross-country?
A.
B.
c.
37.
A knife
A gun
Never carry a weapon
Other (specify}
Total approximate distance hitchhiked during
the year 1972 (or one average year of hitchhiking for those who no longer hitchhike):
A.
B.
36.
Neat in appearance, clean-cut, conservative
Older clothes, casual dress, "hippy-like"
Neither too conservative or too "hipply-like"
Never
Once
More than once
Percentage of rides you refuse when a
motorist stops:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
Accept
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
all rides
1-4 percent
5-10 percent
15 percent
more than 15 percent
. ALL RESPONDENTS SHOULD CIRCLE THE ONE LETTER Vv"'HICH BEST
DESCRIBES YOUR EXPERIENCES: RIDES YOU USUALLY ACCEPT.
38.
The age of the driver appeared to be:
A.
B.
c.
D.
Older than you
Younger than you
Your o\vn age
Accepted rides with drivers of all ages
93
39.
The sex of the driver:
A.
B.
c.
40.
The racial background of the driver appeared
to be:
A.
B.
c.
41.
c.
D.
c.
D.
Only the driver
The driver and one other person
The driver and two or more other people
I accepted rides no matter how many
passengers
The age of the car:
A.
B.
c.
D.
44.
Neat in appearance, clean-cut, conservative
Older clothes, casual looking, "hippy-like 11
Neither too conservative or too. 11 hippy-like 11
I accepted rides with drivers no matter how
they looked
The number of people in the car:
A.
B.
43.
Same as your own
Of a different race
Accepted rides with people of all races
Physical appearance of the driver:
A.
B.
42.
Same as yours
Opposite sex
I accepted rides with drivers of either sex
One or two years old
Three to five years old
More than five years old
I accepted rides regardle·ss ·of the car's age
The type of car:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
Sports car (MG, Corvet, etc.)
A van
A more expensive car (Cadillac, Lincoln,
etc.)
A moderately priced car (Chevrolet, Ford,
etc.)
An inexpensive car (VW, Pinto, etc.)
I accepted rides regardless of the type
of car
IF YOU HAVE NEVER HITCHHIKED IN THE U.S. OR HITCHHIKED ONLY
A FEW TIMES, PLEASE CIRCLE ALL OF THE LETTERS ~YHICH LIST
HEALTH PROBLEMS YOU EXPERIENCED DURING THE YEAR 1972.
94
IF YOU HITCHHIKE CURRE}~LY OR HAVE IN THE PAST, FROM THE
LIST BELOW, CIRCLE ALL OF THE HEALTH PROBLEMS WHICH YOU
EXPERIENCED WHILE HITCHHIKING IN THE CITY OR ON A HITCHHIKING TRIP CROSS-COUNTRY DURlNG THE YEAR 1972 (OR AN
AVERAGE YEAR OF HITCHHIKING FOR THOSE WHO NO LONGER
:HITCHHIKE). CIRCLE ONLY THOSE PROBLEMS ~lliOSE CAUSE WAS
DIRECTLY RELATED TO THE HITCHHIKING TRIP. CIRCLE, ALSO
THOSE PROBLEMS WHICH WERE PRE-EXISTING, BUT AGGRAVATED
BY USING HITCHHIKING AS A MODE OF TRANSPORTATION. FOR
. EXAMPLE, YOUR ACHE MAY HAVE BECOME WORSE BECAUSE YOU
WERE NOT ABLE TO WASH PROPERLY WHILE HITCHHIKING CROSSCOUNTRY.
45-50.
Respirato~y
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
, 51-56.
c.
D.
E.
F.
Blisters
Athlete's foot
Ache in feet and sore leg muscles
Painful corns or calluses
Stepped on something hard and bruised foot
Other (specify)
Communicable diseases:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
! 63-66.
Caught a cold (sore throat, runny nose,
fever)
Developed pneumonia
Had a hay fever attack
Had an asthma attack
Developed bronchitis
Other (specify)
Foot problems:
A.
B.
57-62.
infections and allergies:
Infectious Hepatitis
Syphillis
Gonorrhea
Staph infection
Lice infestation
Other (specify)
Stomach and intestinal problems:
A.
B.
c.
D.
