Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i
FOREWORD
Micheline Calmy-Rey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
PREFACE
Theodor H. Winkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix
INTRODUCTION
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
ROOTS AND SCOPE OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
‘Funmi Olonisakin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART I : VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
IN DAILY LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Gendercidal Institutions against Women and Girls
Adam Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 1.1 : Some more facts about female infanticide
and selective abortion
Mona Eltahawy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 1.2 : Marc Dutroux – a serial killer
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Rooted in Tradition : Community-Based Violence
against Women
Mona Eltahawy and Adam Jones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.1 : Two examples of persuading a community
to stop female genital mutilation
Mona Eltahawy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.2 : The Sharia penalty - stoning
to death for adultery : A Nigerian example
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.3 : Religious and occult sects – abusing women
and children
Anja Ebnöther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Women’s Empowerment and Approaches within the
International Development Discourse
Athena Peralta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 3.2 : Domestic slavery of women migrants
in Saudi Arabia
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 3.3 : Rwanda’s case – women’s role
in development
Mikiko Sawanishi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 3.4 : Roma women in Europe
Slavica Stojanovic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
44
51
52
4. Domestic Violence: Violation of Women’s Rights
by their Intimate Partners
Charlotte Watts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
15
Box 4.1 : Facts and figures on the magnitude
of intimate partner violence
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
17
Box 4.2 : Legal aspects of domestic violence
in the Czech Republic
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Box 4.3: Three initiatives to challenge
the acceptability of intimate partner violence
Charlotte Watts and Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
5. Pervasive Forms of Violence in Prostitution :
A Transgression against Human Dignity
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
Box 5.1 : Rest and recreation facilities in military
base lands in the Asia-Pacific region
Aida Santos-Maranan and Marlea Muñez . . . . . . . .
73
Prostitution and the Law: Debates and Issues
Lea Biason and Melina Skouroliakou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
Box 5.2 : Legalisation of prostitution
in the Netherlands
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
3
11
23
25
29
32
35
3. Gender-Based Violence and Poverty
Athena Peralta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
Box 3.1 : Some facts on women’s status
Athena Peralta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 5.3 : Swedish law reform on prostitution
Melina Skouroliakou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
39
Vulnerability of Women Migrant Workers
Hélène Harroff-Tavel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
6. Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Women :
Global Trends and Responses
Ndioro Ndiaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
i
Box 6.1 : Some facts about the magnitude
of trafficking
Ndioro Ndiaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.2 : Recommendations for further measures
to combat trafficking
Ndioro Ndiaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.3 : Three interviews of trafficked women
Ndioro Ndiaye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 5.2 : Facts and figures of HIV/AIDS
infection worldwide
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
KEY READING PART II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
PART III : WOMEN IN POST-CONFLICT
SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
1. Psychosocial Interventions in Post-War Situations
Josi Salem-Pickartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
What is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and How Does
It Affect Women Exposed to Violence ?
Pamela Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
160
Box 1.1 : The fate of female refugees in Former
Yugoslavia
Josi Salem-Pickartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
161
Box 1.2 : Difficulties in documentation
Pamela Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
163
Box 1.3 : Palestinian women after the first Intifada
Josi Salem-Pickartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
2. Women in Flight
Ramina Johal and Megan McKenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
169
Box 2.1 : Existing international instruments on the
protection of female refugees and internally
displaced women and girls
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
171
Legal and Other Instruments for the Protection
of Female Refugees and Internally Displaced Women
Darla Silva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
176
Box 2.2 : Colombia’s internally displaced women
Camila Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
119
3. Women in Mourning
Charlotte Lindsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
181
120
Changing Ancient Societal Patterns :
The Widows of the Kargil War
Leena Parmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
183
121
4. Designed to Kill and Maim : The Effect of Landmines
and Other Explosive Remnants of War on Women
Laurence Desvignes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
187
Box 4.1 : International action against landmines
and explosive remnants of war
Laurence Desvignes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
Box 4.2 : Women de-miners in Cambodia :
Chan Sovannarorn’s story
Laurence Desvignes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
191
5. Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration
Processes : Where Do Women Stand ?
