RISK ASSESSMENT USING POOL FIRE AND HEALTH INDEX ANALYSIS
AT BIOENERGY PLANT
JULIZA BT MOHD FUAD NGO
A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil – Environmental Management)
Department of Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER, 2008
iii
To my beloved parents, friends, course mates & lecturers,
Thanks for your patience, support, guidance & confidence in me.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor Dr Mohd
Fadhil Md Din for his dedicated guidance, valuable ideas. Tireless efforts ad ongoing support troughout this project
Special appreciation to my parents; Mohd Fuad Ngo Abdullah and Hisah
Omar and my family for their understanding, support and love.
Further more, I would like also grateful to all lab assistants, including Pn.
Ros, En Yusuf, En Suhaimi and others for helping me in collection of samples,
equipment preparation and share their opinion. Words of thank would never be
enough. This project would not be able to be completed in time without their endless
cooperation and guidance.
Last but not least, I would like to thank all my fellow friends for their support
and motivations in completing this research study.
v
ABSTRACT
Risk assessment is recognized as a complete process of identifying a hazard
and evaluating the risk either in absolute or relative terms. Risks at Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd are measured by identifying the most hazardous and flammability of raw
material used in methyl ester and refined glycerin plant. As a result, methanol is the
most flammability; hence the study focuses at the methanol storage tank. The area
affected is determining using pool fire analysis.
Besides that, the study also
identifies the air emission from the stack sampling based on the secondary data
obtained from preliminary environmental impact assessment study.
The health
effects from the air quality within Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. and their surrounding
areas are determined constantly to verify whether it could affect to human or not.
Overall, the health index at three sampling point showed averagely 0.7, which is less
than 1 and presume it could not give any significant impact to health. Beside that,
the air quality also complied with the Malaysian Recommended Environmental Air
Quality Guidelines. An Emergency Response Plans (ERP) is proposed to mitigate
and prevent any risk or accident during the plant operations.
vi
ABSTRAK
Penilaian risiko merupakan proses lengkap dalam mengenalpasti bahaya dan
menilai risiko kemalangan sama ada secara keseluruhan atau fokus kepada sesuatu
bahagian. Risiko di Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd dilakukan dengan mengenalpasti
bahan mentah yang paling merbahaya dan mudah terbakar. Daripada kajian yang
dijalankan, metanol merupakan bahan yang sangat mudah terbakar. Untuk itu kajian
ini dijalankan di tangki simpanan methanol. Kawasan yang terjejas dikenalpasti
menggunakan analisis pool fire. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mengenalpasti kualiti
udara yang dilepaskan oleh cerombong dandang di Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd
berdasarkan kajian lepas. Kesan terhadap kesihatan dari kualiti udara di Vance
Bioenergy Sdn Bhd dan kawasan sekitarnya ditentukan untuk memastikan sama ada
udara yang dilepaskan dari cerombong member kesan dar segi kesihatan kepada
manusia atau tidak. Secara keseluruhan, index kesihatan yang diperoleh adalah 0.7
iaitu kurang dari 1 dan tidak memberi sebarang kesan kepada kesihatan manusia.
Selain itu, kualiti udara juga memenuhi Standard Kualiti Udara Malaysia.
Seterusnya, Emergency Response Plans (ERP) dicadangkan untuk mecegah dan
menghindar sebarang risiko atau kemalangan semasa loji beroperasi.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE
i
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS
x
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xiv
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Problem Statement
3
1.3
Objectives of the Study
4
1.4
Scope of the Study
4
1.5
Background of the Company
4
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
6
2.2
Purpose of Risk Assessment
8
viii
2.3
2.4
Process of Risk Assessment
8
2.3.1
Hazard Identification
8
2.3.2
Exposure Assessment
9
2.3.3
Dose-Response Assessment
10
2.3.4
Risk Characterisation
11
Types of Risk Assessment
12
2.4.1 Qualitative Risk Assessment
12
2.4.2
13
Quantitative Risk Assessment
2.5
Pool Fire
13
2.6
Failure Rates for Tankage
14
2.7
Types of Air Pollutants
15
2.7.1
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
15
2.7.2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
16
2.7.3
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
17
2.7.4
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
17
2.8
Methanol
18
2.9
Glycerin
19
2.10 Production Process of Glycerin Distillation and
21
Refining Plant
2.11 Emergency Response Plan
3
24
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
26
3.2
Data and Information Collection
26
3.3
Hazard Identification
27
3.4
Pool Fire
27
3.5
Air Quality
29
3.5.1
Equipment
29
3.5.2
Sampling Location
30
3.6
Exposure Assessment
34
ix
4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Introduction
36
4.2
Hazard Identification
36
4.3
Pool Fire
40
4.4
Failure Rate for Tank
41
4.5
Exposure Assessment
44
4.5.1
Air Emission
44
4.5.2
Air Ambient
50
4.6
4.7
5
Emergency Response Plan (ERP)
51
4.6.1
Declaration of Emergency
54
4.6.2
Emergency Procedure
55
4.6.2.1
Plant Emergency
55
4.6.2.2
Transportation Emergency
60
4.6.2.3
Injured Person
64
Evacuation Plan
66
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusions
69
5.2
Recommendations
70
REFERENCES
71
APPENDICES
75
x
LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS
Q
-
Heat release rate (kW)
m”
-
Mass burning heat (kg/m2-sec)
ΔHc,
-
Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
kβ
-
Empirical Constant (m-1)
D
-
Diameter of pool fire (m)
Af
-
Surface area of pool fire (m2)
q”
-
Radian heat flux (kW/m2)
Q
-
Heat release rate (kW)
R
-
Distance from center of the pool fire to edge of the target (m)
xr
-
Radiative fraction
EDair
-
Estimate dose (mg/kg/day)
C
-
Concentration
IR
-
Inhalation rate (m3/day)
EF
-
Exposure factor (days/year)
ED
-
Exposure Duration years (kg)
BW
-
Body weight (days)
NIOSH
-
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
DOSH
-
The Department of Occupational Safety and Health
OSH
-
Occupational Safety & Health
ERP
-
Emergency Response Plan
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Failure rates for the tankage
15
3.1
Burning rate data for fuel
28
3.2
Standard value for IR, EF, ED, BW and AT
35
4.1
Hazard identification for raw material used in
38
Methylester and Refined Glycerine process
4.2
Effect of Thermal Radiation
40
4.3
Specification of boiler
44
4.4
The stack air quality emission
45
4.5
Health Index for A1, A2 and A3
50
4.6
Type of pollutants and effect to health
51
4.7
Definition of term used in ERP
52
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Location of Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd.
