Tool 2
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Police Reform
and Gender
Tara Denham
DCAF
Geneva Centre for the
Democratic Control of
Armed Forces (DCAF)
Police Reform
and Gender
Tara Denham
DCAF
Geneva Centre for the
Democratic Control of
Armed Forces (DCAF)
Gender and SSR Toolkit
About the Author
Ms. Tara Denham combines theoretical and practical experiences in her work on police reform and gender issues. Ms. Denham has a Master’s
of Arts in the field of International Relations from the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, and has managed projects for the
Pearson Peacekeeping Centre in West Africa on peace operations capacity building of police and gendarmerie. In this capacity, Ms. Denham
co-ordinated a ‘Police/Gendarmerie Women in Peace Operations’ roundtable in 2006, focused on challenges, opportunities and best practices
for gender integration into national organisations, with a focus on participation in peace operations. Currently, Ms. Denham works at the
Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Canada.
Editors
Megan Bastick and Kristin Valasek, DCAF
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following people for their valuable comments on drafts of this tool: Maria Christodoulou, Kadi Fakondo, Shobha
Gautamm, Sylvio Gravel, Nadine Jubb, Helen McDermott, Eirin Mobekk, Henri Myrtinnen, Françoise Nduwimana, Ivy Okoronkwo, Tony
Sheridan, Daniel de Torres, Anne-Kristin Treiber, Walentyna Trzcinska and UN-INSTRAW. In addition, we would like to thank Benjamin
Buckland, Anthony Drummond and Mugiho Takeshita for their editing assistance, and Anja Ebnöther for her guidance of the project.
The Gender and SSR Toolkit
This Tool on Police Reform and Gender is part of a Gender and SSR Toolkit. Designed to provide a practical introduction to gender issues for
security sector reform practitioners and policy-makers, the Toolkit includes the following 12 Tools and corresponding Practice Notes:
1. Security Sector Reform and Gender
2. Police Reform and Gender
3. Defence Reform and Gender
4. Justice Reform and Gender
5. Penal Reform and Gender
6. Border Management and Gender
7. Parliamentary Oversight of the Security Sector and Gender
8. National Security Policy-Making and Gender
9. Civil Society Oversight of the Security Sector and Gender
10. Private Military and Security Companies and Gender
11. SSR Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation and Gender
12. Gender Training for Security Sector Personnel
Annex on International and Regional Laws and Instruments
DCAF, OSCE/ODIHR and UN-INSTRAW gratefully acknowledge the support of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the production
of the Toolkit.
DCAF
The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) promotes good governance and reform of the security sector. The
Centre conducts research on good practices, encourages the development of appropriate norms at the national and international levels, makes
policy recommendations and provides in-country advice and assistance programmes. DCAF’s partners include governments, parliaments, civil
society, international organisations and security sector actors such as police, judiciary, intelligence agencies, border security services and the
military.
OSCE/ODIHR
The Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) is the main institution for the OSCE’s human dimension of security: a broad
concept that includes the protection of human rights; the development of democratic societies, with emphasis on elections, institution-building,
and governance; strengthening the rule of law; and promoting genuine respect and mutual understanding among individuals, as well as
nations. The ODIHR contributed to the development of the Toolkit.
UN-INSTRAW
The United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (UN-INSTRAW) is the only UN entity
mandated to develop research programmes that contribute to the empowerment of women and the achievement of gender equality worldwide.
Through alliance-building with UN Member States, international organisations, academia, civil society, and other actors, UN-INSTRAW:
■ Undertakes action-oriented research from a gender perspective that has a concrete impact on policies, programmes and projects;
■ Creates synergies for knowledge management and information exchange;
■ Strengthens the capacities of key stakeholders to integrate gender perspectives in policies, programmes and projects.
Cover picture © Keystone, AP Photo, Hidajet Delic, 2003.
© DCAF, OSCE/ODIHR, UN-INSTRAW, 2008.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-92-9222-074-7
Cite as: Tara Denham. “Police Reform and Gender.” Gender and Security Sector Reform Toolkit. Eds. Megan Bastick and Kristin Valasek.
Geneva: DCAF, OSCE/ODIHR, UN-INSTRAW, 2008.
Printed by SRO-Kundig.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Police Reform and Gender
Acronyms
iii
1. Introduction
1
2. What is police reform?
1
2.1 Common challenges in policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
2.2 Why police reform? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
3. Why is gender important to police reform?
3
3.1 Effective provision of security for men, women, girls and boys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
3.2 Creating a representative and more effective police service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
3.3 Ensuring non-discriminatory and human rights promoting police institutions and culture . . . . . . . . . . .5
4. How can gender be integrated into police reform?
7
4.1 Gender plans of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Effective provision of security for men, women, girls and boys
4.2 Review operational protocols and procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
4.3 Procedures and initiatives on gender-based violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
4.4 Women’s police stations/specialised units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
4.5 Community-based policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Creating a representative and more effective police service
4.6 Assessments and audits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
4.7 Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
4.8 Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
4.9 Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
4.10 Advancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Ensuring non-discriminatory and human rights-promoting police institutions and culture
4.11 Codes of conduct and policies on discrimination, harassment and violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
4.12 Gender training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
4.13 Civilian oversight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
5. Integrating gender into police reform in specific contexts
16
5.1 Post-conflict countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Civilian policing in peacekeeping operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Vetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Recruiting women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Police units on gender-based violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
5.2 Transitional countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.3 Developing countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.4 Developed countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
6. Key recommendations
21
7. Additional resources
22
ii
Gender and SSR Toolkit
ACRONYMS
APD
Albuquerque Police Department
CEDAW
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
CBP
CEE
CSO
EU
FPU
FSU
GBV
IWITTS
KPS
LGBT
LNP
NATO
NGOs
OAS
OSCE
PLCU
SSR
UN
UNICEF
UNOMSA
WPS
iii
Community-Based Policing
Central and Eastern Europe
Civil Society Organisation
European Union
Formed Police Unit
Family Support Unit
Gender-Based Violence
Institute for Women in Trades, Technology and Services
Kosovo Police Service
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender
Liberia National Police
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Non-Governmental Organisations
Organization of American States
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Police Local Command Unit
Security Sector Reform
United Nations
United Nations Children Fund
United Nations Observer Mission in South Africa
Women’s Police Station
Police Reform and Gender
1
Introduction
Police organisations play an important role in society.
They are responsible for maintaining peace and order,
upholding the rule of law and performing their duties
with sensitivity and regard for members of the
community. As police organisations around the world
try to improve their response to, and protection of,
individuals and communities they become involved in
a process of reforming policies and practices. The
demand for reform is instigated by a number of factors
such as: internal reviews, public pressure,
government decisions, international attention and/or
post-conflict recovery. Police reform processes
support the establishment or strengthening of an
accountable, effective, equitable and rights-respecting
police organisation. A central pillar of any reform must
be a focus on ensuring that the security needs of
diverse populations are properly understood and
incorporated into the structure and operations of the
police.
The following tool on police reform and gender
focuses on the importance of strengthening the ability
of the police to understand and address the different
security needs of the entire population (including men,
women, boys and girls, from all walks of life) and
creating non-discriminatory and representative police
institutions. This compiled information is based on
international research and field experience and
discusses internal issues (institutional culture) and
external issues (policies and procedures for
addressing crime) in police reform.
This tool is intended for use by various actors working
on police reform including: police officers and
recruitment staff, government officials, international
and regional organisations and civil society
organisations as well as parliamentarians and
researchers. It is designed as a reference tool, with a
mix of background information and practical examples
and tips to assist in the design and/or implementation
of the reform process. The following information is not
to be used as a template, but as a starting point for
incorporating gender issues into a police reform
processes that should be broadly defined and
reflective of the communities the police serve.
This tool includes:
■ An introduction to police reform
■ The rationale behind integrating gender issues and
ways in which this can strengthen police reform
initiatives
■
■
■
Entry points for incorporating gender issues into
different aspects of police reform, including practical
tips and examples
An examination of particular gender and police
reform issues in post-conflict, transitional,
developing and developed country contexts
Key recommendations
Additional resources
2
■
What is police reform?
Police reform is a core part of security sector reform
(SSR). This broader reform process is often defined
as the transformation of a security system, including
all the actors, their roles, actions and responsibility to
manage and operate the system in a manner that is
consistent with democratic norms and sound
principles of good governance.1 The police are one of
the core state security actors, and any police reform
process needs to be coordinated with other security
actors to ensure a system-wide rather than an ad-hoc
approach.
For more information
see Tool on SSR
and Gender
Definition of Police: the civil force of a state,
responsible for the prevention and detection of crime
and the maintenance of public order.2 The term
therefore includes all law enforcement agencies, such
as the police and gendarmerie-like constabulary
forces that exercise police powers, especially the
power of arrest and detention.3
Definition of Police Reform: the transformation or
change of a police organisation into a professional and
accountable police service practicing a style of
policing that is responsive to the needs of local
communities.4
Police reform is about change, and is a process that
moves a police institution toward being more
accountable for its actions and having greater respect
for human rights. This process can be time-bound,
specifically in post-conflict settings where it is
supported through international assistance and
defined by external timelines; or ongoing where there
is national support (political and/or financial). Effective
police reform goes through the following main
phases:5
1
Gender and SSR Toolkit
1. Pre-engagement analysis and assessment:
gathering information to understand and
analyse the local context
2. Design and planning: based on analysis,
develop a clear reform plan or map with welldefined goals
3. Managing the implementation: put in place
the reform plan in partnership with various
stakeholders
4. Evaluation: monitor progress, gather information
and data regarding changes taking place and
evaluate successes and identify challenges that
need to be addressed
This process is unique to each context, whether in
post-conflict, developing, transitional or developed
countries (for context-specific tips/recommendations
refer to Section 5). Although differences exist between
contextual realities, respect for human rights and
humanitarian law should be regarded as an essential
starting point for reforming the internal and external
culture of the police.
Examples of police reform in different regions include:
Central America, which is distancing the police from
the military system and establishing civilian control
over the security forces.6
Central Asia, which is shifting from colonial policing
systems to a democratic structure where the police
work for the public and not in the interests of a ruling
party or an influential group in society.7
North America: which is responding to corruption
and excessive use of force allegations and lawsuits
to create a more service-oriented style of policing
that is inclusive of the needs of the wider community,
including previous periphery communities – such as
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people
(LGBT).
Eastern-Europe/Post-communist states: which is
responding to corruption and the requirement for
service-oriented and rights-based rule of law
policing.
