~··
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE
SKIN CONDUCTANCE PATTERNS AMONG
n LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 111
Special Education
by
Gail Beth Werbach
June, 1979
~··
The Thesis of Gail Beth Werbach is
~pproved:
Ruth \Forer, Ed.D.
~~a Wyeth, Ed.D.
(__§r~
Lee, Ed. D. , Chairperson
California State University, Northridge
ii
Dedication
To My Husband, Hel vyn vJerbach, without whose
love and guidance this would not have
been possible.
iii
TABLE
OF
CON'rENTS
.................................
ii
Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
iii
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vl
Approval page
I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Problem.................
Statement of the Problem..................
Research Hypothesis.......................
Purpose of the Study......................
Definition of Terms.......................
II
IV
3
3
3
4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Activation Theory .. . ...... ...•........ ...
Galvanic Skin Response....................
Attention and the Learning Disabled Child.
III
2
7
9
20
METHODOLOGY
Pilot Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
Statistical Design........................
Null Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . .
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
Instrumentation ........................ ·. . .
Data Collection and Recording.............
Data Processing and Analysis..............
Methodological Assumptions................
Limita·tions...............................
24
24
2425
26
31
34
37
37
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION
Findi11.gs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-...............
Interpretation............................
iv
40
42
44
Table of Contents (Continued)
V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS
·,
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·...........
Recomrnendat ions . .... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
48
48
References... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
v
ABSTRACT
SKIN CONDUCTANCE PATTERNS AMONG
LEARNING DISABLED STUDENTS
by
Gail Beth Werbach
Master of Arts in Special Education
Learning-reading Disorders
This study was designed to explore the relationship
between activation and learning among the learning disabled by utilizing electrodermal patterns of response as
the measure of activation and a paired-associates task as
the measure of learning.
A review of the literature yielded a number of studies
relating activation to learning among normal achieving students, but few studies were found which explored this relationship among the learning disabled.
The Research Hypothesis was: Is performance on a pairedassociates task for learning disabled childreri related
t~
active.tion of electrodermal activity as measured by skin
conductance levels?
The
subj~cts
vi
studied were forty-four
children betv1een the ages of five and fifteen referred to
the Department of Mental Health of Ross Loos Medical Group
in Los
A~geles
for the evaluation and/or treatment of learn-
ing problems.
The statistical design used was a 2x2 Factorial Design.
Measurements consisted of number correct on a paired-associates task as index of learning and skin conductance levels
taken on a Toomin GSR instrument as index of activation.
Levels of skin conductance immediately following presentation of the learning task were selected for statistical
analysis.
.05 level.
The Chi Square analysis was significant at the
Subjects with a moderate level of skin
conduc~
tance (0.6-1.1 log micromhos) were more likely to perform
better than subjects with either lower or higher levels of
skin conductance.
This study has identified a subgroup of the learning
disabled population whose abnormally high or low levels of
skin conduc·tance reflect their problems in learning .
..
VI,-
CHAPTER I
Introduction
In the last ten years, educators have shown increasing
concern over the problems of learning disabled children.
These children show a marked discrepancy between their
potential for academic achievement and their actual school
performance.
Those educators and psychologists who study
these children have difficulty formulating a concise definition of what constitutes learning disability.
Clements
(1966) found 38 terms 1n the literature for children with
learning disabilities and associated symptoms.
The follow-
ing definition by the National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children is probably the one most commonly used to
identify pupils who are eligible for special education placement and related services:
Children with special learning disabilities exhibit
a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using
spoken or written languages. These may be manifested
in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading,
writing, spelling, or arithmetic. They include conditions which have been referred to as perceptual
handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction,
dyslexia, developmental aphasia, etc. They do not
include learning problems which are due primarily to
visual, hearing or motor handicaps, to mental retardation, emotional disturbances or to environmental disadvantage.
{Myers & Hammill, 1976, 3-4).
1
2
The reported prevalence of learning disability varies
greatly depending upon the definition and the specific
criteria employed, and ranges from one to thirty percent of
school children in published studies (Myers & Hanunill,l976).
Background of the Problem
Observers of the learning disabled child in a classroom
setting commonly note behavioral criteria by which these
children can be separated from others with similar potential
who perform adequately.
These include hyperactivity, dis-
tractibility, short attention span and perceptual motor
deficits.
Researchers have sought to relate these behavior-
al symptoms to particular psychological or physiological
deficits.
Some of the studies assign a central role to
attentional and motivational processes (Tarver & Hallahan,
1974).
Others cite evidence that activation, as indicated
by a number of physiological measures, is related to both
intra- and inter-individual variations in performance (Berry
1962).
Hhen the degree of activation is minimal, perform- .
ance on any number of tasks is of mediocre quality.
As
activation increases to a moderate level, performance
reaches an optimal point.
When activation is very high, the
quality of performance again deteriorates.
Thus, when
activation is plotted against performance, a curve develops
which resembles an inverted "U".
Of course, the degree of
activation will be a function of both the characteristics
3
of the individual and the task being studied (Malmo, 1959).
Statement of ·the P:l?oblem
Do deviations from moderate activation levels of electrodermal activity correlate with difficulty in learning
among the learning disabled?
Research Hypothesis
The research hypothesis was:
Is performance on a
paired-associates task for learning disabled children related to activation of electrodermal activity as measured by
skin conductance levels?
Purpose of the Study
This study explores the relationship between activation and learning among the learning disabled by utilizing
electrodermal patterns of response as the measure of activation and a paired-associates'task as the measure of learning.
There are a number of studies in the literature concerning activation as related to learning among normal achieving
students, while little has been published concerning this
relationship among learning disabled.
The paucity of such
studies is unfortunate as they may assist in the identification of specific maladaptive activational patter•ns within a
sub-group of the learning disabled, who could then benefit
4
from therapeutic procedures designed to correct such
patterns.
Definition of Terms
,.....
Activation: A term used primarily to refer to the func-
tions of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS).
This system regulates the level of general attention in relation to environmental stimuli on the one hand, and cerebral processes on the other.
Th~
organism is continually
in varying states of activation, or in an "activation con-'.
tinuum," and reaches its highest activation level at an
average stimulus intensity, whereas the level of activation
via the ARAS remains low at very intense and very weak
stimulation.
2.
Defensive Response:
According to Sokolov,(l960, 1963),
the Defensive Response (DR) is evoked by intense or noxious
stimulation and is extremely resistant to habituation.
Its
function is to protect the organism by attenuating the perceptual effects of .such stimulation.
Using only measures of
electrodermal activity, the occurrence of a DR is somewhat
difficult to differentiate from an Orienting Response.
Recently, Edelberg (1972) has suggested that measures of
electrodermal recovery rate may distinguish DRs from goaldirected behavior.
3.
Electrodermal Activity: Electrodermal activity is a
physiologic measure which indicates changes in sweat gland
5
activity.
Since the sweat glands are innervated by the
sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, measures
of electrodermal activity also provide indications of sympathetic nervous system activity.
These measures include
skin conductance (or resistance) levels, skin conductance
(or resistance) responses and skin potential level and response.
They are often referred to as the "GSR" which stands
for Galvanic Skin Response.
4.
Learning:
A change in response due to experience.
English and English (1958) in their definition include
under learning "the process or processes whereby such change
is brought about."
5.
Learning Disability:
6.
Orienting Response:
see page 1.
Th~
concept of the orienting res-
ponse (OR) was described originally by Pavlov (1927) as the
··investigatory or "what-is-it" reflex.
Sokolov (1960, 1963)
has extended this investigation and developed a detailed
theory of receptivity to stimuli and information processing
based upon the occurrence of ORs and Defensive Responses.
He describes the OR as a generalized response to novel stimuli which are mild to moderate in intensity which habituates·upon repetition of the stimuli.
That response is characterized by a complex pattern of
skeletal and physiological changes and includes changes in
skin conductance as well as other autonomic and electroencephalographic responses.