5
2.1
Element of risk analysis
6
2.2
Process of health risk assessment
11
2.3
Methanol chemical formula
18
2.4
Glycerin chemical formula
20
2.5
Process of Palm Oil conversion into Methyl Ester
23
and Refine Glycerin Material
3.1:
GrayWolf DirectSense Tox PPC Kit
29
3.2
Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler
29
3.3
Sampling location for A1, A2 and A3
30
3.4 (a)
Sampling for TSP at Station A1
31
3.4 (b)
Sampling for CO, NO2 and SO2 at Station A1
31
3.4 (c)
Station A1 at Jalan Keluli 5
31
3.5 (a)
Sampling for TSP at Station A2
32
3.5 (b)
Sampling for CO, NO2 and SO2 at Station A2
32
3.5 (c)
Station A2 at Jalan Keluli 4
32
3.6 (a)
Sampling for TSP at Station A3
33
3.6 (b)
Sampling for CO, NO2 and SO2 at Station A3
33
3.6 (c)
Station A3 at the Taman Pasir Putih
33
4.1
Methanol Storage Tank
37
4.2
Small pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank
42
4.3
Large pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank
43
xiii
TITLE
FIGURE NO
4.4
Predicted TSP dispersion GLC within 3km radius
PAGE
46
from the factory.
4.5
Predicted NO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius
47
from the factory.
4.6
Predicted SO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius
48
from the factory
4.7
Predicted CO dispersion GLC within 3km radius
49
from the factory
4.8
Assembly Point
56
4.9
Emergency procedure for fire
57
4.10
Emergency procedure for hazardous chemical spill
58
4.11
Emergency procedure for toxic gas released
59
4.12
Emergency procedure for fire during transportation
62
4.13
Emergency procedure for chemical spill during
63
transportation
4.14
Emergency procedure for Injured Person
65
4.15
Evacuation Procedure
68
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
MSDS Acid Citric
75
B
MSDS Sodium Hydroxide
81
C
MSDS Methanol
88
D
MSDS Glycerin
95
E
MSDS Palm Oil
102
F
MSDS Acid Phosphorus
108
G
MSDS Sodium Methylate 30%
114
H
Example of Calculation for Pool Fire
123
I
Result for Air Sampling
125
J
Example of Calculation for Health Index
126
K
Recommended Malaysian Air Quality
127
Guidelines
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
Risk can be defined as a dangerous or unpleasant occurrence that possibly
creates a dangerous situation. Risk assessment is a proper measurement at workplace
that could cause harm to people, seriousness of the hazard level and to propose a
mitigation procedure that could reduce the risk to the acceptable level. It is very
important to ensure nobody gets hurt and free from contamination environment
(USEPA, 2008).
Risk characterization is an integral component of the risk assessment process
for both ecological and health risks (Fowle, 2000). A human health risk assessment
is the process to estimate the nature and probability of adverse health effects in
humans that may be exposed to chemicals in contaminated environmental media,
either current or the future situation. An ecological risk assessment however is the
process in evaluating the environmental impact from an exposure to of or more
environmental stressors such as chemicals, land change, disease, invasive species and
climate changes (USEPA, 2008).
2
In Malaysia, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) and The Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) are two
organizations that responsible in enhancing occupational safety and health. DOSH is
a department under the Ministry of Human Resources.
This department is
responsible for ensuring the occupational safety, health and welfare of people at
work as well as protecting other people from the safety and health hazards arising
from the activities of various sectors such as manufacturing, mining and quarrying,
construction, hotels and restaurants (DOSH, 2007).
The role of occupational safety and health has been in existence since 120
years ago, in the late 19th century. It started with steam boiler safety and then
followed by machinery safety. After that, it was continued with industrial safety,
industrial safety and hygiene and lastly occupational safety and health that cover
every work sector.
Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Revised - 1974),
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) and Petroleum Act (Safety
Measures) 1984 (Act 302) are three acts that being forced by DOSH (DOSH, 2007).
NIOSH was launch on December 1, 1992 as an intention to improve the
safety and health of workers at the workplace in Malaysia. Training is an integral
part of Occupational Safety & Health (OSH). To ensure the success of any OSH
programme at the workplace, adequate and effective training must be adapted at all
level associated with OSH. Training enables managers, supervisors and workers to
understand the workings of safety management systems and the legal compliance
required. They will also understand their own responsibilities and the necessary
actions to be taken towards upgrading safety and health at their respective
workplaces. Many training provide by NIOSH for example, Occupational Safety &
Health Act 1994, Safety & Health Officer Examination Workshop and Safety in the
Use of Chemicals (NIOSH, 2008).
3
1.2
Problem Statement
The requirements of risk assessment have become more important
particularly after the fatal explosions at Petronas oil terminal at Pasir Gudang
Industrial Estate. The incidents occurred when two storage tanks containing petrol
and a natural gas tank caught fire by lightning strike during a thunderstorm on 28
April 2006 (Bernama, 2006).
Even though no injuries reported, this incident
increases awareness among the people about the importance and purpose of risk
assessment.