■
■
■
■
Box 1
Accountable
These examples are only samples of overarching
types of reform that take place. It should be noted that
while certain reforms may be more closely associated
with a particular region or context, various types of
reform can take place in any given police institution.
Examples of police reform include: changes at the
rank and file level such as skills development, training
and awareness raising; working with high-ranking
officials in order to change the militarised nature of the
police; and re-defining the mandate and operational
procedures within the police institution. Regardless of
the level, type, or context of reform, an understanding
of local capacities to implement reform, the needs of
the given population and the timing must be carefully
considered to ensure that the plan for reform is
realistic and achievable in a measured timeframe.
2.1 Common challenges in policing
Police institutions face various challenges that require
continual consideration for improvement. Few, if any,
organisations are immune from critique and demands
for change, including the most experienced to recently
trained and newly established police organisations.
Despite the huge geographic, social and economic
differences of the various countries, as well as the
diversity of their police structures, sizes and contexts,
common problems exist that affect many police
organisations, particularly in relation to issues of
gender. The following is a non-exhaustive list:8
■
■
■
■
■
Poor response rates to crimes committed against
particular social groups
Excessive use of force against particular groups,
especially marginalised groups such as men from
minority groups, indigenous peoples, LBGT people
Exclusion of particular groups within the police
institutions
Misconduct and abuse of function
Refusal to register complaints
Operational effectiveness of the police
Effective
Equitable
Rights respecting
Independent mechanisms to
investigate allegations against the
police.
Reduced corruption.
Pay based on skill level and
ranking rather than sex.
Equal treatment of police officers
and staff within the organisation.
Diverse input and feedback into
the operations and functioning of
the police.
Understanding and ability to
address diverse security threats.
Strong linkages with the
community to disseminate
information on citizens’ rights and
police responsibilities.
Strong internal and external
oversight mechanisms.
2
Skills development for all police
officers/staff.
Professional opportunities within
the police for all members of the
community.
Training opportunities for all levels Equal access to career
within the police.
development opportunities.
Resource allocation based on
identified security needs and
threats.
Reduce incidence of excessive
use of force.
Health requirements of all staff
taken into consideration.
Equitable police services provided
to all members of the community.
Police Reform and Gender
Box 2
Men
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Security threats against men, women, boys and girls
Robbery (Australia: 75% of
victims are male)11
Assault
Homicide
Simple and aggravated assault
Gang violence
Forced to rape their own family
members (particularly in
conflict)
Rape and sexual torture
Human trafficking
Women
Boys
Girls
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Domestic violence
Sexual assault (USA: 92% of
victims in workplace are
women)12
Dowry death
Sexual harassment
Rape
‘Honour’ killings
Stalking
Forced sterilisation
Human trafficking
Poor investigation skills – leading to low conviction
rate
Lack of accountability
Lack of civilian trust
2.2 Why police reform?
To address common challenges in policing, reforms
can be undertaken to make the police more
operationally effective, accountable, equitable and
rights respecting. Box 1, although not exhaustive,
provides examples of changes that could take place
as a result of police reform in an effort to make a police
organisation more operationally effective.
3
Why is gender important
to police reform?
Gender refers to the particular roles and relationships, personality
traits, attitudes, behaviours and values that society ascribes to men
and women. ‘Gender’ therefore refers to learned differences between
men and women, while ‘sex’ refers to the biological differences
between males and females. Gender roles vary widely within and
across cultures, and can change over time. Gender refers not simply
to women or men but to the relationship between them.
Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications
for women and men of any planned action, including legislation,
policies or programmes in all areas and at all levels.9
See Tool on SSR
and Gender
■
■
■
■
■
■
Gang violence
Child abuse and rape
Bullying
Kidnapping & abduction
Exposure & abandonment
Human trafficking
Buying/selling for prostitution
■
■
■
■
■
Infanticide
Child abuse and rape
Human trafficking
Kidnapping & abduction
Child marriage
Buying/selling for prostitution
Addressing gender issues is not a process of taking
power away from men and giving it to women and
other under-represented groups, but rather a process
of improving efficiency and effectiveness of the
reformed organisations.
Compliance with obligations under international laws and
instruments
Integrating gender into police reform is necessary to comply with
international and regional laws, instruments and norms concerning
security and gender. Key instruments include:
■ The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (1979)
■ The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)
■ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women,
Peace and Security (2000)
For more information, please see the Toolkit’s Annex on International
and Regional Laws and Instruments.
3.1 Effective provision of security for
men, women, girls and boys
As police are responsible for the maintenance of
public order and protection of people, the police need
to understand and address all security threats facing
the community they serve, recognising that men and
women are affected by violence and discrimination in
very different ways and to different degrees. For
example, crimes against men are predominantly in
public areas, whereas crimes against women, such as
domestic violence, often happen in private spaces, a
realm that many state institutions do not consider
themselves responsible for.10 Some examples of
security threats (not in order of prevalence) against
men, women, boys and girls are set out in Box 2.
It is the duty of police officers to prevent, reduce and
respond to these forms of crime, including genderbased violence (GBV) as it is one of the most common
3
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Box 3
Country
Percentage of female and male police officers in selected countries
Year
Female police officers
Male police officers
South Africa19
2006
29%
71%
Sierra Leone21
2006
15%
85%
Post-Conflict
Cyprus20
Kosovo22 *
Transitional and Developing
2006
2006
16%
14%
84%
86%
Jamaica23
2001
18%
82%
Venezuela25
2002
10%
90%
Czech Republic24
Romania26
India27
Developed
2001
2005
2006
12%
8%
2%
88%
92%
98%
Australia28
2002
29%
71%
Sweden30
2001
18%
82%
Canada29
United States31
Finland32
2006
2006
2004
18%
12-14%
10%
82%
88-86%
90%
* At the time of writing, November 2007, the status of Kosovo is unresolved.
threats to security in all parts of the world. A World
Health Organization study indicates that upwards of
69% of women reported having suffered physical
aggression from a male partner at some time in their
lives.13 GBV is an act of violence – physical, sexual or
psychological – which is likely to result in harm to an
individual and is carried out due to their gender. This
type of violence is committed against men and
women, boys and girls, and is reflective of power
imbalances that exist between men and women or
between a child and her or his caregiver.
GBV can be compounded by insecurities based on
other factors such as ethnic background, sexual
orientation and religion:
■ 67% of religiously aggravated cases in England and
Wales in 2005/2006 were against Muslims.14
■ In South Africa, black lesbians are raped as well as
physically and verbally abused due to their sexual
orientation.15
Men and women are often reluctant to report these
crimes to the police. Men who have been subjected to
GBV are often ashamed and unwilling to discuss the
incident for fear of being seen as weak, emasculated
4
or gay. Women are often reluctant to talk to the police
due to the social taboos and stigma associated with
being a victim of GBV. Additional challenges exist in
countries that do not have adequate laws in place on
the eradication of GBV. Within the police there is a
need to ensure that all officers – men and women –
are adequately trained to respond to victims of GBV
and possess the necessary skills to process and
investigate crimes effectively.
3.2 Creating a representative and more
effective police service
‘Increasing diversity is not just the right or moral
things to do – it is essential for us to deliver our
business. A diverse workplace gives us access to a
broad range of skills, experience, education and
culture which maximises our ability to deliver a
variety of local solutions to local problems.’
United Kingdom Home Office – Handout on Diversity
in the Police Service 16
Police Reform and Gender
Security threats and crimes are committed against all
sections of society; however, police organisations
throughout the world continue to be predominantly
male with poor representation from certain groups.
Policing has traditionally been regarded as ‘men’s
work’ because it is associated with crime, danger, and
coercion. 1 7 Recruitment processes, including
background checks and personal interviews,
sometimes eliminate female candidates or men that
do not have ‘correct’ masculine attitudes, such as
‘toughness’ and absolute heterosexuality.18 However,
by having a more representative police service – one
that reflects the ethnic, religious, geographic, sex,
tribal, and language makeup of the community – the
credibility, trust and therefore the legitimacy of the
service, will grow in the eyes of the public. Increasing
the number of female personnel can have concrete
operational benefits.
Box 3 provides an overview of the over-representation
of male police officers around the world.
To move towards a more operationally effective police
and in order to more effectively respond to the security
needs of women and under-represented groups, steps
need to be taken to overcome the representation gap.
Some potential benefits of greater representation,
cited by the United Kingdom Police Home Office,
include:33
■
■
■
A gay police officer might be able to suggest new
ways of getting crime reduction messages across to
gay communities and within the police.
A younger officer may have greater knowledge of
local clubs and bars and may be able to come up
with innovative solutions to alcohol-related disorder.
A female Muslim officer may be best placed to
attend to a domestic incident involving another
Muslim woman.
Increasing the representation of female police officers
can have additional benefits. According to the National
Center for Women and Policing, national and
international studies indicate that women and men are
equally capable of conducting police work effectively.
In fact, studies indicate that women often bring a
certain set of skills and strengths to police work,
including the ability to minimise the use of, or reliance
on, force when dealing with a belligerent person(s).34
Some of the additional ways that women contribute to
a more effective police organisation are:35
■
■
■
■
Female officers may be more effective at defusing
potentially violent situations than their male
counterparts.
Female officers are reported by the public to act
“inappropriately” less frequently than their male
counterparts.
Female officers are less inclined to use deadly force,
e.g. to draw firearms.
Female officers experience less opposition or
resistance from male offenders they arrest and/or
question.
■
■
Female officers can act as role models to community
members regarding the ability for women to
participate in security sector institutions.
Female officers often possess better communication
skills than their male counterparts and are better
able to facilitate the cooperation and trust required to
implement a community policing model.36
Increased representation of female police officers is
also an operational imperative if police are to
effectively respond to GBV against women and girls.
Not only are women more likely to report GBV to a
female officer, it is also a good practice to have a
trained woman present during the investigation
procedure.
3.3 Ensuring non-discriminatory and
human rights promoting police
institutions and culture
Eliminating discrimination and human rights violations,
including GBV, by police personnel will help create an
effective and productive work environment and
increase the security of both personnel and civilians.
In some countries, police commit abuses including
sexual harassment and sexual assault, are complicit
in forced sex work and human trafficking and
discriminate on the basis of sex and sexual
orientation. Male and female police personnel, as well
as civilian men, women, girls and boys can be direct
victims of these violations. For instance, a 2006 report
from Amnesty International stated that: ‘Rape of
women and girls by both the police and security
forces, and within their homes and community, is
acknowledged to be endemic in Nigeria.’37 These
forms of human rights violations can be perpetrated by
individual police staff or groups of employees, and are
sometimes perpetuated by discriminatory institutional
cultures.