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Stomach-ache or intestinal cramps
other (specify)
95
67-71.
Teeth and gum problems:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
72-84.
Health problems related to being out-of-doors:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
85-98.
Developed a toothache
Trench mouth (gums bleed easily, breath
is bad)
Chipped a tooth
Blisters in mouth
Other (specify)
Cuts, sprains, strains, and bruises
Splinters
Broken bones
Sunburn
Sunstroke
Exposure to severe cold or rain
Insect bites (mosquito, spider, ticks,
flies)
Insect stings (bees, scorpion, wasps, etc.)
Poisonous snakebite (rattlesnake, copperhead)
Allergic reaction to a wild plant {poison
oak, etc.)
Bite by a wild mammal (skunk, bat, fox,
etc.)
Bite by a domestic mammal (dog, cat, etc.)
Other (specify)
Social problems with strangers:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
An unsuccessful robbery attempt
You were actually robbed of money or
possessions
Physical violence was inflicted upon you
A stranger made verbal sexual advances but
did not actually touch you
There was a physical sexual advance
(grabbing, fondling, etc.)
You were raped
You were the victim of physical homosexual
advances {grabbing or fondling)
You were kidnaped and taken in the opposite
· direction of your destination
The car in which you were a passenger was
involved in an auto accident
The driver of the car in which you rode
appeared to be under the influence of
drugs or alcohol
The driver of a car or truck almost ran
you off the road
96
L.
M.
N.
99-104.
Pedestrian related problems with the police:
A.
B.
c.
D.
E.
F.
105-118.
was arrested for hitchhiking illegally
was arrested for carrying illegal drugs
received a ticket or citation
was stopped by the police but only had
my ID checked
Other (specify)
Never had any problems with the police
A.
Experienced a bad drug reaction, "badtrip" (describe the drug and your
experience):
B.
I was stranded without food and was hungry
I was stranded without water and was thirsty
I was not able to ~vash or bathe as often
as when· I am home
I was not able to brush my teeth as often
as when I am home
The food I ate while on a hitchhiking trip
was not as good for me nutritionally as
that which I eat at home
Went to a Doctor or Dentist (specify
reason)
You had an unplanned pregnancy
You had an abortion
You had a miscarriage
You had a difficult or painful menstrual
cycle
You had other health problems (specify)
c.
E.
F.
G.
.I
I
I
I
I
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS (THE NON-HITCHHIKERS
SHOULD CIRCLE THE PROBLEHS THEY ENCOUNTERED
AT HOME IN 1972) PEOPLE vmO HAVE HITCHHIKED
IN THE U.S. SHOULD CIRCLE THE PROBLEMS THAT
THEY ENCOUNTERED ~·miLE ON A HITCHHIKING TRIP.
D.
I
I
You were actually hit by a car or truck
You never had any problems or unpleasant
. incidents
other (specify)
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
Went to the YMCA, Free Clinic, Police or
some other agency for assistance (specify
agency and type of assistance)
97
N.
None of the above
Part IV--FEEL FREE TO WRITE ON THE BACK
OF THIS PAGE COMMENTS REGARDING
HITCHHIKING OR HEALTH
98
APPENDIX B
OCCURRENCE OF SPECIFIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY HITCHHIKERS
99
PROBLEM
A.
(1.6)
(3.1)
8
3
(12.5)
(1.6)
(1. 6)
Blisters
Athlete's Foot
Sore Leg l1uscles
Corns or Calluses
Bruised Foot
other
12
(4. 7)
(19. 7)
1
(1.6)
4
4
(6.3)
(6. 3)
Gonorrhea
Staph Infection
Lice infestation
1
2
(1.6)
1
(1. 6)
2
9
2
(14.1)
(3.1
Diarrhea
Stomach Cramps
Other
(3.1)
(3 .1)
Teeth and Gum Problems
1)
2)
3)
F.
(32.8)
Intestinal Problems
1)
2}
3)
E.
21
'1
2
1
1
Communicable Diseases
1)
2)
3)
D.
Common Cold
Hay Fever
Asthma Attack
Bronchitis
Other
Foot Problems
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
c.
(%)
Respiratory Problems
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
B.