Besides that, two incidents are also reported at methanol plant in
Seberang Perai, Penang (The Star, 2004) and Labuan (The Star, 2007) on 2004 and
2007. The latest incident is at Tanjung Langsat on 24 August 2008 where a fire
broke out at one of the eight oil storage tanks (Bernama, 2008).
Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate have various types of industry such as
chemical, plastic, oil and gas, food and others. Most of them are involving with
hazardous and dangerous materials.
Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. is one of the
industries at Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate that handling with contaminated and
hazardous materials. Nearby Vance Bioenergy located heavy industry such as Chye
Hup Heng Sdn Bhd (metal recycling), Panagawa Sdn Bhd (plastic manufacturing),
White Horse Ceramic Industries Sdn Bhd (tile manufacturing) and Mox Gases Sdn
Bhd (gas).
Risk assessment should be carried out to ensure the possible and
dangerous accident which can be minimized.
Air is one of the major problems in Malaysia. Beside incident from fire or
explosion, another risky problem that may occur at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd is
from air. Air emission from stack will disperse to the surrounding and may pollute
the air. Health index analysis is carried out to determine either the concentration of
air pollutants may cause an impact to human health or not.
4
1.3
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are as follows:
a) To determine the quantitative risk assessment on potential risk at
methanol storage tank and health risk from air pollutant within the Vance
Bioenergy Sdn Bhd.
b) To propose a standard procedure of emergency response plan (ERP)
during any emergency events.
1.4
Scopes of the Study
The scopes of this study are as follows:
a) Identified the potential quantified risk within the Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd
boundary using pool fire analysis.
b) Identified the health effect of air quality at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd by
calculating using an airborne health index equation.
c) Propose the emergency response plan (ERP) to be followed by workers,
contractors or visitor at the industry in case of any accident occurs.
1.5
Background of the Company
Vance Bioenergy is a leading biodiesel production, marketing and trading
company based in South East Asia. Vance Bioenergy’s corporate headquarters is in
Singapore and its production based in Malaysia. Vance Bioenergy is located at PLO
5
668 and 669 of Jalan Keluli 5, Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate, Mukim Plentong,
Johor Bahru, Johor.
Currently,
Vance
Bioenergy
is
an
established
industrial
biofuel
manufacturing since 2006. Palm based Methyl Ester is the main product of Vance
Bioenergy Sdn Bhd, while crude Glycerin and fatty acids solution is the by products
of Methyl Ester facility. The existing Glycerin plant is producing at 24000 tons/yr or
78 tons/d. Now, Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd intended to increase their existing
Glycerin facility to raise their production from 78 tons/d to 156 tons/d.
The main process in Vance Bioenergy is converted the crude palm oil into
Methyl Ester, which identified as biofuel raw material.
However during the
separation process, the glycerin material could be extracted too. The main processes
for the production of Methyl Ester and refined glycerin from palm oil are discussed
on Chapter Two (2).
Figure 1.1: Location of Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
National Research Council defines risk analysis as having three core elements
of risk assessment, risk management and risk communication. Interaction and
overlap between the three elements are depicted in Figure 2.1.
Risk
Assessment
Risk
Management
Risk
Communication
Figure 2.1: Element of risk analysis.
7
The first core element of risk analysis is risk assessment. Risk assessment is a
process through which the probability of loss by or to an engineering system is
estimated and the magnitude of the loss is also measured or estimated the aim of the
risk assessment process is to remove a hazard or reduce the level of its risk by adding
precautions or control measures, as necessary. This would create a safer and healthier
workplace (Modarres, 2006). In general, risk assessment process includes:
a)
Identify hazards,
b) Evaluate the likelihood of an injury or illness occurring, and its severity,
c)
Consider normal operational situations as well as non-standard events
such as shutdowns, power outages, emergencies, etc.,
d) Review all available heath and safety information about the hazard such
as manufacturers literature, information from reputable organizations,
results of testing, etc.,
e)
Identify actions necessary to eliminate or control the risk,
f)
Monitor and evaluate to confirm the risk is controlled,
g) Keep
any
documentation
or
records
that
may
be
necessary.
Documentation may include detailing the process used to assess the risk,
outlining any evaluations, or detailing how conclusions were made.
Assessments should be done by an experienced team of individuals who have
a good working knowledge of the workplace. Staff should be involved always
include supervisors and workers who work with the process under review as they are
the most familiar with the operation (California EPA, 2001).
Risk management is the process through which potential of magnitude and
contributors to risk are estimated, evaluated, minimized and controlled. Risk
communication is the process through which information about the nature of risk and
consequences, risk assessment approach and risk management option are exchange,
shared and discussed between the decision makers and other stakeholders (Modarres,
2006).
8
2.2
Purpose of Risk Assessment
The main purposes of risk assessment are:
a) To identify all possible hazards
b) To identify measures that will prevent or minimize all possible hazards.
c) To recommend further appropriate control measures to prevent or reduce
risks.
2.3
Process of Risk Assessment
The risk assessment process is typically described as consisting of four basic
steps. There are Hazard Identification, Exposure Assessment, Dose-Response
Assessment and Risk Characterisation.
2.3.1
Hazard Identification
In Hazard Identification is all about to determine the types of health problems
a chemical could cause by reviewing study of its effects in humans and laboratory
animals. Depending on the chemical, these health effects may include short term
ailments, such as headaches, nausea and eye, nose and throat irritation or chronic
diseases, such as cancer. An important step in Hazard identification is the selection
of key research studies that can provide accurate, timely information on the hazard
posed to humans by a particular chemical (California EPA, 2001).
9
2.3.2
Exposure Assessment
Exposure assessment is the process of measuring or estimating the intensity,
frequency and duration of exposure of the human population to risk agents. The
primary routes of exposures to environmental risk agents for human beings are
through the inhalation of gases, vapours and dusts, through ingestion of foods, water
or unintentionally of other materials including dust, soil and via skin contact (Ball,
2006).