The discriminatory attitudes of police personnel can
also prevent equal access to police services.
According to the UN Rapporteur on Violence against
Women, in country after country, women report that the
police are insensitive and may fail to adequately
investigate gender-based crimes. ‘Some women have
reported that when they went to the police to report a
rape, male officers would make light of it, even asking
whether they enjoyed the experience.’38 Gender-based
discrimination can be compounded by discrimination
based on race, class, caste, age or physical disability.
For example, systematic discrimination and violence
against Roma communities by police in Croatia and the
Czech Republic have made Roma women unwilling to
seek assistance from the authorities.39
However, it should be noted that the inclusion of
women and under-represented groups does not
automatically result in a more non-discriminatory
police organisation. The internal culture of disrespect
and harassment sometimes results in individual
officers taking on the dominant culture to protect
5
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Box 4
Template for plan of action for reform 42
Recommendations
1. Promote an organisational value, stating that the
police organisation is committed to diversity and
gender issues.
2. Create policies and procedures to achieve the
organisational value.
Example: No member of staff is to be
discriminated against for any reason – race,
religion, sex, sexual orientation.
3. Create a permanent unit/body whose role is to
ensure that gender is an integral part of every
aspect of police policies and practices.
4. Develop a comprehensive internal and external
communications strategy in support of the goals
for gender equity within the police.
5. Establish measurable gender- equity goals and
tracking mechanisms.
Tasks
■
■
7. Carry out a comprehensive review of recruitment
procedures in order to identify and remove barriers
to hiring under-represented groups and analyse
unsuccessful applicants.
8. Establish mechanism to ensure that all members
of an interview board understand and demonstrate
a commitment to gender equity and serviceoriented policing.
9. Develop a plan to review all policies and procedures
to ensure they are gender and diversity- sensitive.
10. Integrate into the training programme for all new
and serving police staff the new policies and
procedures on gender and diversity.
11. Develop an employee mentoring programme.
12. Review family-friendly initiatives that reflect the
needs of all police employees.
13. Establish processes to support supervisor
accountability to address inappropriate employee
behaviour with respect to workplace harassment
and discrimination.
14. Establish or improve existing means of processing
public complaints against the police.
15. Establish mechanisms whereby all members of the
promotion review board understand and
demonstrate commitment to gender equality.
16. Establish mechanism for gender-appropriate
allocation of facilities, equipment, etc.
6
Ensure clear policy statements, which will be the
most powerful tools with which to guide police
reform.
■
Develop the mandate, terms of reference and
recommended membership.
■
Develop a communication strategy using userfriendly methods
■
■
6. Establish strategic targets for recruitment of
employees in order to increase the capacity of the
police to provide services to diverse groups within
the community.
Develop an organisational value statement.
Define monitoring systems and allocate necessary
resources.
Develop tracking systems and databases for data
collection.
■
Develop demographic survey to identify diversity
requirements.
■
Develop review process and allocate necessary
resources.
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Use newly defined policies as basis for training.
Define the plan with timelines and responsibilities
for review process.
Train all trainers on new policies.
Identify training gaps and re-design training
programmes to address gaps.
Identify women at all levels within the police to
participate in the mentorship programme.
Analyse the needs of both men and women and
develop initiatives or policies to address these
needs.
Identify disciplinary measures and train all
supervisors on the process for taking disciplinary
measures.
Analyse the current system of reviewing complaints
and ensuring they are accessible, particularly for
women and minority groups.
Set indicators to measure a commitment to gender
equality within the review board.
Identify facilities/ equipment needs.
Responsibility
Timeline
Police Reform and Gender
themselves in the workplace. Female police officers
have been known to act tougher on female victims of
crime and employ increased use of force with citizens
in an attempt to gain acceptance into the dominant
group.40 The reform process needs to address the
challenges associated with organisational culture, and
work towards a police service that respects colleagues
and the population served.
4
How can gender be
integrated into police reform?
Any reform process is delicate and requires wellplanned strategic engagement. Recognising that the
responsibility of the police is to serve and protect the
community, local ownership is important to create
effective and sustainable reform processes. Whether
in post-conflict or developed countries, neither the
police organisations nor the people they serve should
be regarded as passive receivers of reforms. As such,
the following tips and examples on the integration of
gender into police reform must be adapted to meet
specific local needs and capacities.
It is also important to keep in mind that men play a key
role in gender-responsive police reform processes.
Men in positions of power are able to use their
influence to support and lead reforms. As ‘champions’,
individuals take on the role of leaders, allies and
educators within an organisation, specifically
encouraging dialogue on potentially sensitive issues
within the security sector hierarchy.41 Throughout the
ranks, men who recognise the opportunity to create a
level playing field for all police personnel are able to
lead by example when new policies and procedures
are being adapted. Engaging male police officers in
the discussions on the need for gender equality is an
opportunity to disseminate information, and identify
areas of resistance. Without the buy-in and support of
the majority in a police organisation, no initiative will be
successful or sustainable in producing change.
4.1 Gender plans of action
The entry points below provide insight into some of the
ways that gender can be integrated into police reform.
With so many areas to address, the reform process
may seem a bit overwhelming and it can be difficult to
identify where to start. An initial gender assessment
can provide an understanding of the current situation
and highlight areas that need immediate or longerterm attention. Based on the assessment, an action
plan can be developed to identify the areas to be
addressed and what tasks need to be completed.
See Tool on SSR
Assessment, Monitoring and
Evaluation and Gender
Box 4 is an action plan template that, adapted to the
specific context, can be used to guide the process.
Effective provision of security
for men, women, girls and boys
4.2 Review operational protocols and
procedures
Protocols and procedures set the operational
framework for the work of police organisations, and
shapes institutional culture. Clear, gender-responsive
protocols and procedures need to be in place to
minimise the instances of discriminatory application
based on the judgement of individual officers. When
reviewing protocols and procedures, the following
considerations should be made:
Review and consult
■ Review procedures and protocols to ensure that
they are non-discriminatory, include gendersensitive language and incorporate the different
security needs of men, women, girls and boys –
including specific provisions on GBV.
■ Ensure that existing procedures and protocols
reflect a clear understanding that the police are
there to serve and protect the community as a
whole, including women and under-represented
groups.
■ Consult with men’s and women’s police associations
to identify required changes.
■ Discuss protocols and procedures with community
groups, including women’s organisations, survivors
of violence, and other sectors such as health,
education, justice and penal systems through
community police forums or other avenues.
■ Establish a continuous review process to adapt
protocols and procedures to reflect changing
interests and needs of the community.43
Commitment
■ Ensure that revised procedures and protocols are
supported by senior management, and that financial
resources are allocated for implementation and
integration of new information into all training
sessions.44
7
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Box 5
Sample protocol agreement between a community group
and a police service
The following is a sample protocol between the police and a community group for under-represented individuals, which serves to demonstrate the
commitment of the police to work collaboratively and responsively to the needs of the specific group. It is based on the Protocol Agreement between
the Wabano Centre for Aboriginal Health and the Ottawa Police Service.46
Definition of key principles
The best interests, protection and well-being of each individual is of primary importance
■ Value, respect and affirm the importance of specific cultural and traditional beliefs.
■ Mutual respect among service providers is beneficial to the whole community.
■ Respect the rights of people to become more involved in determining the causes and solutions to crime, disorder and conflict in a community.
■ All people must be committed to improving the quality of life of all and eliminating racism.
Definition of roles and responsibilities
The role of the community group
1. To provide ongoing cultural/historical awareness to members of the Police Service through various avenues which may include; training, meetings,
dialogue and relationship building.
2. To provide resources/information on agencies providing services within the community.
3. To participate in the relevant committees to bring issues to the attention of the police.
The role of the police service
1. To ensure the safety and security of all the individuals within the community – aware that specific groups are often over-policed but underprotected.
2. To work cooperatively with community groups and agencies to ensure that the unique needs of the group are being met in the provision of policing
services.
3. To provide the opportunity and audience for in-depth cultural awareness sessions to be delivered to members while also conveying the importance
of participating in these sessions.
4. To create an atmosphere within the police that enables and encourages interaction between serving members and specific communities.
Definition of the intent of the Parties
It is the intent of the Parties to:
1. Develop and implement a programme for briefing, educating or training to provide opportunities for mutual learning.
2. Meet periodically to exchange information about programmes, services and events and to review progress in meeting the purposes of this protocol.
3. Formally review this protocol within six months from the date of signing, and annually thereafter; or earlier at the request of either party.
4. Mutually agreed adjustments will be made as deemed appropriate with the agreement of both parties.
Outreach
■ Translate all protocols and procedures into relevant
languages and post them at all police stations in
prominent places, accompanied by a communication
and training plan.
■ Procedures that relate to interactions with the
community should be posted in places with high
levels of police-public interactions and accompanied
by a public information campaign.45
4.3 Procedures and initiatives on genderbased violence
As GBV is one of the most common threats to public
security (identified in Section 3.1), it is the
responsibility of the police to ensure rigorous and
targeted processes for addressing it. This includes
actively investigating, arresting, detaining and
encouraging prosecution of GBV crimes, as well as
8
providing appropriate support and referrals for all
victims of GBV.
Good practices for addressing GBV include:
Procedural initiatives:
■ Reform policing approaches as part of the larger
concept of the rule of law – including the reform of
laws dictating the required responses of police in
cases of GBV: e.g. a mandatory arrest policy where
there are reasonable grounds for an arrest, or a
mandatory reporting system for domestic violence.
■ Create comprehensive protocols and procedures for
GBV issues including: responding to domestic
violence calls, receiving female and male victims of
sexual violence, providing referrals to victims of antigay violence, and handling cases of human
trafficking.
■ Collaborate with health, education, justice and civil
society actors to ensure more effective responses to
GBV – create joint action plans, referral systems
and protocols.
Police Reform and Gender
■
Gather comprehensive and uniform data on GBV
crimes for monitoring purposes and advocacy for
required resources.
Additional structural and programmatic initiatives:
■ Develop specialised trained units within police
organisations to respond more effectively to GBV
(see Section 5.3).
■ Provide in-depth training to all police officers on
responding effectively to different forms of GBV (see
Section 4.12).
■ Create hotlines to receive calls on GBV.
■ Carry out media awareness-raising campaigns on
GBV issues, to ensure survivors are aware of their
rights and relevant police services, and to give a
clear public message of police intolerance towards
GBV.47
■ Engage with the public through anti-GBV outreach
campaigns.