Sokolov has taken the position
~···
6
that the OR functions to produce heightened sensitivity to
environmental stimulation causing increased intake and
processing of information.
7.
Paired-associates task:
A rote method used in verbal
learning and retention studies whereby a subject must learn
stimulus-response paired items, and later, upon request,
must reproduce the second item upon presentation of the
first remembered item.
The score is the number of successes
or of retained members.
Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis
In Chapter 2 a review of the literature related to the
study is presented.
The review includes pertinent informa-
tion on Activation Theory, Galvanic Skin Response and the
Learning Disabled Child.
of the study.
Chapter 3 details the methodology
Included is a descripti?n of the pilot study
which preceeded the ·experimental study.
This chapter also
includes the experimental design, procedures and instrumentation.
Chapter 4 contains an analysis and evaluation of
the study and discussion of the results.
Chapter 5 presents
a summary, conclusions and recommendations for further
study.
CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
Activation Theory
The terms "arousal," "energy mobilization," and "excitation" describe physiological processes which are currently
subsumed under "activation." Research by physiologists on
how the autonomic nervous system (ANS.) responds to lncreasing stimulation· and by electroencephalographer'S on the
patterns of electrical activity of the brain's cortical
cells under similar conditions has demonstrated that a
continuum of EEG patterns existed which paralleled a continuum of behavior from an extreme of deep sleep to an extreme of great excitement.
The electroencephalographers
called the EEG responses to stimulation "activation." Since
psychophysiologists use "activation" as 6ne of the terms
describing autonomic responses to stimulation, the word is
nmv in general use to refer to both EEG and autonomic
responses (Sternbach, 1966).
Activation may be influenced by stimuli.
It occurs
not only as a result of external stimulation; central phenomena, such as exciting
thoughts~
can produce similar effects.
Also it appears that stimuli acting through the classical
sensory
path~vays
as well as changes in activity in various
parts of the brain affect activiation through a common path-
7
8
way, the brain stem reticular formation.
Fibers from each
of the sensory systems, on their way to the cortex, send off
branches to the reticular formation as they pass through
the brain stem to produce a generalized cortical activation.
This reticular system seems necessary for activation; when
it is damaged by accident, disease, or experiment, the
individual is difficult or impossible to arouse, and is in
a coma ..
The possibility of ever-increasing activity, due to
stimulation of .the reticular formation which produces autonomic and muscular activity which then results in greater
reticular activity, is prevented by built-in mechanisms for
terminating the cycle.
Homeostatic-like processes (negative
feedback) operate in all such cortical-subcortical inter-
......
ac~.1ons.
The cortex, hypothalamus, reticular formation, per1pheral autonomic, motor and sensory fibers and circulating
hormones are all involved in activation.
All continuously
influence each other and modify each other's and their own
input.
The indices frequently used to measure changes in activation (short term fluctuation, or brief responses to some
form of stimulation) have relatively little lag, are quantifiable and have good reliability.
The electromyograph
(EMG) records traces of muscle action potentials given off
by contracting muscles.
The electroencephalograph (EEG)
9
records the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex which
reflects fluctuations in membrane potentials in the millions
of cortical cells, an ongoing metabolic phenomenon, not
action potentials resulting from specific stimulation.
The
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), which is a measure of electrodermal activity (EDA) is another measure that is easily
recorded and quantified, and is a sensitive responder to
stimuli from both external and internal sources.
Other
measures of activation include heart rate, blood pressure
and respiratory rate.
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
A.
GSR As A Heasure of Activation
The use of measures of electrodermal activity (EDA) in
relation to the theoretical concepts of attention and arousal seems to have begun with the work of Fere (1888).
He
was interested in the effects of sensory and emotional stimuli on the development of "psychic·energy" and developed a
very early statement of arousal theory.·
Fere measured skin
resistance res?onses and demonstrated that sensory or emotional stimulation was accompanied by a decrease in skin
resistance.
The report by Fere repre.sents what appears to
be the first at-cempt to use EDA as an index of an important
psychological construct (Prokasy, 1973).
The early work of Fere led to what is knovm today as
arousal or activation theory.
Duffy took the position that
10
the general level of energy mobilization is a major aspect
of what has been historically labeled as emotion.
She
pointed to skin conductance level as an indicator of the
level of energy mobilization (Duffy & Lacey, 1946).
The
term "energy mobilization" was soon replaced by "activation"
which was put forth by Lindsley (1951, 1960).
Lindsley
showed that activation or arousal is related to activity 1n
the brain stem reticular formation and is manifested by in_creased frequency and decreased amplitude of EEG activity.
Sharpless and Ja_sper (1956) pointed out that the lower portions of the reticular formation are responsible for the
longer-lasting changes in the level of reactivity, whereas
the upper portions of the reticular formation seem to subserve attentive processes which are of briefer duration.
Malmo (1958) supported the position that tonic measures such
as SCL are the best indices of activation or general arousal.
A number of studies have shown that, when the degree of
activation is minimal, performance on any number of tasks is
of mediocre quality.
As activation increases to a moderate
level,·performance reaches an optimal point.
When activa-
tion is very great, the quality of performance deteriorates
to alow point again.
This sort of relationship is descri-
bed as the inverted U from the appearanceof the graph when
the degree of activation is plotted against level of performance.
Schlossberg (1953) first noted the curvilinear
relationship between activation and behavioral efficiency.
11
The concept has been further elaborated by Hebb (1955) and
Malmo (1958).
B.
GSR Parameters in the Measurement of EDA
There are a number of dependent variables which can be
obtained from recordings of EDA.
The different measures of
EDA have been used for a variety of purposes including (1)
the level of arousal, (2) the level of alertness or attentiveness, (3) the impact of different types and intensities
of stimulation, (4) the rate and amount of habituation of
responses as a function of different stimulus conditions,
(5) a means of differentiating ORs and DRs, (6) assessing
individual differences in responsiveness, attentiveness,
conditioning and anxiety, and (7) the investigation of
differences· among diagnostic categories.
The use of tonic levels of skin resistance (SRL), skin
conductance ( SCL), and skin potential (SPL) as indices of
the general level of activation goes back to the work of
Fere (1888).
Recent studies are consistent with the hypo-
thesis that SCL is a satisfactory indicator of the general
level of activation (Duffy 1962, Malmo 1959, Raskin 1969).
Liederman and Shapiro (1964) recorded SPL during different
stimulus conditions.
They reported that SPL was low during
sleep, intermediate during a monotonous learning task, and
high during the presentation of electric shock, noises, and
during sensory deprivation.
They concluded that SPL is a
12
simple, objective technique for measurlng various states
of behavioral activation.
In general, the amplitude of skin resistance responses
(SRR), skin conductance responses (SCR), and skin potential
responses (SPR) have been the most popular measures of EDA.
Studies employing phasic EDA's as dependent variables include investigations of variations in parameters of simple
stimuli (Davis 1955, Raskin 1969), measures of anxiety
(Martin 1961), and individual differences in attention
(Maltzman and Raskin 1965).
Unfortunately, procedures for measuring changes in EDA
have not been standardized.
Authors may report, for
example, any consecutive changes (Rugel 1971, Spencer 1973)
or may report' the. measure only at certain pre-arranged
intervals regardless of whether it has changes (Andreassi
1967, Hunter 1972, Johnson 1967).
Because of the lack of
stnadardization, it is often impossible to compare similar
studies.
C.
GSR And Attention
Historically, most approaches to the relationship bet-
ween attention, arousal, and performance have ignored individual differences.
However, in the past twenty years,
there has been increased interest in exploring such differences in autonomic activity and their relation to performance in a variety of situations.
13
One major line of investigation was initiated by John
Lacey and his co-workers.
That approach focused on the re-
lationships between individual differences in the rate of
nonspecific EDRs, performance, and personality variables.
'
Lacey and Lacey (1958) counted the number of non-specific
SRRs during a rest period, the performance of different
tasks and the presentation of electric shock.