The most accurate way assessing exposure is by measuring the concentration
of the agent of concern in relation to the presence and activities of affected persons.
Measurement, however is often expensive and maybe in practical. It is therefore
common to rely upon mathematical models that estimate concentrations to which
persons are exposed. Exposure assessment often depends on factors that are hard to
estimate and for which there are few data (Ball, 2006).
A major source of complexity in exposure assessment is the strong influence
that individual personal habits can have on human exposure. If exposure occurs
through air or water, exposure assessment must consider how the risk agent moves
from its source and if it is altered over time. Chemical agents are generally diluted in
the environment and may degrade after release. The aim of exposure assessment in
this case is to determine the concentration of toxic materials where they interface
with target population (Ball, 2006).
Another important aspect of exposure assessment is determining which group
in the population may be exposed to a risk agent. Some group may be especially
susceptible to adverse health effects. These include pregnant women, very young
and vey old people and people with impaired health. Exposure to multiple risk
agents often results in portions of the population becoming more sensitive to single
agents. Exposure to risk agents that act synergistically greatly complicates risk
10
assessment. Exposure to both cigarettes smoke and asbestos results in a rate of
cancer incidence much greater than that indicated by the dose-response data for the
individual substances. An individual can be exposed to a single risk agent from
several distinct sources. Exposure to lead, for example can come from breathing air,
eating food and drinking water (Ball, 2006).
2.3.3
Dose-Response Assessment
Dose-response assessment evaluates the information obtained during the
hazard identification step to estimate the amount of a chemical that is likely to result
in particular health effect in humans. An establish principle in toxicology is that “the
dose makes the poison”. For example, a commonplace chemical like table salt is
harmless in small quantities, but it can cause illness in large doses.
Similarly
hydrochloric acid, a hazardous chemical produced naturally in our stomachs but can
be quite harmful if taken in large doses (California EPA, 2001).
This is the process of characterizing the relationship between the dose of an
agent administered or received and the incidence of an adverse health effect in
exposed populations. The process considers important factors such as intensity of
exposure, the age distribution of those exposed and possibly the other variables that
might affect response, such as gender and lifestyle (Ball, 2006)
Dose-response assessment estimates how different level of exposure to a
chemical can impact the likelihood and severity of health effects. The dose-response
relationship is often different for many chemicals that cause cancer than it is for
those that cause other kinds of health problems (California EPA, 2001).
11
2.3.4
Risk Characterisation
The last step in risk assessment brings together the information developed in
the previous three steps to estimate the risk of health effect in an exposed population.
Risk characterisation analyzes the information developed during the exposure and
dose-response assessments to describe the resulting health risks that are expected to
occur in the exposed population (California EPA, 2001).
Figure 2.2: Process of health risk assessment (California EPA, 2001).
12
2.4
Types of Risk Assessment
2.4.1
Qualitative Risk assessment
The level of risk can be described either qualitatively (i.e. by putting risks
into categories such as ‘high’, ‘medium’ or ‘low’) or quantitatively (with a numerical
estimate).
Current risk assessment methods do not enable accurate quantitative
estimates of risk for low levels of exposure to environmental hazards. Numerical
estimates of risk will rarely be feasible because of variability in the agent and
population and limitations in toxicological and exposure data which will be reflected
in the uncertainty assessment, but a degree of quantification may be possible for
some components such as data collection and exposure assessment (Modarres, 2006).
Qualitative risk analysis requires that the probability and consequences of the
risks be evaluated using established qualitative-analysis methods and tools. Trends
in the results when qualitative analysis is repeated can indicate the need for more or
less risk-management action (Modarres, 2006).
It is easier to perform a qualitative risk analysis because it does not required
gathering precise data. In this approach, rank ordered approximations of probability
and consequence are often quickly estimated (Modarres, 2006).
13
2.4.2
Quantitative Risk assessment
The quantitative risk assessment provides numerical scales for input and
output values, such as a number expressing a probability that there will be an
outbreak in a defined period of time or per unit of commodity (Modarres, 2006). It
may involve:
a)
Asking precise questions about activity and outcome;
b) Developing mathematical model linking activity and outcome;
c)
Obtaining evidence pertaining to the model;
d) Assigning quantitative values to the model;
e)
Calculating outcomes;
f)
Submitting for peer review.
Quantitative risk analysis generally follows qualitative risk analysis. It
requires risk identification. The qualitative and quantitative risk analysis processes
can be used separately or together. Considerations of time and budget availability
and the need for qualitative or quantitative statements about risk and impacts will
determine which method(s) to use. Trends in the results when quantitative analysis
is repeated can indicate the need for more or less risk management action (Modarres,
2006).
2.5
Pool fire
Pool fire occurs when release of flammable material from a system in an
establishment. If the material is stored below its normal boiling point, the liquid will
collect in a pool. A pool fire occurs when the liquid is ignited. The damaging
impact of a pool fire is thermal effects, primarily through the thermal radiation from
14
the flame surface. The damage are depends on the type of fuel, geometry of the pool,
duration of the fire and distance from the fire. The pool size or diameter is an
important consideration in the modeling of a pool fire (DOE, 2004).
2.6
Failure Rates for Tankage
The failure rates for the atmospheric pressure storage tanks were based
largely on a hazard analysis study carried out by Energy Anaysis Inc in the United
States. The failure rates have been modified slightly (Alara, 1997).
In postulating failure scenarios involving tangkage, fully developed major
fires in both the tanks and the bunded areas were considered. These are fires where
significant quantities of material have been exposed either through loss of a roof or
leakage into bund and ignition. The fire is considered to have progressed such that
standard correlations for flame size are applicable. The scenario considered is a fire
burning within a tank that has lost its roof (tank fire). Loss of roof can occur via
internal explosion within the tank. In the case of floating roof tanks, structural failure
or excessive external loads can cause the tank roof to sin (Alara, 1997).