4.4 Women’s police stations/specialised
units
Women are often reluctant to file complaints with the
police for various reasons: cultural practices limiting
interactions between men and women, social norms
disallowing women to speak of violence within the
home, and the overall inability of the police to process
complaints.49 In addition, they often feel fear, shame,
embarrassment and an unwillingness to become
involved in the police and judicial systems. Reports
from Statistics Canada in 2004 indicate that only 36%
of female victims of spousal abuse and less than 10%
of victims of sexual assault report the crimes to the
police.50
Box 7
Box 6
Guyana Police Force,
addressing GBV
In Guyana, the Guyana Police Force has been working with
government and non-governmental organisations to establish a
network to reduce gender-based and domestic violence. Results of
this initiative have included training on the Domestic Violence Act as
a mandatory component of the training curriculum at the Guyana
Police College; police stations which now have space for interviewing
persons reporting domestic violence; and the Police Commissioner
has pledged to establish a domestic violence unit within the Guyana
Police Force to better implement law enforcement duties in this
area.48
In response, women’s police stations (WPS) and
domestic violence units have been established in a
number of countries, including Argentina, Brazil,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, India, Liberia,
Nicaragua, Peru, Uruguay, Sierra Leone, South Africa
and the United Kingdom. These stations are staffed
primarily by female officers in order to provide an
environment where women may feel more
comfortable in reporting and be assured that their
reports will be properly handled. They often combine a
number of specialised police officers with health
workers, social workers, and legal and other
specialists to form a team that can respond to cases of
GBV, including domestic violence and sexual assault
of women and children. In addition, they are focused
on increasing awareness of women’s rights within the
community at large.
Some of the findings since the institutionalisation of
these units/stations include the following:
■ In India, between 1992 and 1994, 188 WPS were
established. It has been reported that this resulted in
a 23% increase in the reporting of crimes against
women and children, and a higher conviction rate.51
Case study of women’s police stations in Latin American countries
A 2003 study, conducted in certain Latin American Countries (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Peru and Uruguay)
found that each WPS structure is unique and serves a different segment of the population, depending on the country and its criminal laws.54 Although
there are differences, the main characteristics of WPS are:55
■ Most deal with domestic or family violence against women, boys and girls.
■ Services are provided in partnership with state and non-state actors.
■ Police services include processing of declarations, carrying out investigations and the mediation of agreements in partnership with social workers.
■ WPS officers are exclusively women.
■ There is no cost to the user for accessing the multi-disciplinary services.
WPS units aim to:
■ Protect women against threats to their security.
■ Provide access to legal, medical and psychological support services that users, most often the poor, may not otherwise have access to.
■ Contribute to a gendered focus on security in general.
■ Contribute to good governance through ongoing collaboration between women’s movements and NGOs, the police, and, in some cases, staterun women’s mechanisms in the areas of service provision, coordination and administration.
■ Collect data on crimes that are addressed by the specialised WPS units.
9
Gender and SSR Toolkit
■
■
The United Kingdom has found that since domestic
violence units were established, there has been a
significant increase in the number of complaints,
higher arrest and prosecution rates and a reduced
incidence of repeat victimisation.52
In Sierra Leone, Family Support Units were
established in 2001 (see Section 5.1). Since then,
increased numbers of complaints and arrests have
been reported.53
Women’s police stations provide an important service
to an often neglected segment of society. To work
towards more effective service delivery, challenges
and risks need to be taken into account. The following
is a list of some of the identified challenges/risks:
■ WPS that are separate from the central police
structure can lead to further marginalisation of
sexual violence and victim support services.
■ WPS that are not sufficiently linked to the judiciary
and are thus unable to ensure that women who
decide to press charges see their cases go to trial.
■ Statistics focus on tracking complaints that have
been lodged, and not necessarily on what outcomes
are reached or on other forms of violence against
women.
■ WPS are separate from the rest of the police, often
with minimal specialised procedures, leading to
varying means of addressing complaints or dealing
with various issues, even within a given station or
national police structure.
■ Without clear policies or procedures, there is limited
training for officers who staff such units.
■ WPS officer training has assumed that ‘being a good
listener’ and the ability to handle GBV cases, comes
naturally to women, resulting in inadequate training.
Although women’s police stations constitute one
approach to dealing with GBV, training and skills
development for addressing GBV issues continue to
be a requirement throughout the police, due to the
high level of incidents and the diversity of cases
involved (see Section 4.12 on gender training).
4.5 Community-based policing
Community-based policing (CBP) is a common
strategy when implementing police reform as it places
emphasis on closer police-community working
relations, finding new ways to solve crimes and
maintain order and improving community safety.56
When CBP is identified as a policing approach to be
used, police need to understand and take into account
the different security needs of men, women, girls and
boys.
✔
✔
Gender checklist for
community-based policing
Ensure there is political will and support for
addressing gender issues when undergoing reform
initiatives.
10
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Commit financial resources, however limited, to
demonstrating organisational commitment to
gender-responsive reforms.
Identify key players, or ‘champions’ within the police,
to advocate for, and demonstrate the importance of,
recognising and addressing the needs of the whole
community, including representation within the
police of the community they serve (e.g. police
officers who are women or from under-represented
groups).
Create close ties to the community, including
women’s organisations and community groups
working on behalf of under-represented groups,
through joint training, joint patrolling and referral
services.
Hold regular meetings between the police and the
community in politically neutral locations, e.g.
community centres rather than police stations, to
increase participation of hesitant community
members, particularly women.
Establish systems within the police to encourage
officers and staff to suggest innovative ways for the
police to serve the community more effectively and to
ensure that the needs of all women, men, girls and
boys are addressed. Recognise that, to give police
officers motivation to change, various initiatives may
be needed such as: targeted education campaigns,
diligent supervision, disciplinary actions supported
by internal review processes or civilian oversight.
Creating a representative
and more effective
police service
4.6 Assessments and audits
Assessments and audits on governance and policymaking processes can determine the challenges and
entry points to increasing the recruitment, retention
and advancement of women. Audits/assessments can
be undertaken by the police, by an independent body
such as an ombudsperson, by the ministry responsible
for the police, or by other actors involved in the reform
process such as civil society organisations. As a first
step, assessments/audits should gather concrete
information, i.e. benchmarks for tracking the impact of
reforms. The following is a template for a workplace
environmental assessment on female recruitment and
retention, based in part on an assessment made in the
United States.
See Tool on SSR
Assessment, Monitoring and
Evaluation and Gender
Police Reform and Gender
Workplace environmental assessment 57
The methodology includes:
■ Collecting information through anonymous surveys
of female and male officers of various ranks.
■ Interviews and consultations with key internal
stakeholders (e.g. the director of recruitment and
selection) and external stakeholders (e.g.
community police boards and civil society
organisations, including women’s, men’s and LGBT
groups).
■ Reviews of policies and procedures, specifically
those related to sexual harassment.
■ Examinations of statistical information, such as
recruitment and selection numbers.
Information should be gathered on areas in which
female officers have traditionally faced barriers,
including:
■ Recruitment and selection
■ Training institutions
■ Sexual harassment
■ Acceptance by peers and supervisors
■ Pregnancy and child care
■ Equipment and uniforms
■ Retention
■ Promotions
Information also needs to be collected on:
■ Amount, type, and effectiveness of gender training
received – especially on sexual harassment.
Output from the assessment includes:
Sufficient information to prepare a report that
identifies problems, challenges and a suggested
plan of action.
■
4.7 Recruitment
‘In Afghanistan, for example, the low status and
military character of the police are likely discouraging
factors for women, who, given the separation of the
sexes in Afghanistan, are uniquely qualified to handle
family and domestic cases and are essential to deal
with female suspects, who otherwise are at
heightened risk of abuse. Efforts to attract more
women include a female dormitory at the Kabul
Police Academy, and training for non-commissioned
officers on a regional basis in Baghlan for women
who are unable to live away from their families for
long periods of time.’
International Crisis Group 58
Recruitment policies and practices need to be updated
to ensure they attract a full range of qualified
individuals, including people from under-represented
groups such as women and ethnic minorities. Police
need to identify what barriers exist to attracting
individuals from specific groups and how to refine
recruitment processes. Recruitment campaigns need
to be accessible, clearly understood, reach out to
under-represented groups and address issues of
concern for target populations.
Job descriptions guide the recruitment process.
Therefore, one step to ensuring more open
recruitment processes is to update job descriptions to
accurately reflect the skills required in modern
policing. The following is a suggested checklist to
guide this process.
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Checklist for developing
a job description 59
Job description accurately reflects the duties that
police officers are expected to perform.
Community input is obtained when developing the
job description.
Job description is reviewed by a legal expert to
ensure that it is job-related
Job description describes and emphasises
community policing activities, along with traditional
law enforcement duties.
Job description emphasises the following
knowledge, skills and attributes:
- The ability to communicate with diverse
community members
- Knowledge of the value of cultural diversity
- The ability to de-escalate violent situations
- The ability to mediate disputes
- The ability to organise and work cooperatively
with community groups
- The ability to communicate with diverse
groupings of people
- The ability to develop and prioritise solutions for
crime and community day-to-day life problems
- The ability to empathise with those holding
different values
- The ability to work cooperatively with other
governmental and social service agencies
- The ability to identify proactive measures to
prevent problems and improve community life
conditions
- The ability to handle conflicting priorities
In addition, Box 8 illustrates some of the issues that
should be considered during the recruitment process
to attract and retain more women and underrepresented groups.
4.8 Retention
Targeted recruitment campaigns are only as effective
as the ability of the police to retain new recruits. Due
to the high cost of conducting recruitment campaigns
and training officers, police executives need to
11
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Box 8
Strategies to recruit and retain women
Recruitment campaign
Recruitment team
Training academies
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
Recruitment policies and selection criteria
regularly evaluated to eliminate bias.
Develop targets accompanied with clear
strategies for recruitment – Beijing Platform:
30% female representation.
Develop gender-sensitive materials –
brochures and posters depicting women and
men carrying out various tasks.
Distribute information on job opportunities in
places that women congregate such as
grocery stores, gyms, etc.
Training programmes for certain groups to
ensure they meet entry requirements (e.g.
physical training for women).
Survey current officers from the target
population to learn how they were recruited,
what they find most satisfying as a police
officer, and use this information in
recruitment campaigns.
Incentive programmes for serving police
officers who attract new qualified recruits
from target communities.
Lateral entry schemes to encourage
qualified individuals from under-represented
groups to enter at higher positions.
Public information campaigns targeting
under-represented groups, including career
fairs.
■
■
■
■
■
■
Select individuals who understand and
support new recruitment policies.
Train officers on gender and diversity
issues.
Ensure team has male and female officers.