They found
.high correlations across time and conditions, and they conc~uded
that the rate of non-specific SRRs is a stable indi-
vidual characteristic.
A second approach to the study of individual differences in EDA was derived from Sokolov's (1963) model of ORs
and DRs and is exemplified by the work of Maltzman and
Raskin (1965).
Their approach involves the use of an index
of individual OR amplitude as a means of predicting performance in situations such as semantic conditioning and
alization of SCRs (Raskin 1969),
ve~bal
gener~-
learning (Belloni
1964), and verbal conditioning (Smith 1966).
The general
procedure is to obtain a measure of the OR for each S by
measuring the amplitude of SCR to the first stimulus or
first USC presented to the S and then assessing the degree
of relationship between individual differences in the
amplitude of ORs and performance.
The data reported on the relationships between individual differences in electrodermal ORs and performance seem
to indicate that individual differences in amplitude of
14
electrodermal ORs are related to individual differences in
~ttentional
and learning capacities.
Belloni (1964) divided
her subjects into low-OR and high-OR groups and asked them
to learn lists of paired associates (PA).
She found that,
for male Ss, high ORs were associated with faster response
speed on difficult items and fewer trials required to reach
the criterion of learning.
obtained with female Ss.
Significant results were not
Thus, the results for male Ss
indicated that amplitude of electrodermal ORs are related
to performance in PA learning in a way which is predicted
by the attentional-perceptual capacity interpretation of
ORs.
Similar results were obtained by Maltzman and Raskin
(1965) and Raskin (1969).
A number of studies have assessed the relationship
between electrodermal lability and both psychological and
behavioral characteristics.
Lacey and Lacey (1958) showed
that electrodermal "labiles" (Ss above the median number of
nonspecific SRRs during rest) had faster reaction times and
made more errors than did the "stabile'' Ss.
Crider ( 19 7 2)
demonstrated that electrodermal labiles (as measured by
speed of habituation of SPRs to tones on tvTO different
occasions) showed superior performance in an auditory vigilance task. Further analysis based on signal detection principles led Crider to conclude that electrodermal labiles
do not differ from stabiles in any cognitive capacity but
do show differences in levels of motivation and arousal.
15
In an attempt to answer directly the question of
whether EDRs indicate emotion or attention, Flanagan (1967)
obtained measures of amplitude of SCR and ratings of emotional reactions and "attention-getting" value to photographic stimuli.
He found average correlations of -.64 between
magnitude of SCR and attention scale values and average
correlations of 0.32 between magnitude of SCR and emotion
scale values.
Since the correlations with attention were
significantly higher, Flanagan concluded that an attention
interpretation of SCR is preferable to one based upon
emotion.
D.
GSR And Learning
An early investigation of the relationship between GSR
and learning used a standard serial verbal learning procedure (Brown, 1937).
Larger SRRs were associated with the
learning process rather than with vocalization of the correct verbal response.
A subsequent study reported by
Kintsch (1965) employing a PA learning task demonstrated
that the amplitude of SRRs to a stimulus increases up to
the point of the last error, and then declines after learning has been completed.
The results obtained by Brown and
Kintsch might be interpreted as indicating that ORs are
evoked by the task demands placed upon the subject; when
the level of performance reaches that required by the
situation, the OR begins to habituate.
16
Germana (1968) pointed out that the above studies included no attempts ·to separate the activational responses
which occur to the different components of a learning trial,
since EDRs which occur to the stimulus member of a pair were
combined with the EDRs associated with the overt response
required of the S.
Therefore, Germana (1964) employed a
concept-formation task in which Ss were instructed to withhold their response to the stimulus until an interval of
time had elapsed.
Using that procedure, he reported that
the SCRs to the stimulus showed the characteristic increase
followed by a decrease in amplitude, whereas the SCRs concurrent with the overt responses did not show a similar
pattern.
Thus, the phenomenon which Germana describes as
"activational peaking" occurs as a result of Ss preparation
to respond, and the SCRs begin to diminish as learning
enables the S to respond with little preparatory effort.
An.dreassi and Whalen (1967) conducted two experiments to
investigate physiological activity associated with original
learning and overlearning of verbal materials.
The results
showed that there were increases in skin conductance with
new learning, decreases with overlearning, and further decreases with double overlearning.
It was concluded that
the drop in physiological activity which occurred with
overlearning was due to an habituation of physiological
response when Ss were no longer required to assimilate
novel materials and a reduction in apprehensiveness as
17
the experiment progressed.
A number of experiments utilizing EDRs have validated
the hypothesis that activation and performance follow an
inverted U relationship.
Berry (1962) presented Ss with a
PA learning task and measured SCL during the course of
learning and subsequent recall.
He reported that inter-
mediate levels of skin conductance during both the first
minute of the learning session as well as the first minute
of the recall period were associated.with better recall
performance.
Stennett (1957) compared the performance of
31 male _college students on an auditory tracking task under
different conditions of incentive.
Subjects performed
better in the "optimal arousal" condition than they did 1n
either the "low arousal" or "high arousal" condition.
Spencer studied activational
identification tasks.
pe~king
in two concept
The results support the hypothesis
that SCL is reflective of cognitive activity and that the
spontaneous SCR reflects the psychological stress accompanying the successful utilization of information intake.
Heasures of activation levels supported the inverted U
hypothesis (1972).
Simon reported negative findings on her investigation
of the relationship between the OR and both learning and
retention of verbal PA.
An attempt was made to induce
various levels of the OR by presenting PA lists containing
different numbers of stimulus words in a changed format.
18
Results indicated no reliable performance differences between high and low OR subjects.
The author suggests as a
possible explanation of the results that college students
are generally a highly select group, and are at an asymptotic level of attention (Simon 1970).
E.
GSR and the Learning Disabled Child
A search of the relevant literat~re found only three
studies of EDA in which the subjects could be considered to
be learning disabled.
One study was concerned with differences between
readers and non-readers with respect to physiological OR
patterns in the autonomic nervous system, particularly the
electroder·mal and cardiovascular responses to repeated
stimuli 1n series (Hunter 1972).
Autonomic response
patterns of twenty male non-readers ranging in age from 7
years 11 months to 11 years 4 months were compared with
those of twenty matched controls.
The authors found that
the non-reader's most noticeable characteristic was his
deficient or fluctuating attention which was reflected 1n
hi~
lower basal skin.conductance levels over trials.
Boydstun et al (1968) compared the patterns of skin
resistance and heart rate of 26 children ages 6-12 with
minimal brain dysfunction. with 26 control children during
an auditory discrimination task.
The authors postulated
that relatively simple and standard laboratory tests
19
would discriminate this clinical group from a group of controls.
They found that skin resistance gradients did sepa-
rate the two groups of children as controls had steeper
gradients than the clinical
group.
·,
The subjects who condi-
tioned well gave evidence of generalization in SR and heart
rate, whereas the subjects who conditioned poorly did not.
The authors suggested that defective arousal structures or
defective coupling of arousal structures and other perceptual and motor structures could explain the decreased autonomic reactivity, the longer reaction times, the short
attention span and poor concentration of some children with
learning disabilities.
Arousal structures in the brain
stem and limbic system are critical for attention and perception, and these same structures contain mechanisms 1mportant in autonomic and skeleto-motor functioning.
Dureman and Palshammar (1970) combined psychophysic~ogical
recording with a tracking task on seven children
9 to 10 years old rated by the'ir school teachers as Low
Persistence (LP) and seven rated as High Persistence (HP).
They hypothesized that the LP children are generally more
prone to anticipate failure and, therefore, .tend to resign
and give up earlier than the HP children.
Such a tendency,
if found 1n the tracking task, would be expected to be
accompanied by evidence of lowered activation and alertness
in the autonomic recordings.
Results indicated that the LP
children were significantly lower in initial skin conduc-
20
tance level than the HP children, and skin conductance
level than the HP children,_and skin conductance levels on
the LP children decreased further during the experiment.
Rugel (1971) evaluated the potential usefulness of EDA
as an indicator of anxiety in children with reading problems by investigating the relationship between arousal and
levels of reading difficulty in normal students.
were twenty second- and third-graders.
Subjects
The results of this
investigation supported the hypothesis that a child's level
of arousal increases as reading difficulty increases from
independent to instructional to frustration levels.
He
concludes that, "the fact that the GSR response was sensltive to changes in reading difficulty with these children
suggests that it is probably a useful diagnostic tool with
problem readers whose degree of frustration in the reading
situation is more intense."
Attention and the Learning Disabled Child
Attention deficits have long been associated with
children with learning disabilities.
Among the character-
istics of learn{ng disabled children are hyperactivity, distractibility, short attention span, impulsivity, perseveration, perceptual-motor deficits, memory deficits, poor
intersensory integration, and more specific deficits of
auditory and visual perception.
Researchers have sought to
determine if there is a single, more basic psychological
processing deficit which can account for these various be-
~···
~··
21
havioral symptoms.
Cruickshank and Paul (1971) point out
that the field of learning disabilities sprang from earlier
work with brain damaged children.
They state that the char-
acteristics of learning disabled children mentioned above
are due to the "child's distractibility, that is, his inability to filter out extraneous stimuli and focus selectively on a task"(p. 37-3).
In addition, Dukman and his
colleagues (1971) have developed a theory which postulates
that organically based deficits in attention explain the
core group of symptoms associated with the learning disabilities syndrome.
Ross, in his book Learning Disability:
The Unrealized Potential (1966) defines a.learning disabled child as:
"a child of at least average intelligence whose academic performance is impaired by a developmental lag
in the ability to sustain selective attention.
Such
a child requires specialized instruction in order to
permit the use of his or her full intellectual potential." (p. 11).
Tarver and Hallahan (1974) reviewed twenty-one experimental studies of attention deficits in children with
learning disabilities.
The following conclusions were
drawn from their research.
"1) Children with learning disabilities exhibit more
distractibility than controls on tasks involving embedded contexts and on tests of incidental vs. central
learning; 2) Hyperactivity of children with learning
disabilities may be situational-specific, with higher
levels of activity being exhibited in the structured
situation; 3) Children with learning disabilities
are more impulsive, i .. e., less reflective, than controls; 4) Children with learning disabilities are
deficient in their ability to maintain attention over
prolonged periods of time." (p. 36)
-----~=---
~----
~·-
CHAPTER III
Methodology
Pilot Study
In early 1978 following a rev1ew of literature dealing
with attention, learning, and activation, I had discussions
with several authors who are prominent in the field of
Biofeedback including Barbara B. Brown, Ph.D.,.author of
New Mind, New Body (1974) and Stress and The Art of Biofeedback (1977), George D. Fuller, Ph.D., Associate Clinical
Professor in the Department of Biological Dysfunction, U.C.
Medical Center, San Francisco, author of Biofeedback Methods
and Procedures in Clinical Practice (1977), David French,
Ph.D., President of the Biofeedback Society of· California,
and Melvyn Werbach, M.D., Director of Clinical Biofeedback,
Pain Control Unit UCLA Hospital and Clinics.
These discus-
sions convinced me that the GSR may be a useful way of looking at the process of learning 1n the learning disabled. I
first explored the methodology 1n a pilot study in July of
1978.
Subjects consisted of seven children ages seven to
thirteen who were then seeing me for Educational Therapy at
Ross Loos Medical Group in Encino, California. These children were all referred for remediation of learning problems.
??
23
They were of at least average intelligence as measured by a
WISC-R.
Achievement scores on the Wide Range Achievement
Test placed them two to three years behind grade level in
reading, math and spelling.
'
A Toomin GSR instrument, model 505, was used.
Measure-
ments were taken from the palm of the dominant hand.
The
initial measurement was taken following attachment of the
electrodes.
A second measurement was made after the
subject was instructed to take a deep breath and exhale
slowly.
The final measurement was taken following a loud
noise made to startle the child.
Results were consistent with the inverted U hypothesis.
Five of the Subjects displayed skin conductance (SC) levels
1n a similar range.
One Subject had very low readings which
barely moved with either deep breathing or a startle.
Subject was felt to be clinically depressed.
This
The seventh
Subject had values much higher than all the others.
This
Subject was very anx1ous and seemed to be holding in feelings of anger.
Since it appeared that children with either unusually
low or high arousal, in contract to the chil.dren with moderate levels of SC, were experiencing emotions which could
interfere with learning, it occured to me that
sc
levels
might differentiate between high and low performance on a
learning task.
In other words, subjects with very high or
very low levels of SC may perform less well due to inter-
ference with the process of learning.
Following the pilot study, I began the following
research study of the SC patterns of learning disabled
children.
Statistical Design
The statistical design used was a 2x2 Factorial Design
(Sheridan 1971).
In this design two or more variables
(performance and activation) are manipulated simultaneously,
showing modifications in functional relationship for a given
independent variable as a function of changes in the other
independent
variable~
Null Hypothesis:
Activation as measured by skin conductance
levels is not related to performance on a Paired-Associates
task for learning disabled children.
Dependent Variables: Changes in skin conductance levels
during performance and number correct on the test.
Independent Variable:
The Paired-Associates task.
Subjects
Subjects consisted of a total of
forty~four
children
referred to the Department of Mental Health of Ross Loos
Hedical Group for the evaluation and/or treatment of learning problems.
Ross Loos is a large, private prepaid medical
care plan operating in the greater Los Angeles
area~
Members
range in socioeconomic class from the upper end of the lower
25
class to the upper end of the middle class, each family
having at least one person who is employed.
Subjects were
seen at the Ross Laos offices in Encino, Santa Ana, Torrance
and downtown Los Angeles, California~
The subjects ranged in age from five years to fifteen
years.
They were of at least average intelligence as meas-
ured by a \..JISC-R or Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.
Achievement scores on the Wide Range Achievement Test or
the Peabody Individual Achievement Test placed them one to
five years behind grade level in reading,
~ath
and spelling.
Procedures
Subjects were introduced to me by their Educational
Therapist who stated that I was to do a learning test with
them.
The therapist stayed in the room during the experi-
ment.
The subjects were seated opposite me at a desk.
Subjects were first given a brief introduction of the
task which included information about how the measurements
would be taken.
questions.
They were given an opportunity to ask
When they indicated they were ready to begin,
the palm of the dominant hand was wiped clean, and silver/
silver chloride electrodes were filled with electrolyte
and attached with a Velcro band ..
Readings were taken at five points during the experlment.
The first reading was taken thirty seconds after the
subject was instructed to sit back and relax.
The subject
was then instructed to take a deep breath and exhale slowly
,,_
26
and the second reading recorded the maximum SC immediately
following the deep breath.
The third reading was taken
immediately after presentation of the final Paired-Associates item; the fourth was taken immediately after presentation of the first test item.
The final reading was taken
immediately after presentation of the last test item.
Instrumentation
Ten pairs of geometric designs were designed by me for
this experiment.
(Figures land 2, pp. 27, 28).
drawn on 3"x5" white cards with black ink.
They were
I decided to use
simple geometric designs rather than meaningful words in
the Paired-Associates task because of the following:
the
subjects in the study included ages five through fifteen
with different degrees of academic achievement; learning
disabled children often have difficulty with reading words
(Myers and Hammill, 1976).
Measurements were taken on a Toomin GSR instrument,
model 505.
(Figures 3 and 4, pp. 29, 30).
has six selectable scalei:
The Toomin 505
0-10, 10-2G, 20-30, 40-50, and
0-50 micromhos for recording skin conductance levels.
The
students received no audio or visual feedback during the
testing.
I monitored only the visual feedback on the
machine.
Batteries were checked daily.