The effect of the loss of roof scenario, such as the projectile motion and
impact of the roof fragments upon surrounding areas or tanks has not been known t
induce failures in the other tanks as well as easily travel in excess of 50 m but less
than 100 m before impact (Alara, 1997).
15
Table 2.1: Failure rates for the tankage
Failure Rate
Tank fire
Cone roof
2.6 x 10-4 /yr
Floating deck
1.3 x 10-4 /yr
Sub dike fire
6.0 x 10-5 /tank in sub dike/yr
Dike fire
1.2 x 10-5 /tank in full dike/yr
Tank explosion
2.0 x 10-5 /yr
Tank Flash Fire
1.4 x 10-5 .yr
Sub Dike Flash Fire
1.1 x 10-5 /yr
Dike Flash Fire
4.5 x 10-6 /yr
Source: Alara, 1997
2.7
Types of Air Pollutants.
2.7.1
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, pungent, irritating, water-soluble reactive gas.
This gas is formed during the combustion process of fuel containing sulphur (e.g. oil
and coal) mainly from industrial activities.
High concentrations of SO2 in the
atmosphere increase the risk of adverse symptoms in asthmatic patients and irritate
the respiratory system. Other effects associated with long-term exposure to high
concentrations of SO2 include respiratory illnesses, alterations in lung function and
aggravation of existing cardiovascular diseases (Imran, 2007).
There are also environmental concerns associated with high concentrations of
SO2. Sulfur dioxide along with NOX is a major precursor to acidic deposition, which
contributes to the acidification of soils, lakes and streams resulting in adverse impact
16
on the ecosystem. Sulfur dioxide can also be harmful to plant life and accelerates the
corrosion of buildings and monuments (Imran, 2007).
2.7.2
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish brown, highly reactive gas that is formed
in the ambient air through the oxidation of nitrogen monoxide (NO). Nitrogen oxide
(NOX) is the term used to describe the total sum of NO, NO2 and other oxides of
nitrogen. The major sources of man-made NOX emissions are high-temperature
combustion processes, such as those occurring in automobiles and power plants.
Most of the NOX (95%) from combustion processes are emitted as NO and the rest as
NO2. Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is readily converted to NO2 in the environment (Siti
Noorshafarina, 2007).
Short term exposure to NO2 may lead to changes in airway responsiveness
and lung function in individuals with preexisting respiratory illnesses and increases
respiratory illness in children. Long term exposure may increase susceptibility to
respiratory infection and cause alteration in lung function. Nitrogen oxides also react
in the air to form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, both of which are
associated with adverse health impacts (Siti Noorshafarina, 2007).
Nitrogen oxides contribute to a wide range of environmental effects,
including the formation of acid rain and potential changes in the composition and
competition of some species of vegetation in wetland and terrestrial systems,
visibility impairment, acidification of freshwater bodies, eutrophication of estuarine
and coastal waters and increase in levels of toxins harmful to aquatic life (Siti
Noorshafarina, 2007).
17
2.7.3 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and at high concentration, a
poisonous gas. Carbon monoxide is formed when the carbon present in fuel is not
burnt completely. CO is emitted mainly from motor vehicle exhaust. Other sources
of CO emission include industrial processes and open burning activities (Imran,
2007).
Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream through the lungs and reduces
oxygen delivery to organs and tissues. The health threat from exposure to CO is most
serious to those who suffer from cardiovascular diseases. At high levels of exposure,
CO can be poisonous even to healthy people. Visual impairment, reduced work
capability and poor learning ability are among the health effects associated with
exposure to elevated CO levels (Imran, 2007).
2.7.4
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
Total suspended particulates (TSP) are solid matter or liquid droplets from
smoke, dust, fuel ash, or condensing vapours that can be suspended in the air. They
either come from natural sources such as soil, bacteria and viruses, fungi, molds and
yeast, pollen, salt particles from evaporating sea water or from man-made sources
such as motor vehicle use, combustion products from space heating, industrial
processes and power generation. TSPs include a range of different sized particles.
The coarser particles are 50-100 micrometres and finer particles are smaller than 10
micrometres in diameter (Siti Noorshafarina, 2007).
18
They represent a broad class of chemical particles and may include inorganic
fibres, trace metals (such as lead) and a variety of organic materials. TSP may
originate from combustion, forming hydrocarbons, or from sulphates and nitrates
formed during sulphur dioxide or nitrogen dioxide emissions. Particulates can be
inhaled but larger particulates can be filtered by the upper respiratory tract. Smaller
particulates (respiratory suspended particulates) can enter deeper into the lungs (Siti
Noorshafarina, 2007).
2.8
Methanol
Methanol also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood
naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH.
Methanol is a clear, colorless liquid with a faint odor like alcohol. The smell is not
very strong and is considered a poor indicator of vapor concentration (Canada Safety
Council, 2005). Methanol burns in air forming carbon dioxide and water:
2 CH3OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 4 H2O
Figure 2.3: Methanol chemical formula
Methanol is used as a solvent for lacquers, paints, varnishes, cements, inks,
dyes, plastics and various industrial coatings. It is also used in the production of
19
pharmaceuticals, formaldehyde and other chemical products. Methanol appears as
an ingredient in many products, from industrial solvents to windshield-washer fluid
and nail-polish remover. It is also used as a fuel (Canada Safety Council, 2005).
Inhalation of methanol vapor is the most common route of occupational
exposure. Poisonings have also resulted from absorption through the skin; although
it is only a mild skin irritant, it can be absorbed through the skin in toxic amounts.
Accidental swallowing is also possible.
Methanol tastes and smells much like
common alcohol (ethanol) and has been used as a substitute in illegal alcoholic
beverages (Canada Safety Council, 2005).