Team members are friendly and easy to talk
to.
Ensure team is able to answer questions on
family-friendly policies.
Include appropriately skilled members from
the community and female officers on
interview panels.
Establish set questions and rating system
for interview panel reflective of new job
description, and monitor team members to
see if one member consistently rates certain
groups lower.
■
■
■
■
■
■
Targets or quotas in training courses and position
levels.
Ensure equipment and logistics meet the needs of
all officers, specifically sanitation facilities, living
quarters, specialised uniforms and other materials
for female officers.
Institute mentoring programmes, which have been
shown to benefit every employee whether civilian,
sworn officer, male or female.60
Ensure policies related to pay, benefits, pensions or
other remuneration methods are based on equity for
male and female officers.
Enforce polices and establish initiatives to prevent
and respond to discrimination, sexual harassment
and GBV – including mandatory sexual harassment
and gender-awareness training.
Staff associations, such as an association of female
staff, to offer support to officers from underrepresented groups to advocate for their rights,
suggest improvements to police executives, provide
training to individual officers, contribute to a
reduction in discrimination levels and reduce the
12
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
■
improve retention rates, particularly of women and
under-represented groups.
Measures for increasing retention rates:
■
■
■
■
■
Male and female trainers.
Joint training of male and female recruits.
Ensure that training is compatible with
family responsibilities.
Female only training where culturally
appropriate.
Specific facilities for women in training
venues.
Physical tests reflective of actual police
duties – test current police officers to
establish standard of performance.
Ensure women are not isolated in live-in
academies, which increase drop-out rates.
Focus on building confidence of recruits on
how to deal with physical confrontations
rather than just physical strength.
Increase confidence in training areas that
certain groups are not traditionally familiar
with (e.g. women’s firearms training).
Move away from culture of ‘tear them down
– build them up’ which is based on
humiliation and shunning as it may lead to
sexual harassment and fear of reporting
these incidents.
Establish training committees to review all
training material and ensure it is genderresponsive.
pressure on individual officers regarding certain
issues.
Ensure target groups are not over-represented in
entry-level, low-status or low-paid jobs.
Accelerated programmes for targeted groups
accompanied by required training.
Monitor retention rates to identify obstacles or areas
where targets are not being reached.
Widespread exposure of high-ranking officers (both
internal and external to police) from a specific target
group to be role models and illustrate possibilities for
career advancement.
4.9 Human resources
Human resources policies and practices in the police
have traditionally responded to the needs of men.
Policies regarding hours worked, time off and other
issues often focus on officers demonstrating their
commitment through working long hours and taking
shifts. It was also assumed that male officers had
wives to take care of the household and children, or
were single and independent. As women were
introduced into the workforce, these assumptions
Police Reform and Gender
were challenged and reforms had to be made to
ensure that human resource policies are not
discriminatory. Revisions will not only benefit women,
but can improve the work-life balance for male
personnel as well, which in turn can increase retention
and efficiency.
Measures to increase female recruitment and
family-friendly human resources:
■ Flexible work hours for shift work and leave options
■ Part-time and job-sharing opportunities for men and
women
■ Clearly defined pregnancy policies that are flexible,
fair and safe – including light work or modifications
of current duties
■ Adequate maternity and paternity leave
■ Day care facilities on or off site
■ Nursing facilities
■ Stress-management training
■ Access to psychological support
■ Appropriate uniforms – including during pregnancy
By addressing these issues, police organisations will
send a strong message internally and externally that
law enforcement is a viable career choice for mothers
and fathers. In addition to changing policies, police
organisations need to ensure that officers who take
advantage of these options are not stigmatised or
treated as less serious officers, impacting on career
advancement opportunities and promotions.
Box 9
4.10 Advancement
An analysis on the distribution of under-represented
groups, especially women, within various ranks of the
police demonstrates the limited extent to which
changes have taken hold. Women continue to be
represented in higher numbers within lower ranked
positions. In Honduras, women make up
approximately 6% of the police officers, and only 2%
of the top ranked positions.62
Measures to increase advancement: 63
■ Objective and non-discriminatory promotion criteria
that include rewards for problem solving, working
with the community and referrals to social services.
Minimise evaluation criteria biased in favour of a
particular group – e.g. using military experience or
seniority as a desirable criterion may put women at
a disadvantage.
■ Clear, transparent and objective job assessment
standards and performance-based assessment
reviews and appointments, based on revised job
descriptions and skill requirements rather than
outdated perceptions of police skills (see Section 4.7
for more information on job descriptions and skill
requirements).
■ Use independent review boards and external
interviewers to minimise internal biases or
promotions through an ‘old boy’s network’.
■ Ensure equal assess to job training for career
advancement.
■ Ensure individuals from under-represented groups
have access to positions that are regarded as
valuable for career advancement.
■ Ensure promotion panels do not view positions
typically held by female officers as less ‘valuable’
(GBV, child abuse, sexual assault, working with
Increasing the recruitment and retention of female police officers in New
Mexico, USA 61
In the Albuquerque Police Department (APD) in New Mexico, US, a project entitled the New Workplace for Women Project was funded by the US
Department of Labor and directed by the NGO Institute for Women in Trades, Technology & Science (IWITTS). In less than two years the project
showed significant success in recruiting female officers and creating a supportive work environment for them. The proportion of female recruits in the
academy increased from 10 to 25% and the women were retained at rates comparable to those for men. The Project included initiatives on:
■ Workplace environmental assessment: conducted by IWITTS, it included anonymous surveys of female and male officers, interviews with key
stakeholders, reviews of policies and procedures and examinations of statistical information.
■ Plan of action and implementation team: IWITTS created a report and plan of action based on the assessment and APD formed a team of
female and male officers in leadership positions to be responsible for implementation.
■ Ensure political will: Recruitment and retention of female officers was given top priority by all leaders in the Department.
■ Active recruitment of women: Women & Policing Career Fair; media coverage on women and policing; flyers, posters and brochures featuring
female and minority officers; targeted recruitment list.
■ Selection process: Replacing board interview with a critical incident interactive video that rates how participant responses eliminated gender bias.
The application pool was ranked based on written selection criteria and female officers were involved in the selection process.
■ Prevent sexual harassment: Conducted an anonymous climate survey, designed by IWITTS and administered by APD; instituted a zerotolerance sexual harassment policy; 8-hour police-specific training on preventing sexual harassment for supervisors.
■ Change standard operating procedures: APD requested vendors to provide uniforms and equipment in smaller women’s sizes; physical
education instructors adjusted training regimes to prevent women recruits from suffering disproportionate leg injuries; a study on child care issues
was initiated.
13
Gender and SSR Toolkit
■
■
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juveniles) or penalise part-time/flex time workers
when considering promotions.
Closely monitor evaluations of female officers who
have complained of harassment in the past.
Encourage high-ranking female officers to speak to
women’s police associations regarding the
importance of applying for promotions.
Compare how supervisors rate female officers in
relation to male officers, and conduct an
investigation if women are consistently rated lower.
Conduct an independent survey of women who are
qualified for promotions to gain insight into why
women are applying/failing to apply.
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
Ensuring non-discriminatory
and human rights-promoting
police institutions and culture
✔
4.11 Codes of conduct and policies on
discrimination, harassment and violence
‘[U]nless officers respect one another, it’s difficult to
expect them to respect the multicultural community
that they serve.’
National Center for Women and Policing
Clear policies and codes of conduct need to be
developed using a consultative and inclusive process,
in order to effectively prevent and sanction internal
discrimination, harassment, violence and other human
rights violations. Comprehensive measures should be
taken to prevent and sanction all forms of human
rights violations perpetrated by police personnel,
against other police staff and civilians, including
development of sexual harassment policies.
✔
✔
✔
✔
Checklist for sexual harassment policies 65
A statement that the organisation supports the rights
of every employee to be free of sexual harassment
in the workplace. Harassment based on gender,
sex, race, sexual orientation, age, disability or other
‘difference’ is unacceptable.
A statement that offenders will be held accountable
for acts of sexual harassment and disciplined
appropriately.
A statement that supervisors and managers are
responsible for maintaining a harassment-free
workplace and that they will be held accountable for
stopping and appropriately reporting harassment.
14
✔
64
✔
✔
A statement that acts of retaliation against members
who complain about sexual harassment shall be
considered as additional acts of misconduct, and
investigated and disciplined accordingly.
An explanation of the law prohibiting sexual
harassment.
A definition and examples of harassment behaviour
that can be easily comprehended.
Formal procedures to resolve complaints of
harassment.
A process to encourage early intervention and
resolution of hostile work environment complaints,
such as ombudsperson programmes.
An assurance that complaints will be kept
confidential to the extent possible.
A description of the level of discipline that may be
imposed for violations of the policy.
The process for reporting complaints, with an
emphasis on multiple places for filing complaints
such as:
- Any department supervisor
- Any command officer
- A designated diversity coordinator
- The law enforcement agency’s human relations
division
- The commission that oversees the law
enforcement agency
- The human relations division of the political entity
involved
- The state labour division responsible for enforcing
discrimination laws
Timelines for investigating and resolving complaints
of sexual harassment.
A statement that complainants shall be notified of
their rights, statutes of limitation for filing civil
complaints and referrals to administrative agencies.
The names and telephone numbers of persons to
contact if the employee has questions about the
policy.
Once policies or codes of conduct are developed,
steps should be taken to ensure that all police
personnel and those they interact with are aware of
the new policy/code:
■ The head of the police can issue a zero-tolerance
policy statement to demonstrate commitment to the
policy.
■ Initiate distribution and awareness-raising
campaigns for the public through civil society
oversight bodies or community groups.
■ Establish mechanisms to monitor or report violations
of the policy (e.g. hotlines or anonymous reporting
processes).
■ Distribute and post the policy throughout police
stations.
■ Provide training on the policy for serving members
and volunteers, and incorporate information on the
policy into training programmes for new recruits
Police Reform and Gender
4.12 Gender training
To contribute to a shift in police practices and the
institutional culture, training on institutional reforms
(policies and procedures) or skills development for
addressing specific crimes (domestic violence, rape or
sexual assault), need to take place at all levels of
police training from introductory to refresher courses.
Gender issues should be mainstreamed into all
relevant training areas and training should also
include in-depth modules on gender-related issues.