Vanessa Farr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
193
Box 5.1 : Disarmament, demobilisation and
reintegration of women combatants in Sierra Leone
Vanessa Farr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
196
Box 5.2 : The relevance of women’s role in micro
disarmament: The United Nations Institute
for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)
case study in Mali
Shukuko Koyama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
198
81
84
86
7. Violence against Women in Custody
Cecilia Jimenez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 7.1 : Custodial violence against women
Cecilia Jimenez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
KEY READING PART I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
PART II : WOMEN IN WAR
AND ARMED CONFLICTS . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Vulnerability of Women
Charlotte Lindsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Rape and Other Forms of Sexual Violence
Charlotte Lindsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.1 : Sexual violence against women during wars
and conflicts in Africa and on the territory of Former
Yugoslavia
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consequences of Rape for Women’s Health
and Well-being, Family and Society
Pamela Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.2 : Sexual abuses and other violations
of women’s rights in Chechnya
Valentina Cherevatenko and Ivana Schellongová . . . .
Box 2.3 : War ends, sexual violence against women
and girls continues
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia : The Impact of Witnessing on Rape Victims
Pamela Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.4 : The Red Cross trains midwives to help
rape victims
Charlotte Lindsey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sexual Exploitation of Women and Girls by
Peacekeepers : How to Curb
the Dark Side of Peacekeeping
Nadine Puechguirbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 2.5 : UN peacekeepers code of conduct
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Torture of Women during Armed Conflicts
Cecilia Jimenez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Female Combatants: Dilution of Gender Barriers
in Times of War
Marie Vlachová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 4.1 : International humanitarian law and
Abu Ghraib
Theodor H. Winkler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Women and HIV/AIDS
Hélène Harroff-Tavel and Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . .
Box 5.1 : Armed conflict and HIV/AIDS : Rwanda
Ivana Schellongová and Hélène Harroff-Tavel . . . . . .
91
105
109
113
115
115
116
124
127
131
135
138
143
145
ii
6. Women and Men Combating Violence : Examples . . .
Transitional Justice, Reconciliation and the Role
of Women
Sonja Licht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.1 : Women in Black
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.2 : Women’s participation in conflict :
Latin America’s pacifist movements
Camila Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Women’s Inclusion in Peace and Security Processes
Building : An NGO Campaign to Engage the
UN Security Council
Ancil Adrian-Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.3 : South Africa : The principle of inclusion
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.4 : Women as advocates of non-violence
in Africa
Colette Samoya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working with Women through the Troubles
in Northern Ireland
Avila Kilmurray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gender Equality and the Union of the Committees
of Soldiers’ Mothers of Russia
Ida Kuklina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.5 : Women’s inclusion in the Macedonian
peacebuilding process
Biljana Vankovska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Women in Post-War Iraq and Afghanistan :
Two Views on Post-Conflict Interim Governance
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Women’s Citizenship in Iraq and Afghanistan :
An Optimistic Perspective
Charlotte Ponticelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.6 : Women in interim state bodies in Iraq
and Afghanistan as of July 2004
Hélène Harroff-Tavel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Critical Perspective on Inclusion of Women :
The Case of Iraq
Lesley Abdela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 6.7 : Obstacles to the inclusion of women
in post-conflict governance, democratisation and
peacebuilding processes
Lesley Abdela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
201
KEY READING PART III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
227
PART IV : STRATEGIES AND SOLUTIONS . . . . . . .
1. Violence against Women from the Perspective
of the Human Rights Agenda
Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 1.1 : Landmark international legal instruments
and documents concerning women’s rights
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
231
2. Feminist Approaches to Gender-Based Violence
‘Funmi Olonisakin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Gender Mainstreaming of Peace Support Operations
Nadine Puechguirbal, Martin Bohnstedt and Lea Biason
Box 3.1 : Women in peacekeeping operations (PKO)
Ivana Schellongová . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 3.2 : Gender mainstreaming :
Experience from the field
Lea Biason, Martin Bohnstedt and
Nadine Puechguirbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
201
4. Legal Protection of Women
Charlotte Lindsey, Cecilia Jimenez and Isha Dyfan . . . . .
Box 4.1 : The Tokyo Tribunal judgement :
Challenging law for victims of sexual violence in war
Indai Sajor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
206
207
208
210
211
211
214
216
217
217
252
257
261
5. The UN Security Council Resolution 1325 :
A Watershed in the History of Women’s Defence
of Peace
Krishna Ahooja-Patel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 5.1 : A global coalition of women
defending peace
Anja Ebnöther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Box 5.2 : The European Union combating
gender-based violence
Agnès Hubert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
270
KEY READING PART IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
273
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . .
Marie Vlachová and Lea Biason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
275
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key Legal and Political Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organisations Dealing with Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . .
Notes on Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
283
285
295
301
315
325
331
263
269
TABLES
219
ROOTS AND SCOPE OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE
Table 1 : Gender violence throughout the life cycle . . . .