Methanol is a flammable liquid and can pose a serious fire risk. It burns with
a pale blue flame not usually visible in normal light. Its flash point is 12 c. above this
temperature enough vapor is produced to create a flammable mixture with air. The
vapor is heavier than air and can travel along the ground to a distant source of
ignition and flashback. Containers may explode in the heat of a fire. Although
methanol is normally stable, contact with strong oxidizing agents increases the risk
of a fire or explosion (Canada Safety Council, 2005).
2.9
Glycerin
Glycerin is a commercial product which principal component is glycerol.
The pure chemical element is called Glycerol, which indicates that it is an alcohol.
The impure commercial product is called glycerin (Bonnardeaux, 2006).
Glycerol, the main component of glycerin, has the chemical formula
C3H5(OH)3. It is a trihydric alcohol, possessing two primary and one secondary
hydroxyl groups, which are its potential reaction sites and the basis for glycerin’s
versatility as a chemical raw material (Bonnardeaux, 2006).
20
Figure 2.4: Glycerin chemical formula
Glycerin is one of the most versatile and valuable chemical substances. It
possesses a unique combination of physical and chemical properties that are utilized
in numerous products. Glycerin has over 1,500 known end uses, including many
applications as an ingredient or processing aid in cosmetics, toiletries, personal care,
drugs, and food products. In addition, glycerin is highly stable under typical storage
conditions, compatible with many other chemical materials, virtually non-toxic and
non-irritating in its varied uses, and has no known negative environmental effects
(Bonnardeaux, 2006).
A water clear, odourless, viscous liquid with a sweet taste, glycerin is derived
from both natural and petrochemical feedstock. It occurs in combined form in all
animal fats and vegetable oils and constitutes, on average, about 10 per cent of these
materials. Natural glycerin is obtained from fats and oils during soap and fatty acid
production and by transesterification (an interchange of fatty acid groups with
another alcohol) during biodiesel production. Crude glycerin is 70 to 80 per cent
pure (Bonnardeaux, 2006).
Crude glycerin is usually designated for plastics and alkyd resins markets
(lacquers, varnishes, inks, adhesives, and synthetic plastics). Crude glycerin is often
concentrated and purified prior to commercial sale. Glycerin with purities up to 95.5
per cent and 99 per cent pure are used by the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
21
industries. Synthetic glycerin is produced from petrochemical building blocks via
several processing steps designed to achieve the desired concentration and high
product quality required for certain drug and pharmaceutical applications
(Bonnardeaux, 2006).
2.10
Production Process of Glycerin Distillation and Refining Plant
The main processes for the production of Methyl esters and refined glycerin
from palm oil are presented in Figure 2.5. First step in Glycerin Refining process is
the pH correction carried out in line by means of the dosing pump and static mixer.
Crude glycerin is then fed to the deaerator-predrying loop composed of a
recirculation pump, which also feeds the product to the distillation column, a heater
recovering energy from the pump around stream and a deaeration vessel (V-I) where
air and part of the water are removed (Vance Bioenergy, 2008).
The deaerated glycerin is fed, under the flow control to the distillation column,
on the discharge side of the reboiler recirculation pump. The distillation column is
composed of various sections that starting from the bottom are:
a. Bottom section, where the glycerin and water are evaporated, by means of an
external reboiler with forced circulation realized by means of the pump. At
the bottom section heavier product is taken by the pump and fed to wiped
film evaporator. The residue is discharged batch wise in a solid form. The
evaporated glycerin is condensed and recycled to the bottom section of the
column.
b. First packing layer is washing stages where the rising vapours are countercurrently washed by a partial recycle of condensed glycerin. In this section,
22
all heavy components which can be carried over in distillation, are scrubbed
from the vapours.
c. The second packing layer is the rectification section where the glycerin is
condensed; in the third packing layer it is dried by counter-current washing of
the vapours. A total draw-off plate extracts the liquid dried glycerin at the
bottom of this section. The glycerin flows to a deodorizer with structured
packing where the odoriferous compounds are steam stripped. The vapours
are returned to the tower, under the scrubber while the distilled glycerin is
pumped by the bleaching section.
d. The third packing layer is the condensation stage where most of the glycerin
condenses by means of an external pump-around. The liquid glycerin is
extracted at the bottom of the layer by means of a total draw-off plate and
collected in the receiver. From there the glycerin is pumped partly to the
second packing layer for drying of the vapours and partly is cooled and
recirculated to the third packing layer of the column for condensation of the
rising vapours.
e. The vapours are then sent to the scrubber with the fourth packing layer (of
smaller section). This is the final condensation stage where the second grade
glycerin is condensed by means of another external pump-around. In the
scrubber, the condensation temperature is much lower and consequently the
glycerin concentration will be lower since also part of the steam will
condense. The liquid glycerin is extracted at the bottom of the scrubber from
where it is pumped, cooled and partly recycled as pump-around to the
scrubber and partly discharged to battery limits as second grade glycerin.
f. The vacuum system is connected to the top of the scrubber and it is composed
of two boosters, two surface condensers and two ejectors
g. The bleaching section is composed of a three-bed system of activate carbon;
first grade glycerin is cooled to bleaching temperature and then passed in
series through two of the three bleachers. When the first bed of activate
23
carbon is exhausted, this bleacher is by-passed and carbon replaced, while the
glycerin flows through the second and third bleacher. The glycerin is then
passed through a polishing bag filter and finally cooled down to storage
temperature.
Figure 2.5: Process of Palm Oil Conversion into Methyl Ester and Refine Glycerin
Material
24
2.11
Emergency Response Plan
Environmental emergencies are incidents or events that threaten public
safety, health, and welfare and include hurricanes, floods, wildfires, industrial plant
explosions, chemical spills, acts of terrorism, and others. While these events range in
size, location, causes, and effect, most have an environmental component.