See Tool on Gender
Training for Security
Sector Personnel
Gender training topics include:
■ General gender and diversity awareness
■ Institutional codes of conduct and policies on
discrimination and sexual harassment
■ Respect and promotion of human rights, including
women’s rights
■ Protocols and practices on:
- Domestic violence
- Rape
- Sexual assault
- Stalking
- Human trafficking
- Anti-gay violence
- Child abuse
■ Techniques for interviewing victims of GBV
To teach new skills on how to address various types of
crimes, training needs to demonstrate the link
between theory and practice. Concrete examples
enable individual officers to better understand what
they should be doing and what is acceptable police
behaviour in given situations.
In Honduras, the UN Population Fund has helped train police officers
on gender issues and in assisting victims of domestic violence. The
training focuses on how to process cases of domestic violence,
ensuring officers understand the seriousness of this offence, and in
some cases on the need to provide protection. 66 Oscar Reyes –
coordinator of the domestic violence training programme in Honduras
– said: ‘There was some resistance from the bosses in the police
education institutions in the beginning, but we managed to convince
them that this is an important issue. Now they are our strongest
allies.’
!
Tips for more effective police training
Training for institutional reform:
■ Begin all training sessions with an opening address
from a senior police officer who can articulate the
importance of the topics being discussed,
demonstrating a commitment to institutional reform.
Gender and human rights issues should be
integrated into all aspects of police training and not
be considered a separate subject.
Responding to crimes in a non-discriminatory manner:
■ Use participatory training techniques incorporating
the knowledge and preconceptions of the police
officers in order to demonstrate real-world issues
and how to address them.
■ Provide practical examples of skills and behavioural
tools required in dealing with all community
members to enable police officers to translate
policies into practice - invite officers who have
participated in specific types of investigations to
assist with examples.
■ Include community organisations, including
women’s organisations, in training sessions to
provide examples and different perspectives.
■ Ensure that the training team is composed of male
and female officers who are knowledgeable of
national and international laws and the new policies
and procedures that are being implemented.
■ Develop training modules for addressing specific
crimes in cooperation with relevant community
associations.
■ Include sessions on existing legal tools and
mandates to deal with specific crimes, as well as
practical skills for processing and investigating
complaints equitably.
■ Train men and women officers on how to address all
types of crimes, specifically GBV.
■
4.13 Civilian oversight
It is widely recognised that, with input from and
collaboration and partnership with civil society and
local communities, the reform process can help to
reframe traditional police-civilian relationships, 67
which, due to certain practices, are often
characterised by distrust and fear. By creating civilian
oversight mechanisms, public trust can be increased
and formal recourse mechanisms for individuals and
communities can be established. In any of the
oversight mechanisms created, equal representation
from under-represented groups – including women –
is a priority.
Forms of civilian oversight include:68
■ National-level police liaison board: including
representatives from civil society, such as
representatives of NGOs and women’s organisations,
academics, lawyers and human rights activists to
advise the police on community needs.
■ Local-level liaison boards: local governments,
police representatives and civil society groups
assess local security issues, particularly those which
give rise to GBV and discrimination, and report
these trends to the police to assist in development of
an action plan for reform.
15
Gender and SSR Toolkit
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■
Independent police ombudsperson: appointed to
investigate serious cases of police abuse, including
deaths in custody and excessive use of force.
Tips for strengthening civilian oversight
Joint training sessions between the police and
individuals in volved in civilian oversight
mechanisms to increase knowledge levels and
respect for the role of each partner.
Include monitoring methods, record keeping, report
writing, communication techniques and basic
organisational skills in training sessions to ensure
information is properly gathered and can feed into
decision-making processes.
Educate community groups and local governments
on their roles, in order to build their awareness and
capacity to properly monitor and provide information
to the police.
Raise awareness within the community on legal and
human rights issues, including how to file complaints
regarding the police.
Ensure political will from within the community and
the police (establish strong linkages and work
closely with community leaders, key organisations,
police executives and senior management in the
development or enhancement of civilian oversight
mechanisms) to increase the likelihood that civilian
oversight mechanisms will work effectively.
Conduct research on the police and publicly
distribute findings.
Distribute oversight findings to the wider community,
where necessary via the radio, theatre etc., to reach
illiterate populations.
5
Integrating gender into
police reform in specific
contexts
The following section addresses challenges,
opportunities and tips from post-conflict, developing,
transitional and developed countries. Recognising that
contextual realities do not lend themselves to easy
classification, this section provides a general overview
which needs to be adapted to each specific context.
5.1 Post-conflict countries
‘Th[e] effort to engage more women in the Haitian
National Police… is very important, not only for the
way in which the police will function and be seen by
the population, but also because the feminization of
the national police will highlight the involvement of
16
women in non-traditional roles as actors and agents
of change in Haiti.’
Nadine Puechguirbal – MINUSTAH Senior Gender
Advisor 69
In post-conflict countries, there is often widespread
insecurity, with certain forms of violence increasing,
alongside political institutions that have been mainly
destroyed. Security forces have often been involved in
the conflict, committing human rights abuses against
the population, and are therefore highly distrusted.
There may be a temptation to continue to use the
police as a tool of repression in the post-conflict
situation due to the insecurity, both by the political
powers and the police themselves. There is often a
need for systemic reform, including reform of the laws
governing the actions of security forces - how to
respond to crime - and the actions of citizens - what
constitutes a crime.
During conflict, women, men, boys and girls are
subjected to humiliating and violent acts of
aggression. In post-conflict societies, the incidence of
GBV, including domestic violence, rises considerably.
In Sri Lanka there were numerous accounts of excombatants returning home and inflicting abuse on
their wives similar to that which the women had
experienced during war.70 The increased presence of
guns in the home contributes to more severe forms of
domestic abuse: women often see guns in the home
as a threat rather than a form of protection.
In post-conflict environments, an opportunity exists to
address police reform from a gender perspective. With
high incidences of GBV and wide-ranging human
rights violations against men, women, boys and girls,
the police are one of the paramount organisations that
need to be rebuilt and strengthened.
Challenges to gender-responsive police reform
■ National police forces are not the only agents
involved in policing – fragile states often have
multiple security agencies that have been
developed and need to be addressed in security
sector reform efforts.
■ Security forces, including police, are often the
perpetrators of violent crimes, including rape and
sexual assault, against community members.
■ National police often work in conditions without
equipment and are poorly paid, while still being
expected to carry out their changing mandates. This
often results in rampant corruption as well as a
reluctance to prioritise reform processes or gender
issues.71
■ Commitment to gender-responsive police reform
diminishes as crime begins to rise and police return
to oppressive ways of addressing crime,
disadvantaging certain groups in society.72
■ Police institutions are often very suspicious of civil
society organisations and are reluctant to work with
them, creating barriers for community organisations
to provide input into reform processes.73
!
Police Reform and Gender
Opportunities and tips for gender-responsive
police reform
The following is a non-exhaustive list of opportunities
and tips to be used when reforming the police in postconflict countries:
■
■
■
■
■
■
International attention and financial support can
influence the reform process, encouraging
sensitivity to the needs of both men and women.
International civilian police forces can, for example,
act as role models to local forces.
Altered gender roles and social structures provide a
space for more women to consider the police as a
professional opportunity.
Women with new skills and understanding of peace
and conflict issues, including ex-combatants, can be
recruited into new police organisations.
Implement a vetting process to ensure new recruits
and serving police officers do not have a history of
violence or serious crime, particularly when
integrating ex-combatants into the new police
structure.
Recognise the level and severity of GBV as a threat
to security, and implement appropriate measures,
including the training of all personnel and
establishment of specialised units, to address GBV.
Work closely with national and international actors
familiar with gender issues in a given context to
ensure processes and programmes are addressing
the needs of all sectors of society.
Civilian policing in peacekeeping operations
International peacekeeping missions of the UN, AU,
NATO, OSCE and EU, with civilian policing
components, create an opportunity for police to be role
models, mentors and trainers to local populations as
they carry out their police duties identified through
mission mandates.
■ In South Africa, the UN observer mission
(UNOMSA) was composed of men and women from
diverse racial backgrounds. The mission was led by
Angela King, a black woman, and included 46%
female observers, which sent a strong message,
particularly to the women of South Africa.74
■ In Sierra Leone, the presence of female police
officers within the UN mission demonstrated that
women were capable of being police officers, that
they have a key role to play in the development of a
new police force and that they should be respected
by their fellow police officers.
■ In Liberia, the first all-female police unit deployed
from India is garnering international attention,
demonstrating the various roles and capabilities of
female officers within peace operations. The
Liberian National Police received three times the
usual number of female applicants in the month
following their deployment.75
International support in peace operations is a unique
opportunity to demonstrate the importance of having
women and under-represented groups recruited into
the police and building capacity on gender issues,
specifically when donors focus financial support on
revising recruitment policies, ensuring that entry
requirements can be met by target groups and that
specialised units dealing with GBV are fully equipped.
In Liberia, the UN and the Government of Liberia have
instituted the Education Support Programme for
female potential recruits to the Liberia National Police
(LNP). The accelerated programme aims to bring the
educational level of interested women up to the high
school graduation level so that they can qualify for
LNP recruitment. The Special Representative of the
UN Secretary General, Alan Doss, addressed the
young women of Liberia, stating, at the programme
launch, that: ‘This is an opportunity to not only
enhance your education, but, if you successfully pass
the test, you can join the LNP and help make a
difference to your country, especially the women of
this country.’76
Vetting
Vetting is a process of conducting background checks
on individuals interested in becoming a police officer.
It focuses on determining the suitability of an individual
and ensuring that applicants have no history of
violence or serious crimes.77 In post-conflict societies,
vetting is an important tool to screen officers who have
been involved in crimes against the community,
including GBV, or where ex-combatants are being
integrated into the new police structure. Although a
lengthy and challenging process, as there is rarely
reliable information or records upon which to base
screenings, vetting is an important step in regaining or
building the trust of the community.78
!
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■
■
Tips for vetting processes 79
Vetting should be carried out independently.
Establish an effective and credible vetting unit.
All officers should be required to go through a vetting
process.
Establish an open process by providing information
for the public and establishing methods for public
participation.
Carefully consider the standard of evidence – if the
burden of proof requirement is too high, human
rights abusers might be included in the police force.
Screen for individuals with a history of perpetrating
domestic violence or child abuse, sexual
harassment, violent behaviour, or any type of GBV.80
Implement a probationary period for police officers.
Dismiss police officers if credible information about
past or ongoing abuses is disclosed.
Involve community organisations in vetting
processes as they have intimate knowledge of
individual community members.
Recruiting women
Integrating women into newly reformed police
organisations, including female ex-combatants,
contributes to the legitimacy and effectiveness of the
police. As ex-combatants, women have often acquired
new skills and knowledge regarding security issues.81
Female ex-combatants often understand what may
17
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Box 10
Sierra Leone Family Support Units (FSU)
Sierra Leone went through a decade-long conflict where GBV was used as a strategy of war. Women and girls were subjected to abduction,
exploitation, rape, mutilation and torture. In addition to crimes of war, a study by Human Rights Watch for the period of 1998 to 2000 indicated that
70% of the women interviewed reported having been beaten by their male partner, with 50% having been forced to have sexual intercourse.
As the culture of secrecy began to be broken, there has been a growing recognition that survivors need access to the police to report crimes,
protection in temporary shelters, treatment including medical and psychological services, and legal assistance.85 However, police attitudes to
survivors of sexual violence were not supportive, resulting in many women not wanting to report the crimes to the police. In response, the government
established the first Family Support Unit (FSU) in 2001 to deal with physical assault, sexual assault and cruelty to children.86 In addition, training was
provided to police officers on how to handle domestic and sexual violence.
Collaboration
■ Memorandum of understanding between the Police FSUs and the Ministry of Social Welfare, Gender and Children’s Affairs, allow them to work
together to monitor and report GBV and child abuse.87
■ Recognition and agreement to work with international organisations to ensure effective and efficient service delivery. UNICEF supported training
to improve investigation of domestic abuse; International Rescue Committee, Cooperazione Internationale and GOAL worked with the FSU to
provide psychological counselling, training services and temporary safe places.88
Services offered by the FSU
■ Skills training for abused women
■ Financial support to homeless battered women
■ Sensitisation campaigns and awareness-raising activities around the country to encourage women to report GBV
■ Women’s help line
Outcomes
■ By 2005 there were 19 FSUs in the Police Local Command Units (PLCU).
■ Between 2004 and 2005 there were 21 convictions, with prison terms ranging from 6 to 12 months. 89
■ By 2005, 105 staff (including police and social workers) were trained in awareness-raising, human rights, media and communication skills, recordkeeping, sexual investigation and joint police-social workers’ investigation of sexual offences. 90
Challenges
■ There continues to be evidence that women who are encouraged to report cases to FSUs find officers reluctant to intervene in domestic assault
unless it is considered serious – i.e. maiming, wounding, disabling. 91
attract women to work as police, which can contribute
to the definition and implementation of recruitment
strategies.
?
■
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■
■
Questions to ask to increase female
recruitment: 82
Is there a commitment from authorities at the
political and senior police level to ensuring
recruitment and retention of women?
Is there an active effort to recruit and train female excombatants for positions in the police?
Are psychosocial services available to women who
become officers and who may be re-traumatised
when processing criminal complaints?
Have basic selection criteria, such as education
requirements, been reviewed to ensure women are
not unfairly excluded from recruitment?
Are bridging programmes being implemented to
ensure women meet the basic requirements?
18
Police units on gender-based violence
‘A woman is not likely to tell a man that she has been
gang-raped by 15 men. Sometimes local women
were more able to talk to UNOMSA women about
certain things.’
Hannah Yilma – Member of UNOMSA mission 83
Due to the high levels of GBV in conflict and postconflict environments, some countries have set up
specialised units to encourage reporting and
comprehensively process complaints. These units are
often staffed with female police officers and social
workers who are specially trained to deal with family
issues and child protection. 8 4 Their intimate
knowledge of the subject helps victims process the
trauma and receive support to enable full recovery
from the crime. In Sierra Leone there has been an
increased level of incidence reporting, due to the work
of the units and increased understanding regarding
women’s rights and the services available for reporting
GBV (see Box 10). Although successes have been
recorded, challenges exist and require continued
attention (see Section 4.4).
Police Reform and Gender
5.2 Transitional countries
Transitional countries are characterised as moving
from one political system to another, but where longterm internal violence has not occurred. In Central and
Eastern Europe (CEE), there was a transition from
communism to post-communism. In the closed
economies of CEE countries, the police were closely
tied to the political leaders and state institutions,
where the mission of the police or militia was primarily
political. These systems were tightly controlled,
individual police officers had minimal autonomy, and
they were responsible for furthering the ideals of the
political authorities.92
Challenges to gender-responsive police reform
Ukraine gained its independence in 1991, embarking
on an economic, social and political reform process.93
The police force was targeted for reform, including the
integration of women, in an attempt to overcome a
poor reputation, high levels of corruption and a low
level of trust between the police and the community.
The case of Ukraine demonstrates some of the
challenges faced in transitional countries with regards
to gender and police reform, which include:
■
■
■
■
!
■
■
■
Previous ruling elite remains in power and can result
in widespread opposition to change.
Promotion process plagued by nepotism, with
women rarely reaching levels higher than sergeant
or colonel.
Unofficial quotas set to cap the number of women in
the police – training institutions in Ukraine were said
to have instructions from the Ministry of Interior to
keep female enrolment below 10% per year and
senior managers encouraged to keep levels around
8%.
Hesitation of NGOs and community groups to meet
with police and government representatives to
discuss reform processes due to high levels of
distrust.94
Opportunities and tips for gender-responsive
police reform
Cultural shifts in gender roles in the greater society,
which demand changes in institutional mechanisms.
Develop a sequenced action plan which focuses on
short and long-term reforms to ensure immediate
gains are made in line with broader institutional
reform.
Create an independent body to oversee selection
process and reduce the likelihood of favouritism.
5.3 Developing countries
In developing countries, although the movement is not
necessarily from one political system to another, the
police are often closely tied to the needs of the state
rather than the people. Reforms often focus on
transitioning from colonial-style or militaristic police
institutions to more democratic institutions that are
established to serve and protect the community. In
addition, developing countries are plagued by high
levels of poverty, limited economic opportunities, poor
infrastructure, and weak national institutions – all of
which have an impact on police organisations.
Challenges to gender-responsive police reform
■ General opposition to addressing gender equality
issues such as equal rights and recruitment.
■ Although formal legislation for human rights and
equality of women exist, the realisation of those
rights is often complicated by parallel state laws,
religious laws and traditional laws that limit the
implementation of legislative reforms.95
■ Often members of the security forces condone
gender-based assaults rather than preventing
them.96
■ Negative attitudes at various ranks to a focus on
gender reform when they are lacking basic
resources such as pens and paper and feel more
pressing issues need to be addressed.97
■ Limited capacity and commitment within the
leadership to support and implement real change
with regards to gender reform.
!
■
■
■
Opportunities and tips for gender-responsive
police reform
Citizen’s movements, particularly for underrepresented groups and women, are becoming
stronger within society, more aware of their human
rights and are advocating for changes within the
national structures. They can advocate for and
support gender-responsive reforms.
Increased access to education for various segments
of the population, including women, often cited as a
prerequisite for qualifying as a police officer.
Ensure the application process is not too costly, in
order to increase the ability of people with limited
financial security to apply.
5.4 Developed countries
In the context of developed countries, police reform
often focuses on optimising the effectiveness of the
police and efficiently responding to the needs of the
community. Developed countries like Canada, the
United States and many European countries have
been affected by a loss of public confidence in the
wake of police corruption scandals, use of excessive
force, brutality, lawsuits for sexual abuse and
harassment within the police.98 There have been calls
for the police to be more representative of the
populations they serve, and to become focused on
preventive and neighbourhood policing, where the
police are more accountable for their actions.
19
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Challenges to gender-responsive police reform
■ Although diversity campaigns are in place, often the
number of people from under-represented groups
remains low and those individuals in the police may
take on the dominant culture as a coping
mechanism, and therefore will not improve the
overall culture or relations with the community.
■ Inability to appeal to highly qualified women for a
career in police organisations.
■ Some resistance to quotas or affirmative action in
certain countries where a ‘level playing field’ is
(wrongly) perceived to already exist.
!
■
■
Opportunities and tips for gender-responsive
police reform
Costly litigation supports the argument for the
recruitment and retention of more women. In the US,
on average, a male police officer in a big city costs
taxpayers 2 ½ to 5 times more than the average
female police officer in excessive force liability
lawsuit payoffs.99
The validity of physical testing, long used as a
means of screening out certain groups, is being
undermined by the fact that long-serving members
of the police are unable to pass the tests, although
they are found to be capable of performing the
duties expected of them.100
20
6
Police Reform and Gender
Key recommendations
Planning
1.
2.
3.
Senior-level commitment and support: any
initiative needs to have senior level support if it is
to have a long-lasting impact on changing the
institutional culture of the police, including the
identification of senior-level ‘gender champions’.
Gender assessment: police reform programmes
need to understand gender and security issues at
the ground level, including the capacity of the
police and the community to implement changes.
Action plans: based on an assessment, a clear
action plan and framework need to be developed
and implemented to ensure the reform is in line
with broader institutional and systemic goals.
Implementation
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Gender-responsive policies and procedures:
Review, revise and create new policies and
procedures that take into account the needs of
men, women, girls and boys, including sexual
harassment policies and codes of conduct.
Procedures and initiatives on gender-based
violence: Institute procedural, structural and
programmatic initiatives, such as the creation of
women’s police stations or telephone hotlines that
improve the prevention and response to GBV.
Training: Implement training programmes at all
levels to mainstream gender issues and provide
specific training to increase GBV-related skills
and to create non-discriminatory police
organisations respectful of human rights.
9.
Vetting processes: Screen police recruits for
GBV, including domestic violence.
10. Multi-sectoral collaboration: Work with the
health, justice and education sector, as well as
with civil society organisations – including
women’s organisations; lesbian, gay, bisexual
and transgender groups; and children’s rights
advocates – to ensure that reforms are
participatory and meet the needs of all
communities.
Monitoring and evaluation
11. Information campaigns: Develop internal and
external communication plans to ensure police
and community members are aware of the
gender-responsive police reform process and
how to file complaints against the police.
12. Accountability: Establish internal and external
mechanisms to monitor and hold accountable
individuals or groups who are not in line with
broader institutional reform. Special attention
should be paid to accountability for human rights
violations including GBV.
13. Civilian oversight: Establish structures such as
liaison boards and ombudspersons’ offices to
facilitate oversight. Community groups and
NGOs may need support and training in order to
effectively monitor police organisations.
Recruitment, retention and promotion of
women: Review recruitment, retention and
promotion of women and other underrepresented groups, and initiate the reforms and
new initiatives needed to target them.
Female police associations: Support
associations for under-represented groups, as a
venue for advocacy, support, sharing of
experiences and the learning of lessons on how
to cope and excel in a police environment.
21
7
Gender and SSR Toolkit
Additional resources
Useful websites
Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative –
http://www.humanrightsinitiative.org
European Network of Police Women –
http://www.enp.nl
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed
Forces – http://www.dcaf.ch
International Association of Women Police –
http://www.iawp.org
International Peace Academy –
http://www.ipacademy.org
National Center for Women and Policing –
http://www.womenandpolicing.org
Open Society Justice Initiative –
http://www.justiceinitiative.org
OSCE Strategic Police Matters Unit –
http://www.osce.org/spmu/
UN–INSTRAW – http://www.uninstraw.org/en/index.html
Practical guides and handbooks
Council of Europe, The VIP Guide: Vision,
Innovation and Professionalism in Policing
Violence Against Women and Children, Council of
Europe: Strasbourg, 2001.
Council of Europe, Human Rights and the Police:
A Workbook for Practice-Oriented Teaching,
Council of Europe: Strasbourg, 1998.
http://www.coe.int/T/E/Human_Rights/Police/2._Publi
cations/2.1_Trainers’_Supply_Kit/CI(98)1_Workbook
_for_practice_oriented_teaching.asp
Bayley, D.H., Democratizing the Police Abroad:
What to Do and How to Do it, U.S. Department of
Justice: Washington DC, 2001.
http://usmex.ucsd.edu/research/justice_pdfs/bailey_2
001.pdf
International Centre for Criminal Law Reform and
Criminal Justice Police, Model Strategies and
Practical Measures on the Elimination of Violence
Against Women in the Field of Crime Prevention
and Criminal Justice: Compendium and
Resource Manual, 1999.
http://www.icclr.law.ubc.ca/Publications/Reports/Com
pendium.pdf
http://www.icclr.law.ubc.ca/Publications/Reports/VA
WMANUA.pdf
22
National Center for Women and Policing, Recruiting
and Retaining Women: A Self-Assessment Guide
for Law Enforcement, National Centre for Women
and Policing: Los Angeles, 2001.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/bja/185235.pdf
OSCE, Guidebook on Democratic Policing, 2007.
http://www.osce.org/item/23086.html
Hope, T., Responding to Domestic Violence: A
Handbook for Police, Centre for Domestic Violence
Prevention and Uganda Police Force, 2007.
http://www.preventgbvafrica.org/Downloads/PoliceHa
ndbook.CEDOVIP.pdf
Online articles and reports
Marks, R.T. and Denham, T., A Roundtable on
Police and Gendarmerie Women in Peace
Operations: West African Solutions to Gender
Mainstreaming Challenges, 2007.
http://www.peaceoperations.org/web/la/en/fi/708D77
9C21BD42C98A760EB295B6BD15/get_file.asp
UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Policy
Briefing Paper: Gender Sensitive Police Reform in
Post Conflict Societies, 2007.
http://www.undp.org/cpr/documents/gender/Gender_
Sensitive_Police_Reform_Policy_Brief_2007.pdf
O’Neill, W.G., Police Reform and Human Rights,
New York, 2004.
http://www.undp.org/governance/docs/HR_Pub_Polic
eReform&HR.pdf
Police Reform and Gender
ENDNOTES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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19
20
21
22
23
24
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Security, Security
System Reform and Governance, DAC Guidelines and
Reference Series, (OECD: Paris), 2005, p.20.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/8/39/31785288.pdf
Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Edition, ‘Police’, (Oxford University
Press: Oxford), 2003.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Security. OECD
DAC Handbook on Security System Reform: Supporting
Security and Justice, Draft Edition, (OECD: Paris), 2007, p.163.
Groenewald, H. and Peake, G., Police Reform through
Community-Based Policing: Philosophy and Guidelines for
Implementation (International Peace Academy: New York),
2004, p.1.
Groenewald and Peake, pp. 10-17.
Neild, R., ‘Sustaining Reform: Democratic Policing in Central
America’, Citizens Security Monitor, Oct. 2002, p.1.
Shahjahan, A.S.M., ‘Strengthening Police Reform’,
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Bank: Bangladesh), May 2006, pp.30-31.
Mehta, S., ‘Police Reform: An exchange of experiences from
South Asia – Roundtable Report’, Commonwealth Human
Rights Initiative Qutab Hotel, New Delhi, 23-24 March 2007, p.
5.
UN Economic and Social Council, Report of the SecretaryGeneral, Coordination of the Policies and Activities of the
Specialized Agencies and Other Bodies of the United Nations
System: Mainstreaming the Gender Perspective into all Policies
and Programmes in the United Nations system, 12 June 1997.
German Technical Corporation (GTZ), Security Sector Reform
and Gender: Concept and Points of Entry for Development
Cooperation (GTZ: Germany), 2007, p.7.
Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Crime and Safety’, (Australian
Bureau of Statistics: Australia), 2005. www.abs.gov.au
Women’s Self-defense Institute, ‘Statistics on Crime against
Women-2005’. www.self-defense-mind-body,spirit.com/statistics/html
Vlachova, M. and Biason, L., ‘Violence Against Women as a
Challenge For Security Sector Governance’, Challenges of
Security Sector Governance, eds. Hanggi, H. and Winkler, T.,
(LIT Verlag: Munster), 2003, p. 16.
Human Rights First, ‘Islamophobia 2007 Hate Crime Survey’,
(Human Rights First: New York), 2007, p.16.
Human Rights Commission, ‘Advancing equality for All’, Equality
Update, Feb. 2006, p.2.
United Kingdom Police Home Office, ‘It works…The Operational
Benefits of Diversity for the Police Service’, 2005, p.4.
http://police.homeoffice.gov.uk/news-andpublications/publication/humanresources/Operational_Benefits_Leaflet.pdf
Martin, S.E.,and Jurik, N.C., ‘The Nature of Police Work and
Women’s Entry Into Law Enforcement’, Doing Justice, Doing
Gender: Women in Legal and Criminal Justice Occupations, 2nd
Edition, (Sage Publications), 2006, p.61.
Martin and Jurik, p. 62.
Osse, A., Understanding Policing: A Resource for Human Rights
Activists (Amnesty International Nederland: Amsterdam), 2006,
p.90.
Cyprus Police, ‘Annual Report 2006’, (Research and
Development Department: Nicosia), Jan. 2007, p.13.
Osse, p. 90.
Kosovo Police, ‘Statistics’, (Ministry of Internal Affairs: Kosovo),
2006. http://www.kosovopolice.com/english/statistiks.html
Jamaica Constabulary Force, ‘About the JCF’, Police National
Computer Centre, 2001.
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‘Meeting of the Government of the Czech Republic’, Reference
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25
26
27
28
29
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31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Economic and Social Data Rankings, ‘Female Police
Personnel’, Dataranking.com, 2002.
http://www.dataranking.com/table.cgi?LG=e&TP=so07-2
Romanian Police, ‘Summary of the Evaluation Report of the
Activity of the Romanian Police 2005’, Romanian Police, 2005,
p.11. http://www.politiaromana.ro/Engleza/evaluation.htm
Osse, p. 90.
Economic and Social Data Rankings, 2002.
Reitano, J., ‘Police Resources in Canada 2006’, (Minister of
Industry: Ottawa), Nov. 2006.
National Police Board, ‘The Swedish Police Service’,
Stockholm,2001.
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Horne, P., ‘Policewomen: The First Century and the New Era’,
The Police Chief 73.9 (2006), p.1.
Finnish Police, ‘Personnel’, Finnish Police, 2004.
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C225702E002D3365
United Kingdom Police Home Office, 2005.
National Center for Women and Policing, p. 22.
Bezuidenhout, C., ‘Performance of Female Police Officers in a
Male Dominated Environment: Replacing Myth with Reality,’
Institute for Human Rights & Criminal Justice Studes - Second
World Conference 3-7 December 2001, Durban, South Africa,
p.7.
Lonsway, K. et al., Hiring & Retaining More Women: The
Advantages to Law Enforcement Agencies, National Center for
Women & Policing, 2003, p. 2.
Amnesty International. Nigeria, Rape - the Silent Weapon, 28
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UNIFEM, Not a Minute More: Ending Violence Against Women,
(UNIFEM: New York), 2003, p. 46.
UNIFEM, p. 47.
Osse, p. 91.
UN News, ‘UN-Sponsored Meeting Calls For More Male
Facilitators in Gender Training’, UN News, June 2006.
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der&Cr1=training
This action plan is based on the Ottawa Police Outreach
Recruitment Project Recommendations. http://careerscarrieres.ottawapolice.ca/whats_new.cfm?article=44
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Information and
Communication, ‘Institutional and Organizational Change’, The
Hague, Netherlands, March 2002, p. 1.
Clegg,I., Hunt, R. and Whetton,J., Policy Guidance on Support
to Policing in Developing Countries (University of Wales Press:
Swansea), 2000, p.29.
Ministry of Home Affairs, ‘Police Public Interface: Making it
Happen’, Proceedings of Seminar at Mumbai, Nov. 2004.
Ottawa Police Service, ‘Protocol Agreement between Wabano
Centre for Aboriginal Health and the Ottawa Police Service’,
April 2007.
UN Development Programme, ‘Gender Approaches in Conflict
and Post-Conflict Situations’, (UN: New York), 2002, p.13.
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA),
‘Addressing Gender-based violence in Guyana’, Available
online. http://www.acdicida.gc.ca/CIDAWEB/acdicida.nsf/En/EMA-218121448-P6L
Shahjahan, A.B.M., ‘Strengthening Police Reform’,
Strengthening the Criminal Justice System, (Asian Development
Bank: Bangladesh), 30-31 May 2006, p.56.
Statistics Canada, ‘Measuring Violence Against Women:
Statistical Trends 2006’.
http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/85-570XIE/2006001/summary.htm
Kandaswamy, D., ‘Indian Policewomen Practice Policing and
Politicking’, Ms. Magazine, Winter 2004.
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Clegg, Hunt and Whetton, p.27.
23
Gender and SSR Toolkit
53
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Police, Personal Interview, 2007.
Jubb, N. and Izumino, W.P., ‘Women and Policing in Latin
America: A revised Background Paper’, (Latin American Studies
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Jubb and Izumino, p. 6.
Groenewald and Peak,p. 1.
Adapted from Polisar, J. and Milgram, D., ‘Recruiting,
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that Work’, The Police Chief, Oct. 1998.
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Citizen Security: Regional Training Module (Complejo Grafico
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National Centre for Women and Policing, p. 86.
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Police Training and Domestic Violence in Honduras’, Oct. 2005.
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Security Sector Reform in Kenya, South Africa, Ghana and
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to recruit more female officers’, 9 Aug. 2007. Available online:
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i&Cr1
Conaway, p.14.
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Vulnerable’, (Institute for Security Studies: South Africa), 2006,
p. 5.
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24
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92