TOTAL
Toothache
Chipped a Tooth
Mouth Blisters
2
(3.1)
1
1
(1. 6)
(1.6}
Problems Related to Being Out-of-Doors
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Cuts or Sprains
Splinters
Broken Bones
Sunburn
Sunstroke
14
10
1
21
2
'(21. 9)
(15.6)
(1.6)
(32.8)
(3.1)
100
PROBLEM
·F.
8)
9)
10)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
6
(9.4)
13
(20.3)
3
2
2
(4. 7)
(3.1)
(3.1)
Unsuccessful Robbery Attempt 2
Physical Harm was Inflicted
2
Verbal Sexual Advances
16
Physical Sexual Advances
6
Rape
3
Homosexual Advances
3
Kidnaping
2
Auto Accident
4
Driver Took Drugs or Alcohol 19
Almost Hit by a car
5
other
4
(3.1)
(3.1)
(25.0)
(9.4)
(3.1)
(4. 7).
(3.1)
(6. 3)
(29.7)
(7.8)
(6.3)
Pedestrian Related Problems with Police
1)
2)
3)
4)
5}
I.
Exposure to Bad Weather
Insect Bites
Insect Stings
Allergic Reaction
Domestic Animal Bite .
Spcial Problem with Strangers
1)
H.
(%)
Problems Related to Being Out-of-Doors (cont'd.)
6)
7)
G.
TOTAL
Arrested for Hitchhiking
Arrested for· Illegal Drugs
Received a Ticket
Had Identification Checked
other
2
1
8
(3.1)
15
(1.6)
(12.5)
(23.5)
2
(3.1)
1
4
7
(1.6)
Miscellaneous Problems
1}
2)
3)
4)
5)
Bad Drug Reaction
Inadequate Water Supply
Not Able to Wash
Inadequate Diet
Painful Menstrual cycle
8
1
(6. 3}
(10. 9)
(12.5)
(1.6)
101
APPENDIX C
EMPLOYMENT STATUS VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
102
EMPLOY11ENT STATUS VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VAR006
COUNT I
_______ ....... _________ ROW PCT !EMPLOYED EMPLOYED UNEMPLOY
COL PCT I PART-TI FULL-TI EO
VAR012
?OW
TOTAL
TOT PCT I
t.I
2.1
3.!
--------1--------I--------I--------I
1. I
NEVER HITCHHIKED I
I
I
113
5?.1
76.4
43.1
I
I
I
I
23
11.6
79.3
8,8
I
I
I
I
62
31.3
72.9
23.7
I
I
I
I
--~----------·---------··----------~---~-----·-----~I-------I-------- I-------- I
6. I
35 I
6 I
23 I
HITCHHIKERS
I 54.7 I
9,4 I 35.9 I
I
23.6
13.4
I
I
2~.7
I
I
27.1
3.8
148
56.5
29
11.1
85
32.4
I
I
64
24.4
I
I
_______________________________ !
2..3
-1--------r~-------r--------r
COLUMN
TOTAL
198
75.6
262
101.0
I
I
I
I
I
i
Chi square obtained = 0.59
Chi square .05 {d.f. 2) = 5.99
.______________________________________________________- - - - ·.
.
103
APPENDIX D
UNIT LOAD VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
10<:
UNIT LOAD VERSUS HITCHHIKilfu PPACTICES
COUNT
ROW PCT
····---- - -·-··--- COL PCT
TOT PCT
VAR012
1.
NEVER HITCHHIKED
VARQ!}q
I
ROW
IFULL-TIM PART-TIM
TOTAL
IE STUOEN E STUOEN
I
1.1
2.!
198
I
163 I
35 I
I 32.3 I 17.7 I 75.6
I 74.8 I
79.5
I
I 62.2 I
13.4 I
~I-------·I--------1
6.
I
55 I
9 I
I R5.9 I 14.1 I
HITCHHIKERS
I 25.2 I 2S.5 I
I 21.D I
3.4 I
-1--------I--------I
218.