27
Flrur·~
1
·-Task
•
Car~s
•
•
·•
•
•
•
~
I
I
j _ _ __ _ _ _ , /
28
F1yurt'! 2
Task Carrls
X
29
.. -
_._;.':-.:·
~~-~: ---~ ....--~-~
~--'
-.:••-."7:".-.-.;:_
--:---:-~~·-'"::--
~-=::£::Z...:..::..::.~:
.
.
<
·' ..
::~
•
·:0;
.
Since 1972, the Toomim 505 GSA has been in daily use
in our Psychotherapy Center, and has been developed
and refined principally lor use by psychotheraoists.
Since its clinical introduction, and the pioneering clinical research here by Majorie Toomim, Ph.D., Director
of Psychological Services, the Toomim 505 GSR has
become the most widely used professional GSR in
the U.S.
The T oomim 505 measures changes in skin conductance-on the palmar surfaces in micromhos, providing
rapid, sensitive audio and visual fpedback on Sympathetic Ner>~ous System activity. Palmar electrodes produce less movement artifact than linger electrodes,
and the T oomim silver-silver chloride electrodes preclude interfering interface potentials and insure accurate, repeatable measurement.
Dr. Toomim has found that GSR feedback represMts
a guide lo both there.oist and client as to u-~e value of
the content in a ther-a.pcuiic transa.:::tion. The therapist
is less likely to be led into blind alleys and trapped by
defensive maneuvers. Most clit:nts appreciate this objective ~vidence of re!cvance. It cuts down tneir time in
therapy and deepens the level at which they work. The
client's resistance to threatening material is reduced,
thus smoothing the flow of the therapeutic expenence
fur both therapist anJ clier.t.
GSA biofeedback is a useful aid in dynamic psychothera;>y and behavior modificatiOn approaches. I! mcree>ses the efJP.~tiver1ess of lhc theraoist throuah providtng immediate awareness of bodv-minc re;ationshiPS and S•;mpa:he!ic Nervous Sy!:>te.m reactiVIty pat.
terns. It furlrw: prov1oes the cltenl W!lh a full awareness
of himself. encourages the cooperation of the client,
and r£>duces the hit or m1ss quality of \he therapeutic
-
;,c..~
:_.c._{. ci.' ., ..
. . . ,. ..
-~~--
-.u.:...-:.--'--~_.;,:
.... ._.·.:._,'-•-e.:.•..._......_,...,_.
-~-- ...;.0.....
process. It adds a naw dimension to the pr.3.ctlce o'
psychother~py the- direc! training ct aysfun-:t1ona·
Sympathetic Nervous System reactivity patterns an::
some of the attitudes that maintain the stress response.
The introduction of continuous monitoring of 1nterr.a!
processes within the lherapeutic setting reducc!i thebody-mind dichotomy.lt is pa,..ticularlv valuable to the
primarily verbal therapist who wants d~rect access to
the body.
The Toomim 505 has six selectable scales: Q-10, 10--2C.
20-30. 30..40, 4()..50 and 0..50 m•cromhos. For the occaSIOnal subject who requires greater sensitnrity, any 2
micromho interval on any of the micromho scales ca.be selected and expallded over felt scate with the Sca}e
Expansion Switch. Changes of 0.02 micromhos are
then apparent.
The fu!l range 0-50 scale is specifically destgned tor thf
psychotherapist. Wi1h the Expanded Scate on, ampt ...
tied mte of change information is aoded to the stablfread:ng so that 2 mic.-rc-mhos per second rate of chan~
c2uses full scale meter deflection and large ton~
change that calls aneiltion to small resoonses. Tt·oo!
needle and tone qwckly return to the newiy estabiishee
value en the 0-50 s-cale. In this mode. the 505, anoras
full "HANDS OFF" operat1on with maximum sensitlvi:)·Precision averaged GSR readinps, percent time rea.:JJnps. and thres:-Jold measurements from 10 to 18):
seconds may be obta;;""lr:d by using the Toomim 505 I!"•
conJunction wnh th-e- Toornim 507 Dtgital lntFgraLor
Tr1is orov1des a research Qual tty system and a leccoa:s
sconng systemy in addition to session to scsSIOI"'
records.
BIOFEEDBACK RE.S~ARCH INSTITUTE, Inc. 6325 Wil~hire Boulevard. Los Angetss~ California r«1413 (213) 933-9451
30
MODEL 505 - TOOK!I4 PROFESSIONAL GSR/E!P SPECIFICATIONS
GSR Electrode Polarizing Potential:
EDP Input Resistance: 10 megohm.
0.170 volts.
FEEDBACK
Variable pitch flute-like tone 50 to 1000Hz.
Internal loud speaker with controllable volume.
3 1/2" linear conductance meter.
SCALES
0-10; 10-20; 20-30; 30-40; 40-50 micromho, overlap 2 micromho.
Above scales are expnndable, any 2 micromho Interval to full scale.
0-50 mlcromho with 10 rnicror.-.ho extension.
Expansion cwitch cdr.s rate of chanoe indication to 0-50 scale.
Full ~cale dof lection with 2 ;;.;cromho per second, and comparable
tone variation.
CONTROI_S
Vol ume/Po.1er on-off.
Function: GSR, Battery, EDP.
Scale Selector, 6 scales.
Scala Expansk,~/~leter position.
Polarity + or - for EO? function only.
PANEL
COtU~ECTORS
Electrode Input; 4 pin Din.
External '"eter; 1/4" stereo phone jack 0-1 rna, and for Digital Integrator.
Phones; 1/4" stereo phone jack, 8-16 ohm.
PHYSICAL
Operatlr.g ranoe: 50 to 110• F.
PowP.r: 2-'J v;lt ~INI604 Mallory alkaline transistor batteries.
Battery life: 25 hr. continuous 30 days typical clinical use.
Size: 4 5/~" high, 3" deep, 10" wide.
~Ieight:
2.5 lbs •
.STANDARD ACCESSORIES
One 5' 5et of 3 sl lver-si lv~r chloride electrodes, Velcro backed.
15" Velcro band for holdino electroe<>s on hand.
~" electrorJr, placement bar: Velcro s;.:rfaces.
I 1/4 oz. electrode cream.
31
Data Collection and Recording
For the purposes of data collection and recording a
one page sheet was designed.
On it the subject's name,_ ..
date, dominant hand, therapist's name, and the five readings
were recorded.
This page also included all verbal instruc-
tions to insure that the same instructions were given to
each subject. (Figure 5, p.
32).
Data was transferred from the individual data collection sheets to one page which had the following column
headings:
Name, Age, Preferred Hand, Baseline, After Deep
Breath, After Presentation of PA Task, After Test Item #1,
After Last Test Item, Number Correct On Test.
p.
33 ).
(Figure 6,
Of the data collected only Number Correct On Test
and the level of SC as recorded immediately after presentation of PA Task were selected for analysis.
32
,-~-~-··----~
..
- .-
--
';····~-
"?I,!.'?.E 5
.OubJec':;
Date: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1ntro:
~!y nan~ ts Gall '..J~rtach :~r.i'. I al'l an Zclucatlon:'ll 'rher:1pist at
!l-L and I work with
• I an here t;o do a
8l.L"Itle lean:i!"l~ t::tsk with you. i. am ~olng to te givlr..~ you a
series of r-~irs c~ cn~d5 to 1~~~. A~ the sa8e time I am
goin~ to ~ ta~ln~ ~e~surB~e~ts from a ~achi~e.
Thl3 ~3c~tr.e
won 1 t do .!lnyf:hinz "!:a y·Ju~ ::1ll it dces L-1 .:sl•te us me::1sure~ents
which h~l? us unr..et"st·o1wl how 'fC'l lea!'!1. After cur c.ee':tn~ I will
r~view r.ry f!.n'lin~s .,.,it:h .:rc11r therapist who woul:j_ ::e ha~p:r to dlSC!.lSS
them further with y0u or your ~~nts if you wish. Ar~ questions?
?rep:
~ow
I am goinp; to te hocki!'ll," you up. This Machin~ dcesn 1 t do anythinv, to you, 1 t Just me.asures responses. ~ihich ha:J.d do you ;n•i te
with?
This cream just helps ;.rith the measurer.~ents.
Sit back, nake yours~lf cor.~fortable while I take my first reading.
It is ir.mortant to ~eep stl.ll as !!lover.~P.nts affect the readl.n~.
',.'ait )0
sec.
?irst reading:
Nm1 take as deep
Second
readin~:
Peak
a breath as you can and let i t out.
readin~
durir~
deep breath: _____________________
I am now ~oin~ to show you ten pairs or oar1s. Sach of the cards
belona:s with the oth"r in its ~air. ;1emorize each pair. Later I
sho·.• yo•.1 one picture f!"Or! e;:.ch pair and ask you to select the
other picture which o;o-:i.s · >~Uh it.
Do you un1c~sta~1 thf~ instructions: ~/ertal s3.!!1plo&;s !;1 ven.
·,o~ill
Ar~
~ask:
JOtl
r~l'l-iy?
Present each ;;-air for 10 seconds each.
chird reading:
~ow I am ~oi~g to ask you to ~atch the carrl I hold uo with the
number of the ce.r~ which is its oair. 'dhen I hold up a caM, don't
point just say the nu::~~er of the· correct pair. If you -:l.on't know-guess
Are yo'J. re-9.rly'?
S~~ow
Ans•,o~er
Shml
_ ~· A~s1-1er
:est:
.
·-
~~~-1~----~~'-----~------J..
-:l·
Lt
~
---
0
L\.
?'1fth readin»:
I
s
/0
R
c7_
9
l_
/-----;/
0
3
1
(:,
NAME
AGE
PREFERRED
HAND
.
.I
'
BASELINE
AFTER DEEP
BREATH
:
...
..
.
. .
I
·i
I
..
.
.
. .
.
..
.
.
. ..
AFTER
PRESENTATION
OF PA TASK
AFTER TEST
ITEM #l
AFTER LAST
TEST ITEM
NUMBER CORRECT
ON TEST
w
(.&.)
34
. Da·ta Processing and Analysis
A total of forty-four subjects were tested as described
in Chapter 3.
After testing twenty-nine subjects a prelimi-
nary data analysis was performed.
A list was made of the
subjects' age and number of correct responses. (Table 1,
p. 35). On the basis of the preliminary data it was decided
that the Paired-associates task (PA) resulted in a fairly
even distribution of correct responses of subjects between
ages five and thirteen.
The task, however, appeared too
simple for children aged fourteen and above since four out
of seven of the latter received ten out of ten correct and
non~ ~f
the children ages five to thirteen received that
score.
Thus a decision was made to modify the original
design of the study by limiting the maximum age of subjects
to age thirteen.
Data on the seven older subjects were
excluded from further analysis.
Levels of skin conductance of the thirty-seven subjects
as measured immediately following presentation of the last
of the PA cards were selected for statistical analysis.
Log skin conductance ranged from 0 to 1. 8 micromhos, with a
mean of 0.86 micromhos and Standard Deviation of 0.44 micromhos.
Number of correct responses varied from 0 to 9, with
a mean of 5.08 and Standard Deviation of 2.29.
Table 2,
(p. 36) • . Subjects who displayed a moderate level of skin
conductance ranging from 0.6 to 1.1 log micromhos were compared with subjects ~ith levels of skin conductance beiow
35
TABLE 1
Preliminary Data:
Name
Ranked By Age
Age
L.W.
B.B.
R.C.
D.P.
K.H.
F.C.
A.
15
15
14
14
14
14
14
M.B.
J.R.
D.R.
13
12
12
11
11
11
10
10
10
10
c.w.
L.U.
R.H.
P.F.
s.s.
M.S.
D. F..
D.D.
K.T.
D.D.
C.K.
M.
M.M.
T.Q.
B. G.
K.G.
9
9
9
Number Correct
10
8
10
10
10
7
5
3
5
4
6
5
5
8
8
7
6
5
5
0
4
1
B.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
6
P.
5
3
J.
9
6
6
7
5
6
36
TABLE 2
Final Data:
Name
Ranked by Log Skin Conductance
Log Skin Conductance
Number Correct
·,
T. Q •.
c.w.
T.T.
J.
D.D.
J.
J.
D.R.
s.s.
P.
A.
E.
K.G.
C.K.
P.F.
K.T.
D.D.
T.M.
T.
L.U.
D.R.
J.R.
M.B.
D.
M.
M.
R.H.
M.S.
M.
D.D.
B.
G.C.
D.H.
M.M.
M.
B.G.
w.
0
0
0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
l. 6
1.8
4
6
6
5
5
3
2
4
8
3
7
7
7
9
8
5
5
5
6
5
6
5
3
7
8
3
5
7
8
0
6
0
6
6
6
l
l
37
or above those limits.
The sample was also subdivided
according to the number of correct responses.
One group
achieved 0-4 correct responses; the other group achieved
five or more correct responses.
A Chi Square analysis was done by compar1ng the observed frequencies in each of the resultant 4 cells against
the expected frequencies.(Table 3, p. 38).
found to equal 4.69.
Chi Square was
For one degree of freedom these
results are significant at the .G5 level.
The null hypo-
thesis was rejected; performance on the paired-associates
task for. learning disabled children was found to be related
to activation as measured by skin conductance levels.
Methodological Assumptions
For the purposes of the study the following methodological assumptions are made.
Measures of SC are valid.
Measures of SC are reliable.
The performance of learning
disabled children on the PA task will be evenly distributed
over a bell shaped curve.
Levels of log SC will follow a
bell shaped curve.
Limitations
Possible limitations of the study include (1) the
sample comprised a specific population which may limit the
generalizability of the findings to other populations,
(2) skin conductance levels do not necessarily correlate
with other activation measure, (3) a paired-associates
task need not correlate with academic performance, (4) the
38
'TABLE
3
Observed Versus Expected Frequencies
Log Skin Conductance Levels
Moderate
Cl)
0-'+
Q)
Cl)
Expected Frequency
14
Expected Frequency
12
Observed Frequency
Observed Frequency
17
~
Extreme
ITotal
26
9
0
p.
Cl)
Q)
Expected Frequency
p::;
6
-j-l
0
Q)?
HH
0
(.)
5
Observed Frequency
3
Expected Frequency
5
Observed Frequency
8
11
39
wide range in age and degree of learning disability between
subjects may have masked findings which would have emerged
had the study been limited to a more narrow age range, (5)
artifact in GSR measurement technique may have distorted
the data.
CHAPTER IV
Analysis and Evaluation
Findings
In finding the research hypothesis tenable, that is,
performance on the paired-associates (PA) task for learning
disabled children was related to activation of electrodermaL activity as measured by skin conductance levels, the
results confirm and extend those reported by Berry (1962)
in his study relating skin conductance to performance on a
PA task for college students.
Since an exhaustive review
of the literature failed to reveal any other studies
investigating the relationship between skin conductance
and performance in a learning task (see Chapter 2), a
detailed analysis of the comparisons between the present
study and Berry's study is pertinent.
Highlights of these
comparisons between the two studies are summarized in
Table 4 (p. 41).
40
Table 4
BSRRY
<~ERBACH
SXP. 1
SXP. 2
18 Males
SAl!.;' IE
(Paid)
Colle~~;e
25 Males and 12 Females
32 Males
{Unnairl.)
(Ur.paid)
Children with Learning Problems
Students
;
Not stated
JO
LEAP.NING
Pairs Of
Meanin~ful
Ae;es: 5-13
r-:--
Words
Pairs Of Geometric Designs
I
TASK
I
··-·
------~·-·-~~--· -~-------r--·----------·
ELECT::! ODE
PLACEMEJ:.IT
I
I
'
--~----l---·
SK!~
PR::7PA!U'l'!C!1
II
Left Palm
_liE_"'_S_:""_:.._T_S_ _ _
Alcohol Rub Before Slectrorl.e
Placement
I-
,,;ribod
Palm Wi?Sd Clean
I
D"":~~~on,-, ::-~:cut, ~--~::~:-~~~~:~:~:~e~~~o:~~- 50;··--· .
A•
in
Ap:paratus for recordin.(!' 11utonom1o states
a~d chanll;es. Amer.J. Psychol., 1954,6?,
343-352.
I
r
-i--M~~-:-;:~:·-:~~~~- of--~~~ -o~~~uc:~nce -:~--:he- --~~ode rate
.
ANAL!SIS
.....
I
end of the first minute of the "learnin~~;
session were related to better recall.
STAT:STICAL
-··------~
Ir·. -· Palm of Dominant Hand
.
SQ.UI?'SNT
.
. . . --·-··· -····· ___ _.,_, --- ,___ ·-·-· -·
I
Fisher's exact test
····-··
i
c·o:~=t~~~-~
levels of skinat the
end of presentation of learning task were
related to better recall,
·,--.
\
··-·-----------·------ ... ·----···- ....
Chi Square
I
I
42
Discussion
Berry conducted two experiments.
There were eighteen
subjects in Experiment 1 and thirty-two subjects in Experiment 2.
Subjects were
m~le
college student volunteers.
Subjects were paid in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2.
The current study analyzed the data from thirty-seven subjects, twenty-five males and twelve females between the
ages of five and thirteen years. These students participated
in the experiment during their regular educational therapy
session.
In the Berry study, the data were continuously recorded
in a recording room separated from the experimental room by
a sound-reducing partition.
There was an experimenter 1n
the room with the subject and another in the recording room ..
In the current study, the data were recorded at fixed points
by the experimenter in the room with the subject.
In Berry's study, palmar skin conductance was recorded
from an electrode placed on the left palm, after the area
was rubbed with alcohol.
In the current study, electrode
placement was on the palm of the dominant hand (the one the
subject used for writing
which was first wiped with a
tissue.
In both experiments, the task consisted of the presentation of paired-associates to be memorized and recalled.
Berry used 30 paired items (meaningful words) from a list
by Melton and Safier, published by Hilgard (1951).
The
43
current study used ten paired items (geometric designs)
which I designed.
In both experiments the pairs were shown
on 3 "x5" car·ds which had been shuffled before the experiment
was begun; each subject was presented with this same order.
Berry's subjects were presented with sample cards; in the
current study the sample was presented verbally.
In both
cases the subject was told that he or she would be required
to recall the right-hand (response) item of each of the
pairs when presented with the left-hand (stimulus) item.
The latter was presented on another set of 3"x5" cards
which also had been shuffled previous to the experiment.
In the Berry study the subject received ten seconds
to study each pair and a ten second intercard interval.
There was a six minute interval between the learning and
the recall session, and ten seconds to respond to each card
in the recall period.
a
All cards were presented manually on
small table in front of the subject.
In the current study
the subject had ten seconds to study each pair and a five
second intercard interval. There was a three minute interval
between the learning and the recall session and ten seconds
to respond to each card in the recall period.
All cards
were presented in the same manner.
Berry plotted the log conductance level of the first
minute of the ten minute learning session against recall
score.
In the current study, the log conductance level
immediately following presentation of the paired-associates
44
cards was plotted against recall score.
Berry used Fisher's
exact test for data analysis; by contract this study used a
Chi Square analysis which is a more powerful statistical
measure.
Interpretation
Because of these differences in methodology, this study
cannot be considered an exact replication of the Berry
study.
However, since results of this study replicate
Berry's results, it would appear that skin conductance
levels may relate to performance for learning disabled
children in the same manner as for adults without learning
problems.
Taken together, the results of the two studies
would suggest that optimal performance on a learning task
is related to moderate levels of activation regardless of
age or academic achievement.
In interpreting the data from the current study, I might
suggest that children who demonstrated low levels of skin
conductance were not actively engaged in the task.
This is
consistent with studies done by Hunter et al (1972),Dureman
(1970), and Boydstun (1969).
Hunter compared autonomic
response patterns of twenty male non-readers ranging in age
from seven years to eleven years with those of twenty
matched contr•ols.
Results showed that non-readers had
lower mean skin conductance levels across trials.
The
authors interpreted the data to suggest that non-readers
were physiologically less mature and unable to maintain a
45
constant attention level, their most noticeable characteristic being deficient or fluctuating attention.
When the
disabled reader was specifically instructed to attend to a
simple reaction time task, he and his control had approximately equal skin conductance levels.
However, mean skin
Conductance level-for disabled readers dropped off rapidly
over the four subsequent trials while controls appeared to
remain alert, with little decrease in basal level.
The
authors commented that the reading disabled child seemed
unable to "stay with it".
Dure~an
and Palsarnrnar found that children who were
rated low in 'persistence' also bad significantly lower
skin conductance levels than their matched controls.
Boyd-
stun et al found that, although children with learning
disabilities did not differ from their matched controls 1n
resting physiological levels, they were less reactive physiologically to "meaningful" stimuli.
It can be further inferred that children 1n the present
study demonstrating high levels of skin conductance were
overly anxious.
High levels of anxie·ty may have inhibited
performance by shortening attention span..
tent with results reported by Rugel (1971).
This is consisHe evaluated
the potential usefulness of the SSR responses as an indicator of anxiety in children with reading problems. . He found
that the level of a:rousal increased as the level of reading
difficulty increased.
Children used in his study were
46
average, not retarded, readers.
Rugel reviews studies by
Phillips (1967) and Sarason (1966) who have found that
anxiety is negatively related to reading achievement in the
elementary school grades.
Summary of Chapter
In finding performance on the paired-associates task
to be related to activation as measured by skin conductance,.
levels the results supported the Researcb Hypothesis and
extended the results reported by Berry in his study relating
skin conductance to performance on a PA task for college
students.
A detailed analysis of the comparisons between
the present study and Berry's was presented.
It was suggested that learning disabled children with
low levels of skin conductance were not actively engaged in
the task.
studies.
This finding was consistent with several reported
Furthermore, children in the present study demon-
strating high levels of skin conductance were seen to be
overly anxious.
g1ven.
Evidence supporting this finding was also
'*''·
CHAPTER V
Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations
Summary
In recent years, educators have shown increasing concern over the problems of learning disabled children.
This
study explores the relationship between activation and
learning among the learning disabled by·utilizing electrodermal patterns of response as the measure of activation
and a paired-associates task as the measure of learning.
A review of the relevant literature concerned with
activation theory and electrodermal activity is presented.
Studies involving the learning disabled child and measures
of activation and attention are revi.ewed.
The Research Hypothesis was: Is performance on a pairedassociates task for learning disabled children related to
activation of electrodermal activity as measured by skin
conductance levels?
Forty-four children were tested and
levels of skin conductance immediately following presentation of the learning task were selected for statistical
analysis.
level.
Chi Square analysis was significant at the .05
Subjects with a moderate level. of skin conductance
(0.6-1.1 log micromhos) were more likely to perform better
than subjects v.Jith either lower
conductance.
47
or higher levels of skin
48
Conclusions
This study has identified a subgroup of the learning
disabled population whose performance may well be hampered
by abnormally high or low levels of skin conductance.
However, the findings do not substantiate the existence of
the inverted U hypothesis, even though they are consistent
with such a model.
Recommendations
It is recommended, therefore, that learning disabled
children be trained to achieve moderate levels of skin
conductance with trainirig procedures designed to alter
their level of activation.
Such methods might include the
direct feedback of information derived from skin conductance
readings as well as other techniques such as meditation,
breathing techniques, autogenic training,, hypnosis, and
progressive muscle· relaxation.
A further recommendation would be to replicate this
study using a larger sample in order to provide additional
data to support the inverted U hypothesis.
REFERENCES
Andreassi, J. & Whalen P.
Some physiological correlates of
learning and overlearning. Psychophysiology, 1967, l'
406-413.
Belloni, M. L. The relationship of the orienting reaction
and manifest anxiety to paired-associate learning.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
California, Los Angeles, 1964.
Berry, R.N.
Skin conductance levels and verbal recall.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962, ~' 275-277.
Boydstun, et al.
Physiological and motor conditioning and
generalization in children with minimal brain dysfunction.
Conditional Reflex, 1968, Apr.-June, 81-104.
Brown, B.B.
Stress and the art of biofeedback.
Harper and Row, 1977.
Brown, B.B.
1974.
New mind, new body.
New York:
New York: Harper and Row,
Brown. C. H. The relation of magnitude of galvanic skin
responses and resistance levels to the rate of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1937, ~'
262-278.
Clements, S.D.
Minimal brain dysfunction in children.
Washington, D.C.: Co-sponsored by the Easter Seal
Research Foundation of the National Society for
Crippled Children and Adults and the National Institute
of Neurological Diseases and Blindness, Public Health
Service, 1966.
Crider, A.
Electrodermal lability and vigilance performance.
Psychophysiology, 1972, ~' 268.
(Abstract).
Cruickshank, W. M. & Paul, J. L. The psychological charac_te~istics of brain-injured children.
In W.M. Cruickshank (Ed.) Psychology of Exceptional Children and
Yout~.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Davis, R.C. et al.
Autonomic and muscular responses and
their relation to simple stimuli.
Psychological Monographs, 1955, 69, 1-71.
49
50
Duffy, E.
Activation and
behavior~
New York: Wiley, 1962.
Duffy, E. & Lacey 0. L. Ada.ptation in energy mobilization:
Changes in general level of palmar skin conductance.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1946, ~' 437-452.
Dureman, I. & Palshammar, A.
Differences in tracking skill
and psychophysiological activation dynamics in children
high or low in persistence in schoolwork.
Psychophysiology, 1970, I, 95-102.
Dykman, R.A. et al.
Specific learning disabilities: An
attentional deficit syndrome. In H.R. Myklebust (Ed.)
Progress in learning disabilities, Vol. 2, New York:
Grune & St~atton, 1971.
Edelberg, R.
Electrodermal recovery rate, goal orientation,
and aversion.
Psychophysiology, 1972, ~' 512-520.
English, H. & English, A. A comprehensive dictionary of
psychological and psychoanalytic terms.
New York:
McKay, 1958.
Fere, C.
Nte sur les modifications de la resistance electrique sous l'influence des excitations sensorielles
et des emotions.
Comptes Rendus Societe de Biologie,
1888, (Ser. 9), ~' 217-219
Flanagan, J.
Galvanic skin response: Emotion of attention.
Proceedings of the American Psychological Association,
1967, l' 7-8.
Fuller, G. D.
Biofeedback methods and procedures in clinical practice.
San Franc1sco: Hiofeedback Press, 1977.
Germana, J. Autonomic correlates of acquisition and ex·tinc,....
tion. Unpublished master's thesis, Rutgers University,
1964.
Germana, J.
Psychophysiological correlates of conditioned
response formation.
Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 70
105-114.
Hebb, D. 0.
system).
Drives and the c.ri~s. (conceptual nervous
Psychological Review, 1955, .§1_, 243-254.
Hilgard, E. R.
Methods and procedures in the study of
learning.
In S.S. Stevens (Ed.) Handbook of experimental psychology.
New York: Wiley, 1951. Ch. 15.
51
Hunter, E., Johnson, L. & Keefe, f.
Electrodermal and
cardiovascular responses in nonreaders. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 1972, ~, 14-24.
Johnson, H. & Campus, J.
The effect of cognitive tasks and
verbalization instructions on heart rate and skin
conductance.
Psychophysiology, 1967, ~' 143-150.
Kaplan, S., Kaplan, R., & Sampson, J. Encoding and arousal
factors in free recall of verbal and visual material.
Psychonomic Science, 1968, 12, 73-74.
Kintsch, W.
Habituation of the orienting reflex during
paired-associate learning before and after learning has
taken place~
Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 1965,
~' 330-341.
Lacey, J.I. & Lacey, B.C. The relationship of resting
autonomic activity to motor impulsivity.
In The brain
and human behavior, (Proceedings of the Assn. for
Research in Nervous and Mental Disease), Baltimore,
Md.: Williams & Wilkins, 1948, pp. 144-209.
Liederman, P.H. & Shapiro, D.
Studies on the galvanic skin
potential level:
Some behavioral correlates.
Journal
?f Psychosomatic Research, 1964, I, 277-281:
Lindsley, D.B.
In S.S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of Experimental psychology.
New York: Wiley, 1951. pp. 473-516.
Lindsley, D. B. Attention, consciousness, sleep and wakefulness.
In J. Field, H. W. Maigoun, & E.v. Hall (Eds.)
Handbook of physiology, Section l, Vol. 111. Washington,
D.C.: American Physiological Soc., 1960, pp. 1553-1593.
Malmo, R. B.
Measurement of drive:
An unsolved problem in
psychology.
In M.R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on
motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1958,
229-265.
Malmo, R.B.
Activation: A neurophysiological dimension.
Psychological Review, 1959, ~' 367-386.
Maltzman, I. & Raskin, D.C.
Effects of individual differences in the orienting reflex on conditioning and
complex processes.
Journal of Experimental Research in
Personality.
1965, 1, 1-16.
Martin, B.
The assessment of anxi~ty by physiological
behavioral measures.
Psychological Bulletin, 1961, 58,
234-255.
52
Myers, P. & Hammill, D. Methods for learning disorders.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
Pavlov, I. P.
Conditioned reflexes.
London and New York:
Oxford Univ. Press (Clarendon), 1927.
Phillips, B. Anxiety as a function of early school experience.
Psychology in'the Schools, 1967, ~' 335.::.340.
Prokasy, W. & Raskin, D. ed. Electrodermal activity in
psychological research.
New York: Academic Press, 1973.
Raskin, D. C.
Semantic conditioning and generalization of
autonomic responses.
Journal of Experimental Psycho. "1 0 gy ' 19 6 9 ' 7 9 ' 6 9- 7 6 .
Ross, A.
Learning disability
The unrealized potential.
New York: McGraw-H1ll, 1977, p. 11.
Rugel, R. Arousal and levels of reading difficulty.
· Re·ading Teacher, 1971, 24, 458-460.
The
Sarason, S. B. & Hill, K.A. A further longitudinal study
of the relation of test anxiety and defensiveness to
test and school performance over the elementary school
years. MOnographs of the Society for Research 1n
Child Development, 1966, ~' 31.
Schlosberg, H. & Stanley, W. C. A simple test of the
normality of twenty-four distributions of electrical
skin resistance, Science, 1953, 117, 35-37.
Sharpless, S. & Jasper, H. Habituation of the arousal
reaction, Brain, 1956, 79, 655-680.
Sheridan, C. L. Tundarrien·taTs of experi1nehtal p·sychology.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and W1nston, 1971.
Simon, E.
Learning and recall of paired-associates and
the orienting reflex.
Diss. Abstracts International,
1970, 238-239, 31(4-B).
Smith, M. J. Variables influencing the orienting reflex,
reinforcement and verbalization in verbal conditioning.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
·
California, Los Angeles, 1966.
Sokolov, E.N. Neuronal models and the orienting reflex.
In M.A. B. Brazier (Ed.), The central nervo·us system: and
behavior. New York: Josiah Macey, Jr. Foundat;LOn, 1960,
TB?-2'76.
53
Sokolov, E.N. Perception and the conditioned reflex.
York: Pergamon, 1963.
Sternbach, R.
Principles of psychophysiology.
Academic Pre_s_s-,~1~9~6~6~.-------~-~--~~~----~~
New
New York:
Stennett, R. The relationship of performance to level of
arousal. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1957,
54, 54-61.
Tarver, S. & Hallahan, D. Attention deficits in children
with learning disabilities: A review. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 1974, ~' 36-45.
~··