Emergency response is the organizing, coordinating, and directing of available
resources in order to respond to the event and bring the emergency under control.
The goal of this coordinated response is to protect public health by minimizing the
impact of the event on the community and the environment (NIESH, 2007)
An emergency response plan must provide the resources and information
needed to evaluate the human and environmental health impact.
Emergency
Response Plan is concise information necessary to respond effectively to any of the
incident as list below.
a) Fire.
b) Explosion.
c) Leakage from deteriorated or damage containers.
d) Spillage during handling or transportation.
e) Splash involving worker injury.
f) Spillage or leakage producing toxic vapours or fumes.
According to the American Society for Industrial Security’s Emergency
Planning Handbook, effective emergency planning begins with the following
(Vendrell, 2001):
a)
Defining an emergency in terms relevant to the organization doing the
planning
b) Establishing an organization with specific tasks to function immediately
before, during, and after an emergency
25
c)
Establishing a method for utilizing resources and for obtaining additional
resources during the emergency
d) Providing a recognizable means of moving from normal operations into and
out of the emergency mode of operation
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This chapter explained thoroughly the procedure of works to achieve the
objectives as stated in Chapter 1. This chapter illustrates the mechanism, process and
method of analysis as conducted in similar research. The discussions also focus on
sampling station and equipment used for air quality, data collection and methods on
calculation for pool fire and health index.
3.2
Data and Information Collection
This study begins with data and information collected for standard analysis of
risk assessment.
Information’s are gathered from books, journals, EIA reports,
guidelines from DOE and internet. Beside that, information on background and
process involved in Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. are also obtained.
27
3.3
Hazard Identification
All information about production process of glycerine refining plant and raw
material used are collected for analysis. Then, the data are classified by referring
National Fire Agency Protection (NFPA) based on flammability, health and
reactivity. The study will focus on the most flammable raw material used for the
plant operations. Then, the analyses are continued by determining the area affected
if any explosion occurred at the raw material storage tank using pool fire analysis.
3.4
Pool Fire
The heat release rate, Q of pool fire may be estimated from equation 1. The
example values of
, m”and
for common liquid is as shown in table 2.1.
(1)
Where:
Q
=
Heat release rate (kW)
=
Mass burning heat (kg/m2-sec)
ΔHc,
=
Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)
kβ
=
Empirical Constant (m-1)
D
=
Diameter of pool fire (m)
Af
=
Surface area of pool fire (m2)
28
Table 3.1: Burning rate data for fuel
Mass Burning
Heat of Combustion
Empirical Constant
m" (kg/m2-sec)
ΔHc (kJ/kg)
kβ (m-1)
Methanol
0.017
20000
100
Ethanol
0.015
26800
100
Butane
0.078
45700
2.7
Benzene
0.085
40100
2.7
Acetone
0.041
25800
1.9
Dioxane
0.018
26200
5.4
Gasoline
0.055
43700
2.1
Kerosene
0.039
43200
3.5
Diesel
0.045
44400
2.1
Rate
Fuel
Source: USNRC Version 1805.0
To estimate the radian heat flux, the following equation has been used,
(2)
Where:
q”
=
Radian heat flux (kW/m2)
Q
=
Heat release rate (kW)
R
=
Distance from center of the pool fire to edge of
the target (m)
xr
=
Radiative fraction = 0.3
29
3.5
Air quality
3.5.1
Equipment
The main parameters of air quality indicators are Carbon Monoxide (CO),
Total Suspended Particulate (TSP), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Sulphur Oxide
(SO2). For the purpose of this study, GrayWolf DirectSense TOX PPC Kit as shown
in Figure 2.1 is used to measure the air quality parameters such as CO, NO2, and SO2
as well as the temperature. The measurement unit for all the gases using this
equipment will be in parts per million (ppm), whereas, temperature will be measured
in °C. Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler as shows in Figure 2.2 is used for measuring
TSP.
Figure 3.1: GrayWolf DirectSense Tox PPC Kit
Figure 3.2: Mini Vol. Portable Air Sampler
30
3.5.2
Sampling Location
An early visited to sampling area must be conducted for identified the right
sampling location.
Sampling location must be at open area.
There are three
sampling location for air quality. The sampling location are selected at the boundary
of the factory and the nearby residential area. Every station name as A1, A2 and A3.
A1 and A2 is at the factory boundary while A3 is at Taman Pasir Putih located about
700m from the factory. The location is as shown in Figure 2.3. The sampling
location were chosen include the areas with impact potentials. Figure 2.2, 2.3 and
2.4 shows the air quality measurement at site.
Figure 3.3: Sampling location for A1, A2 and A3
31
Figure 3.4 (a): Sampling for TSP
at Station A1
Figure 3.4 (b): Sampling for CO, NO2
and SO2 at Station A1
Figure 3.4 (c): Station A1 at Jalan Keluli 5
32
Figure 3.5 (a): Sampling for TSP
at Station A2
Figure 3.5 (b): Sampling for CO, NO2
and SO2 at Station A2
Figure 3.5 (c): Station A2 at Jalan Keluli 4
33
Figure 3.6 (a): Sampling for TSP
at Station A3
Figure 3.6 (b): Sampling for CO, NO2
and SO2 at Station A3
Figure 3.6 (c): Station A3 at the Taman Pasir Putih
34
3.6
Exposure Assessment
Air is an important pathway for contaminants and inhalation is the major
route of exposure to contaminants that exist in atmospheric gases or attached to
airborne particles. Data from air quality will be used for the exposure assessment.
Using equation as states below, health index for CO, NO2, SO2 and TSP are
determined. Beside that, the health effect for every parameter is also defined. In
calculating the inhalation dose, it is assumed that 100% of the contaminant is
absorbed after inhalation. The amount of a contaminant absorbed into the body
through inhalation (EDair) can be estimated as follows:
(3)
Where:
EDair
=
Estimate dose trough air inhalation: the air inhalation
dose is expressed as milligrams of the contaminant
inhaled per kilogram of body weight per day.