44
262
COLUMN
83.2
16.8
10C.O
TOTAL
--------I--------I--------1
Chi square obtained = 0.23
Chi square .05 (d.f. 1) = 3.84
l
105
APPENDIX E
STUDENT CLASSIFICATION VERSUS
HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
106
.-----------------------------------·------------------------~
STUDENT CLASSIFIC~TION VERSUS
HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
COUNT
ROW PCT
I
VAR01C
IFRESK~AN
.... COL PC.l I
TOT PCT I
VAR012
NEVER
1.I
2.I
~.I
3.I
ROW
GRADUATE
SENIOR
SOPHHORE JUNIOR
TOTAL
j,I
--------r--------r--------r--------r--------r--------r
1.
I
12'} I
29
I
34
I
13
I
2 I
HITCHH!~ED
HITCHHIKE~S
&.
.
------------------- ·COLUK'l
TOTAL
I
I
~C.6
I
I
!4.&
7c.7
I
7~.g
~:;.8
I
50.0
21.1
I
I
1d.7
I
12.2
I
~.6
I
11.1
I
I
I
17,2
77.3
13.c
I
I
I
6.b
65.u
S.J
I
I
I
1.~
~J,J
l.d
1
I
198
75 .&
I
-1--------r--------r--------r--------r--------r
1
32 I
12
I
lC
l
?
I
J
I
1
29.3
I
15.6
I
J,:l
I
22.7
I
35.C
1~.9
1
I
6J,j
I
2.7
I
1.1
I
4.7
I
I
I
-1·-------I-···----I--------I-----·--I--·-----I
152
41
7
56.~
15.6
4~
1&.8
Chi square obtained = 6.17
Chi square .OS (d.f. 4) = 9.49
2~
7,6
1.3
262
10 t
.~
107
APPENDIX F
MARITAL STATUS VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
108
MARITAL STATUS VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VA ;o 11
COUNT
ROW PCT
COL PCT
TOT PCT
I
ROll
!SINGLE
MARRIED DIVORCED
I
OR WIDO TOTAL
I
1.1
2.I
4.I
~-------1--------r--------r--~-----r
YAR012
1CJ8
1.
I
177
I
17
I
· 4
I
NEVER HITCHHIKED I ~CJ.4 I
8.6 I
2.C I 75.6
I 78.: I 58.6 I 66.7 I
6.5 I
1.5 I
I--------I-------I
I
12 I
2 I
I
67.6 I
-------------- ·-------------------------- ---------.;I--------
HITCHHIKERS
6.
---------
COLUMN
TOTAL
I
I
I
I
5n
78.1
22.G
1CJ.1
I
I
I
18.7
41.4
4.6
I
I
I
3.1
33.3
!}.8
I
I
I
-1--------r--------r--------r
227
2CJ
6
86.6
Chi square obtained = 5.48
Chi square .05 (d.£. 2) = 5.99
11.1
2.3
&4
24.4
262
1JO.J
109
APPENDIX G.
RELIGION VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
110
RELIGION VERSUS HITCHHIKING PRACTICES
VA'IQC J
•
COU'iT I
~g~ ~2I i~jOTESTA CATHOLIC ~E~ISH
VAR~l2
OTH£~
HONE
!~!-~~!-f------=:f------~:f ______ :;f------~:f------~:f
1.
I
NEVER HITCHHIK~O !
I
I
HITC HHIKERS
'+C
2u.2
~~.g
1::>.3
I
I
51
25,i
I
I
<t5
22,7
I
I
17 ~
I
I
71.5
1Y.5
I
I
71,4
!7.2
I
I
o5:2
5,7
I
28.1
II
I
I
'+7
23 7
11:?
;.7."!
I
29 7
I
I
I
I
ROW
TOTAL.
!.98
75.6
6• -1--------r--------r--------r--------r--------r
I
5
I
1 <t
I
18
I
II
I
19 I
I
I
1
7.d
11.1
1.9
I
I
I
2io9
2!.5
~.3
I
I
2~.o
o.~
I
I
I
12.5
J~.a
I
I
3.1
za: 11
7.3
I
I
I
COLUMN -I----~S--I----bS--I----6]·-I----zj·-I----6~·-I
TOTAL
11.2
2'•·8
zto.J
8.8
zs.:?
Chi square obtained = 7.22
Chi square .os (d.f. 4) = 9.49
,.
262
!Or. • .: