Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides
of Stromboli Volcano (Aeolian Islands, Italy)
A. Di Roberto, M. Rosi, A. Bertagnini, M.P. Marani, and F. Gamberi
Abstract On 30 December 2002, a 25–30 × 106 m3 landslide on the NW flank of
Stromboli volcano produced a tsunami that caused relevant damage to the Stromboli
village and to the neighboring islands of the Aeolian archipelago. The NW flank
of Stromboli has been the site of several, cubic kilometer-scale, landslides during
the past 13 ka. In this paper we present sedimentological and compositional data of
deep-sea cores recovered from a site located about 24 km north of the island. Our
preliminary results indicate that: (i) turbidity currents were effectively generated by
the large-scale failures and (ii) volcanogenic turbidity current deposits retain clues
of the landslide source and slope failure dynamics. By analogy with Hawaii and
the Canary islands we confirm that deep-sea sediments can be effectively used to
assess the age and scale of past landslide events giving an important contribution
to the tsunami hazard assessment of this region.
Keywords Landslide • turbidite • tsunami • Stromboli
1
Introduction
Volcanic landslides have recently been identified as one of the most hazardous
geological processes on Earth (Hürlimann and Ledesma 2007). Recent studies
within the geological record and at many active volcanoes have documented that
A. Di Roberto () and A. Bertagnini
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Pisa,
Via della Faggiola, 32 – 56126 Pisa, Italy
e-mail: diroberto@pi.ingv.it
M. Rosi
University of Pisa, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Via S. Maria, 53 – 56126 Pisa, Italy
M.P. Marani and F. Gamberi
Istituto di Scienze Marine – CNR, Sede di Geologia Marina di Bologna,
Via Gobetti 101 – 40129 Bologna, Italy
D.C. Mosher et al. (eds.), Submarine Mass Movements and Their Consequences,
Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research, Vol 28,
© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2010
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volcanic landslides are frequent, with almost one event per 25 years during the last
500 years (Siebert 1992; McGuire 1996; Voight and Elsworth 1997). Debris avalanches, lahars, explosive eruptions and lateral blasts are all phenomena that can be
directly connected to catastrophic flank failures of volcanoes.
Along coastal regions or volcanic islands, the movement of landslide masses has
the additional potential to produce large, sometimes devastating, tsunamis that can
affect areas far from the source (e.g. Moore et al. 1989; Masson et al. 2006; McGuire
2006). Detailed offshore studies of volcanic islands show that deposits resulting from
debris avalanches can comprise volumes of up to 5,000 km3, as observed in the
Hawaii Islands (Moore et al. 1989), or in the Canary archipelago (Ablay and
Hürlimann 2000; Masson et al. 2002; Wynn and Masson 2003; Masson et al. 2006).
It is not necessary for a volcanic landslide to be large to produce hazards, and even
relatively small volume landslides have the capacity to generate high run-up tsunamis
(Masson et al. 2006) depending on their vicinity to the coastline, water depth, angle
of the slide, density of the slide material, the speed with which the landslide moves
and other factors (Murty 2004).
As we have never observed a large volume flank collapse in real time the assessment of past volcano-induced tsunamigenic landslides has proved both difficult and
controversial.
Tsunami deposits are poorly preserved on land and can be difficult to distinguish
from storm events in land and marine records. The poor preservation of tsunami
deposits on land has led the paleoseismology community to turn to the marine
environment, where, according to authors, a complete record of seismogenic tsunamis
may be preserved as turbidite sequences in submarine canyons (e.g. Adams 1990;
Goldfinger et al. 2003).
Distal turbidites have also been employed to investigate volcanic landslides in
Hawaii, the Canary archipelago, La Reunion Island (Garcia 1996; Ollier et al. 1998;
Kanamatsu et al. 2002; Masson et al. 2002; Wynn and Masson 2003; Masson
et al. 2006) and Aeolian Archipelago (Di Roberto et al. 2008).
In this paper we analyze two sea-bottom sediment sections i.e. a gravity core and
a box core collected offshore the volcanic island of Stromboli respectively prior
and after the Dec. 30, 2002 landslide that affected the NW slope of the island. Such
event produced a 25–30 × 106 m3 rock debris with associated tsunami wave that
spread over most of the southern Tyrrhenian Sea. The work also aims at implementing
the documentation of past potentially tsunami producing landslide events originated
from Stromboli volcano during Holocene thus opening new perspectives for the
assessment of the tsunami hazard in the southern Tyrrhenian sea.
2
Geological Background
Stromboli is located in the Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, a few tens of kilometers
offshore from the north coast of Sicily and the Italian peninsula (Fig. 1, inset).
The island, with an elevation of 924 m, represents the subaerial part of a larger
volcanic edifice extending to a maximum water depth of 2,600 m.
Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides of Stromboli Volcano
721
Fig. 1 Shaded relief bathymetry of the Stromboli region with highlighted the main features of
Stromboli sedimentary system; the star marks the sample site; SdF: Sciara del Fuoco. Inset shows
location of Stromboli Island within the south Tyrrhenian sea
Stromboli volcano was built during seven main periods of activity covering a
time span of about 100 ka, i.e.: Paleostromboli I, II, and III (100-35 ka), Scari (35-25 ka),
Vancori (25-13 ka), Neostromboli (13-6 ka), and Recent Stromboli (<6 ka) (HornigKjarsgaard et al. 1993; Gillot and Keller 1993). Transitions between each period
are marked by significant modifications of the edifice structure (caldera collapses
between 100 and 25 ka and flank collapses after 25 ka; Tibaldi 2001) and changes in
magma compositions (Hornig-Kjarsgaard et al. 1993; Francalanci et al. 1993). The
most striking geomorphological and volcanic structure of the island is the Sciara del
Fuoco (SdF) a horseshoe-shaped collapse scar that occupies the NW sector of the
island. SdF structure is considered the result of at least four flank collapses that
occurred in the last 13 ka involving volumes of material ranging from 0.73 ± 0.22 to
2.23 ± 0.87 km3 (Tibaldi 2001). The younger collapse (<5,000 years ago; Kokelaar
and Romagnoli 1995; Tibaldi 2001), with an estimated volume of about 0.7 km3,
resulted in the present-day SdF morphology. SdF structure continues below sea level
(Fig. 1) as a depression bounded by steep walls in continuity with the flanks of the
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sub-aerial SdF (Kokelaar and Romagnoli 1995). Further downslope, the SdF
depression runs to the east of a large volcanoclastic fan extending from 1,000 m to
2,500 m water depth and with an estimated volume of about 4–6 km3 (Fig. 1;
Gamberi et al. 2006).
As deduced by recent physical modeling, the major flank collapses that produced
the SdF had the potential to generate large and destructive tsunamis whose effects
may extend throughout the Aeolian Islands and to the southern Italian coasts
(Tinti et al. 2003). The most recent partial collapse of the SdF took place on 30
December 2002. Two relative small landslides, with a total volume of about 25–30
× 106 m3, detached from the submarine and subaerial part of SdF respectively and
generated tsunami waves up to 10 m high on the Stromboli coasts and up to 2 m
high on the neighboring islands (Tinti et al. 2005). The result was severe damage
to Stromboli village and limited damage on the neighboring islands. The tsunami
also weakly affected Milazzo harbor, located on the northern coast of Sicily, 100 km
south of Stromboli (Maramai et al. 2005).
The December 30, 2002 event and the historical record of the Stromboli volcano
activity in the last century proves that besides major flank collapses, also smallscale tsunami-forming landslides may occur at Stromboli. Their higher frequency
(five since 1906; Maramai et al. 2005) and the significant destructive power of the
resulting tsunami waves, currently makes them among the most relevant natural
hazards threatening the coastal areas of Stromboli volcano.
3
Marine Record of Stromboli Volcano Landslides
Submarine deposits of the December 30, 2002 landslide were recently identified by
seafloor imagery and sampling during the TTR14 cruise aboard the R.V. Professor
Logachev in August, 2004 (Marani et al. 2008a, b). The proximal part consists of
chaotic, coarse-grained deposits bordered and partially covered by sand. The deposits were interpreted as deriving from cohesionless, sandy-matrix, density flows
(Marani et al. 2008b). 24 km north of Stromboli a 2–3 cm-thick sand bed was interpreted as the finer grained turbidite equivalent of the proximal deposits (Marani
et al. 2008b). The identification of the distal landslide deposit was facilitated by
repeat sampling in September, 2002 (VST02-16) and in August, 2004 (TTR14-342),
respectively prior to- and post- the December 30, 2002 collapse. The sample site
(VST02-16 Lat. 39°01.100′ Lon. N 15°09.298′ E WGS 84) is an even, flat area
located on a topographic high at water depth of 2458 m, on the right (east) side of
the Stromboli canyon about 200 m above the canyon floor (Gamberi et al. 2006;
Marani et al. 2008b) and about 24 km from the SdF shore (Fig. 1). The site, located
outside the direct influence of the sedimentary dynamics of the Stromboli canyon,
is thus proved to record turbidity currents generated by landslide events of the SdF
with a volume comparable to the volume of December 2002 landslide (tens × 106 m3).
The two cores presented herein are 1 m and 38 cm long respectively (Fig. 2), and
were collected from the same site, with a ±15 m accuracy in positioning.
Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides of Stromboli Volcano
Fig. 2 Image of collected cores: VST02-16
gravity core sampled about 4 months before
the Dec. 30, 2002 Stromboli landslide;
TTR14-342 box core sampled about 2 years
after Dec. 30, 2002 Stromboli landslide
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4
A. Di Roberto et al.
Methods
A detailed cores description was performed to characterize lithology, fabric,
sedimentary structures, bedding thickness, and other pertinent features. 50 subsamples were picked at intervals of about 2–3 cm. Samples were washed in an
ultrasonic bath for 10 min and subsequently, sieved at one-phi intervals for grainsize characterization. The 250–125 mm and 125–63 mm fractions were then mounted
on thin section with epoxy resin for component analysis.
A selection of 23 samples from VST02-16 and 11 samples from TTR14-342
were analyzed for component analysis (Fig. 3); 1,000 clasts of the most abundant
grain size fractions were counted on each thin section.
Fig. 3 Stratigraphic log, magnetic susceptibility and componentry results of VST02-16 core;
Black-filled circles indicate samples that were processed for grain size analysis; white circles
indicate samples that were processed for component analysis. Notice that leucitic lavas (Lc-lavas)
and altered glass (Alt. glass) distribution is tightly linked to the sub-turbiditic units structures
within thick sand beds between 96–48 and 30–17 cm
Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides of Stromboli Volcano
725
Texture and composition of glass shards were also analyzed using a SEM-EDS
Philips XL30 scanning electron microscope (accelerating voltage 20 kV, beam
current 1 nA, working distance 10 mm), equipped with energy dispersive x-ray
analysis (EDAX DX 4) at the Earth Science Department of Pisa University. For each
sample a minimum amount of 30 glass particles were analyzed in raster mode,
using windows ranging from 5 × 5 mm, in highly crystalline samples, to 30 × 30 mm
in aphiric ones. The analytical error, measured on mineral and glass standards
varies from 1 wt% (concentrations higher than 15 wt%) to 10 wt% (concentrations
between 1–5 wt%), increasing at low concentrations.
Results were compared with the glass composition of subaerial Stromboli
volcanics available in literature for the past 13 ka. In order to infill such existing
dataset, which was partially incomplete, some additional samplings were realized.
These include 8 lava and 9 scoria samples recovered on the summit part of the
volcano and in a 4 m deep stratigraphic trench dug on the NE flank of the island
at 335 m a.s.l. (Lat. N 38°47.499′, Long. E 15°13.459′).
5
Results
The description and analyses of the distal deposit of December 30, 2002 landslide
that caps the TTR14-342 core (sampled in 2004) and that is absent in the 2002 core
(Figs. 2 and 4) are reported in Marani et al. 2008b.
The 1 m long gravity core sampled in 2002 (VST02-16) consists of a sequence of
dark grey to black, decimetric to millimetric-thick beds of coarse to fine sands,
interlaminated and interbedded with millimeter- to centimeter- thick brownish
silty-clay (Fig. 2). Beds have sharp and slightly erosive basal contacts and commonly evidence normal grading into brown clay beds. Clay beds frequently contain
mm-thick layers or lenses of black, fine sand to silt that are frequently disrupted by
bioturbation. Brown clay are often capped by <0.5 cm-thick layer of pale-yellow
hemipelagic clays. Samples range from moderate to poorly sorted (sΦ 0.705–1.371),
coarse to very fine sands (MdF = 0.663 and 3.538). The two thicker beds, occurring at 96–48 cm and 30–17 cm are characterized by multiple, well-developed
normally graded sand beds (Fig. 3). Grain size and component analysis data are
shown in Fig. 3.
Sand beds consists almost entirely of volcaniclastic fragments represented by lava
(35–56 vol.%), pyroclastic fragments (22.5–37 vol.%), plagioclase crystals
(3.8–14.5 vol.%), pyroxene (4.4–9 vol.%), olivine crystals (≤2 vol.%) and altered
volcanic fragments (3–15.5% vol.%). Few subvulcanic, holocrystalline fragments
occur. Biogenic and detrital clasts (mainly metamorphic rock fragments, muscovite
and microcline crystals) account for less than 2 vol.% of the deposits suggesting
that the site is poorly influenced by terrigenous sediment supply. Lava fragments
are generally equant, bearing crystals of plagioclase, pyroxene and olivine set in a
holocrystalline to partially glassy matrix. Pyroclastic fragments consist of mainly
fresh, poorly vesicular, honey-colored glass containing abundant plagioclase microlites.
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A. Di Roberto et al.
Fig. 4 Glass shards composition plotted against stratigraphic height. Notice the similarity
between the glass composition of (a) the lowermost half of the core and Neostromboli glasses, (b)
the uppermost half of the core and products from recent and present products emitted by Stromboli
volcano. (c) The glass composition of the topmost layer (core TTR14), attributable to the
December 30 2002 landslide (Marani et al. 2008b) is reported to complete the chemical characterization of sediment sequence.
Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides of Stromboli Volcano
727
In the uppermost layer subordinate highly vesicular, fresh and almost crystal free
clear-glass clasts occur. Pyroclastic fragments have prominent angular shape with
very delicate, sharp edges indicating the lack of any mechanical interaction due to
reworking.
A large compositional variability is evident when the glass compositions are plotted
in the K2O-SiO2 diagram (Fig. 4), which is traditionally employed to classify
magmas erupted from Stromboli during its volcanic history (Hornig-Kjarsgaard
et al. 1993; Francalanci et al. 1993). Moreover great variations in glass composition
occur between the lowermost half of the core and the uppermost one.
Glass fragments of the lowermost part of the sequence (96–40 cm) have scattered
composition largely covering the compositional range of Neostromboli products;
minor compositions attributable to the Vancori periods also occur (Fig. 4).
Glass fragments of the uppermost part of the cores (39–13 cm) have more homogeneous compositions; from 39 to 13 cm samples describe a short evolution trend
from composition slightly enriched in K2O to composition strictly comparable with
products of the Recent Stromboli (Fig.4).
It is interesting to note that from 66 to 34 cm, within the deposits likely correlating
Neostromboli period a significant amount of lava fragment bearing leucite microlites occurs; leucite (<100 mm) is usually replaced by analcime even if nuclei with
original leucite composition still persist in few microlites.
The first appearance of Lc-bearing lava fragments coincides with an abrupt increase
in grain size corresponding to the base of one of the stacked sand beds between
96–48 cm.
In the uppermost half of the core a consistent fraction of pyroclasts exhibit a few
ten of mm-thick rim of leached glass (up to 50 wt.% loss in FeO, CaO, MgO and up
to 11 wt.% gain of SiO2) likely indicating alteration of the glass by volcanic gas or
acid rainwater.
6
Discussion
The observed sedimentary structures indicate that the core is mainly composed of
turbidity current deposits. The most interesting features revealed by grain size and
component analysis are the multiple turbiditic-sub units contained within the two
main sand units between 96–48 cm and 30–17 cm. Multiple, stacked and closely
spaced sandy units with sharp base and gradational top, similar to those recovered
in our sequence and interpreted as turbidites were recognized at about 320 km west
of the island of Hawaii (Garcia 1996) and in Agadir basin about 300 km north
of the western Canary Islands (Wynn and Masson 2003). Such deposits have
been interpreted as the distal equivalent of large landslides developing with retrogressive or multi phase dynamics (Garcia 1996; Wynn and Masson 2003).
Alternatively, stacked turbidites can also form as a consequence of turbidity current
reflection off seafloor topography (Pickering et al. 1992) or from multiple turbidity
currents reaching the sampling site along differential flow pathways (Masson 1994).
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A. Di Roberto et al.
In our case no submarine structure exists beyond the flank of Stromboli canyon
upon which a turbidity current could reflect; in addition the SdF submarine valley
represents the only pathway through which mass flows originating on the NW flank
of Stromboli volcano are funneled in the Stromboli canyon. Thus in analogy with
Hawaii and Canary Islands cases we interpret the sandy sub-units recovered in
Stromboli core as the result of a rapid and progressive deposition from repeated
turbidity currents (gravity flows) cogenetic to landslides on the NW flank of
Stromboli volcano, dominated by retrogressive collapse dynamics. The almost
complete absence of hemipelagic sediment deposited between each single sub-unit
suggest a very rapid, geologically-instantaneous sequence of events.
Geochemical data allow correlation of the turbidites. The sand interval occurring
between 96 and 48 cm can be associated with the ∼5 ka old, Neostromboli collapse.
This data is confirmed by the presence of Lc-bearing lava fragments in the turbidites. On Stromboli volcano, leucitic lavas crop out almost exclusively in the
summit portion of the edifice and belongs only to the final phases of Neostromboli
period (Speranza et al. 2008).
Moreover, the occurrence of Lc-bearing lava limited to the uppermost stacked
sand beds between 96 and 48 cm indicates that the flank collapse involved the summit
portion of the volcano during its final phases thus enforcing the hypothesis that
flank failure was dominated by retrogressive, multi phase dynamics.
On the basis of geochemical and textural data the uppermost thick turbidite
occurring at 30–17 cm can be correlated with a flank collapse that occurred during
the Recent Stromboli period. An age of ~1 ka can be roughly estimate for this event
considering that the landslide deposit is overlain by only 10 cm of mostly hemipelagic mud and that the sedimentation rate in this area was calculated in 9 cm/ka−1
during the last 10 ka (Di Roberto et al. 2008). Even during this collapse the summit
of the edifice was likely involved as inferred by the presence of volcanic gas- or
acid water-leached pyroclasts in the marine deposits. Such alteration suggests a
crater source where an intense volcanic gas/fluid flux is present.
Onshore studies have hypothesized that two large scale landslides occurred in
the Recent Stromboli period and after the Neostromboli collapse (Tibaldi 2001).
However, only one turbidite deposits in the offshore of Stromboli volcano can be
correlated with a large-scale landslide event during the Recent Stromboli period.
In this perspective marine archive seems to confirm the model proposed by Finizola
et al. (2003) in which one of the flank collapses previously identified by Tibaldi
(2001) is reinterpreted as a crater collapse (Collapses of the Pizzo pyroclastites into
the Fossa craters) occurred after the transition from Neostromboli to Recent
Stromboli cycles and before the collapse that gave the NW flank of Stromboli
volcano the present form.
Both collapses are interpreted to have occurred with multi-phase or retrogressive
dynamics as evidenced by the occurrence of stacked sand beds.
Recognized multiphase or retrogressive collapse behavior is crucial for modeling of tsunami-producing landslides at Stromboli volcano. In fact all numerical
models presently proposed for Stromboli tsunamis assume landslide as a single
sliding volumes detaching all at once from NW flank of Stromboli volcano and
Distal Turbidites and Tsunamigenic Landslides of Stromboli Volcano
729
thus producing a single tsunami wave. Such an assumption likely results in an
overestimation of initial tsunami wave amplitude and thus in a overestimation of
the tsunami power.
Several thinner, cm-scale turbidites occur in the recovered core thus testifying
that also relative small-scale landslides occurred in the last 5 ka on the flank of
Stromboli volcano. The average thickness of these turbidites is comparable to the
thickness of December 30, 2002 landslide cogenetic turbidite indicating that events
like December 30, 2002 have occurred also in the past. These events appear to have
greater frequency with respect to that of the much larger failures since almost nine
event occur in the last 5 ka.
Five tsunami were registered in the last century on Stromboli volcano (Maramai
et al. 2005) but only the most recent event of December 30, 2002 is recorded in the
marine environment; this can be due to the peculiar morphology of seafloor in
the sampling site that allows only the larger and most energetic landslides to be
recorded. Alternatively we assume that some of these tsunamis were generated by
different sources (earthquake, pyroclastic flows etc).
7
Conclusions and Implications for the Tsunami
Hazard Assessment
Identification of volcaniclastic turbidite offshore active volcanoes has been shown
to be a powerful tool for acquiring information on the occurrence of failure events
while providing baseline data for the future.
In this work we have documented that during the last 5 ka several possibly
tsunamigenic landslides originated from Stromboli volcano generated sandrich turbidity currents which travelled more than 24 km northwards and deposited up to 50 cm thick deposits above a topographic high 200 m above the
canyon floor.
At least two large events are recorded in marine record of which the former can
be very likely correlated to the ∼5 ka old, Neostromboli flank collapse while the
latter might correlate to the a younger flank collapse that occurred during the
Recent Stromboli period (∼1 ka). Both collapses show multi-phase or retrogressive
dynamics as evidenced by the occurrence of peculiar sedimentary structures and by
component and geochemical data.
Together with large landslides, almost nine small-scale landslides occurring with
a greater frequency respect to that of the much larger failures were recorded by
sediments, the last of whom is represented by December 30, 2002 event.
The research shows that the complete documentation of past potentially tsunamiproducing landslide events of Stromboli is possible and opens new perspectives for
the assessment of the tsunami hazard in the southern Tyrrhenian sea.
By analogy with Hawaii and Canary islands we confirm that deep-sea sediments
can be effectively used to assess age and scale of past landslide events giving an
important contribution to the tsunami hazard assessment of this region.
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A. Di Roberto et al.
Acknowledgements We thank the captains and crew of R/V Urania and Logachev. M. Ivanov and
the TTR14 and TTR15 cruise scientific parties are also acknowledged for their help in data acquisition.
ADR grant was founded within “Piattaforma di ricerca multidisciplinare su terremoti e vulcani
(AIRPLANE)” n. RBPR05B2ZJ, founded by Ministero dell’Istruzione dell’Università e della
Ricerca. This work was supported by the DPC program: V2 – PAROXYSM. Authors are very grateful
to G. De Alteriis and J. Trofimovs for their critical comments that greatly improved the paper.
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