220
PART I : VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
IN DAILY LIFE
222
235
240
243
247
249
iii
9
Table 1.1 : Number of women to 100 men
in the countries where there is 95 or less women
per 100 men (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Table 1.2 : Child mortality rate in selected countries
in 1988-2000 (alphabetically) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Table 1.3 : Reported cases of child rape or attempted
rape in South Africa
in 1994-2000 (in absolute figures) . . . . . . . . .
20
Table 1.4 : Data on child abuse (not necessarily sexual)
in South Africa in 1994-2002
(in absolute figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Table 1.5 : Percentage of women over 16 years old
who reported being sexually assaulted
in 1992-1997 (selected cities) . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Table 1.6 : Lifetime chance of dying in pregnancy
or childbirth by UNICEF regions in 2004 . . .
21
Table 2.1 : Occurrence of female genital mutilation
in 1998-2002 among women
aged 15-40 years (in percentage) . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Table 2.2 : National legislation efforts to eliminate female
genital mutilation (year of enactment) . . . . . .
Table 3.1 : Female economic activity rate in 1980 and 2001
among potentially active women (aged 15-64)
in percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.2 : Gender and agriculture: Share of women
in the agricultural labour force in 1950-2000,
with the estimate for 2010 (in percentage) . . .
Table 3.3 : Percentage of female migrants among the total
number of international migrants by major area
in 1960-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.4 : Migration trends of female workers
(most of them working in domestic jobs or in
the sex industry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.5 : Vulnerabilities at different stages of the migration
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.6 : Women in decision-making positions in 1994
and 1998 (in percentage of total persons
at ministerial or equivalent positions in the
governments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.7 : Women in national parliaments worldwide
in February 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 3.8 : Women in national parliaments in regions
in February 2005 (in percentage) . . . . . . . . . .
Table 4.1 : Sexual violence against women by country . . .
Table 5.1 : Violence in the lives of people in prostitution
(in percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 5.2 : Violence in prostitution (in percentage) . . . . .
Table 2.3 : Estimated number of internally displaced
persons (end of 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 4.1 : Landmine victims by age group
in Bosnia-Herzegovina (in percentage) . . . . . .
Table 4.2 : Landmine victims by gender
in Bosnia-Herzegovina (in percentage) . . . . . .
30
40
190
190
41
PART IV : STRATEGIES AND SOLUTIONS
41
Table 2.1 : Women’s political participation in March 2004 :
Seats in national parliaments held by women
(percentage of total) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
244
CHARTS
45
PART I : VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
IN DAILY LIFE
45
Chart 3.1 : Estimated annual income of women and men
in selected countries in 2000 (in US$) . . . . . .
Chart 3.2 : Total work time for men and women
(in minutes per day)
in selected countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chart 4.1 : Victims of various kinds of homicide
by gender in the United States
in 1976-2000 (in percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chart 4.2 : Victims of homicide by circumstances
and gender in the United States
in 1976-2000 (in percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
50
50
56
69
70
40
40
58
59
PART II : WOMEN IN WAR AND ARMED CONFLICTS
PART II : WOMEN IN WAR AND ARMED CONFLICTS
Chart 4.1 : Average occupational distribution of military
personnel in thirteen
NATO countries in 2000 (in percentage) . . .
Chart 4.2 : Evolution of the percentage of women
in NATO forces (1986/7-2000) . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 2.1: Estimated mortality caused by war-related
injuries in 2000 sorted by gender and World
Health Organization region (in absolute numbers
in thousands and per 100,000 population) . . .
114
Table 4.1 : Total strength of women in the NATO forces
in 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
Table 5.1 : HIV statistics for women living with HIV/AIDS
in some regions in 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
139
139
PART III : WOMEN IN POST-CONFLICT SITUATIONS
Chart 1.1 : Elizabeth Jareg’s pyramidal model
of psychosocial interventions in post-conflict
situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chart 2.1 : Trends in the number of refugees and other
persons of UNHCR concern in the last two
decades (1980-2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chart 2.2 : Female refugees per region in 2000
(in percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chart 6.1 : Men and women in post-conflict
reconstruction – division of labour and power
PART III : WOMEN IN POST-CONFLICT SITUATIONS
Table 2.1 : Estimated number of persons who fall under
the mandate of the UNHCR in January 2004
(in absolute numbers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 2.2 : Structure of refugees according to the UNHCR
categories in January 2004
(in absolute numbers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
172
172
iv
158
170
172
222