C
=
Concentration of the contaminant in the air, in
milligrams per cubic meter of air (mg/m3).
IR
=
Inhalation rate: The amount of air person breathes in
a day in cubic meters (m3/day). If contaminated air is
breathed for only part of a day, then inhalation rate is
adjusted accordingly.
EF
=
Exposure factor: Indicates how often the individual
has been exposed to the contaminant over a lifetime
(unitless)
ED
=
Exposure Duration: Duration for the individual
exposed to the contaminant (years)
BW
=
Body weight: The average body weight in (kg) based
on an individual’s age group
35
AT
=
Average time: Average time for the individual
exposed to the contaminant (days)
The standard value of IR, EF, ED, BW and AT is obtain from EPA 1991b and as
tabulate in Table 2.2.
Table 3.2: Standard value for IR, EF, ED, BW and AT
Inhalation Rate
(IR) m3/day
Exposure
Exposure
Frequency (EF)
Duration (ED)
days/year
years
250
25
20
Body Weight
(BW) kg
Averaging
Time (AT)
70
days
6250
Source: EPA 1991b,1991
Health Index (HI) is the ratio of the estimated intake dose from exposure to
the response dose. Reference dose are dependent on the route of exposure and may
only be used with exposure data for the same route. The health index is calculated
using the formula below. If the acceptable level of intake is deemed to equal the
reference dose, then by definition, a health index of less than 1.0 is acceptable.
(4)
Where:
HI
=
Health index (dimensionless)
ED(predicted)
=
The predicted estimated dose per day through air
inhalation (mg/kg/day)
ED(allowable)
=
The allowable or permissible estimated dose per
day through air inhalation (mg/kg/day)
CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Introduction
This chapter will discuss on the result that obtain from the study. All the data
and information gathered are analyzed and the results are presented in table and
figure to make it easier to understand.
4.2
Hazard Identification
The main risks that may have potential impact to the environment arising
from the factory are mostly related to fire hazards within the proposed facility itself
and externally to the surrounding area. Data tabulated in Table 4.1 are summarized
from Material Safety Data Sheet (refer Appendix A-G). From the table shows that
all the raw materials and finished products are low risks in nature except for
Methanol and Sodium Methylate 30% solution. Based on National Fire Protection
Agency (NFPA), both materials are very flammable. This study will focus only on
37
the major fire due to the failure of the methanol storage tank.
When proper
preventive measures are in place, there will be no significant impact to these
materials on site.
Assessment is to evaluate and minimize the likelihood and
consequences of an accident leading to fires that can cause damage to property and
human life.
In Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd., there are three storage tanks of methanol.
Two of the tank with the capacity of 720 m3 located at PLO 669 while the other one
with 276 m3 capacity located at PLO 668. This study will focus on the storage tank
at PLO 669 which has the bigger capacity. The location of tanks is as shown in
Figure 4.1.
Methanol Storage
Tank
Figure 4.1: Methanol Storage Tank
Table 4.1: Hazard identification for raw material used in Methylester and Refined Glycerine process
Raw material/Finished
Product
Acid Citric
Sodium Hydroxide 50%
Solution
Methanol
Hazard Identification
• Eye contact (irritant) – can result in corneal damage or
blindness
• Skin contact – produce inflammation and blistering
• Severe over-exposure can produce lung damage,
choking, unconsciousness or death
• Very hazardous in case of
∼ skin contact (corrosive, irritant, burn)
∼ eye contact (irritant, corrosive),
∼ ingestion
• Slightly hazardous in case of inhalation (lung
sensitizer).
• Liquid or spray mist may produce tissue damage
particularly on mucous membranes of eyes, mouth and
respiratory tract.
• Inhalation of the spray mist may produce severe
irritation of respiratory tract, characterized by coughing,
choking, or shortness of breath.
• Severe over-exposure can result in death.
• Highly flammable.
• Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of eye
contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation.
• Slightly hazardous in case of skin contact (permeator).
• Severe over-exposure can result in death.
NFPA
Classification
Health:2
Flammability: 1
Reactivity: 0
Other names
2-Hydroxy-1,2,3propanetricarboxylic acid
Health:3
Flammability: 0
Reactivity: 1
Sodium Hydroxide, 50%
Health:2
Flammability: 3
Reactivity: 0
Wood alcohol
Methylol
Wood Spirit
Carbinol
Methyl alcohol
38
Table 4.1: Hazard identification for raw material used in Methylester and Refined Glycerine process (cont’d)
Raw material/Finished
Product
Glycerine
Palm Oil
Acid Phosphorous
Sodium Methylate, 30%
Hazard Identification
Other names
1,2,3-Propanetriol
Glycerol
Health: 0
Flammability: 1
Reactivity: 0
-
Health: 3
Flammability: 0
Reactivity: 0
-
Health: 3
Flammability: 2
Reactivity: 2
Sodium Methoxide
39
• Slightly hazardous in case of
∼ Skin contact (irritant, permeator),
∼ Eye contact (irritant),
∼ Ingestion
∼ Inhalation.
• Hazardous in case of ingestion.
• Slightly hazardous in case of
∼ Eye contact (irritant)
∼ Inhalation
• Corrosive to eyes and skin. The amount of tissue
damage depends on length of contact.
• Eye contact can result in corneal damage or blindness.
• Skin contact can produce inflammation and blistering.
• Inhalation of dust will produce irritation to gastrointestinal or respiratory tract, characterized by burning,
sneezing and coughing.
• Severe over-exposure can produce lung damage,
choking, unconsciousness or death.
• Skin contact can produce severe burns and ulceration of
the skin.
• Eye contact will result in eye corrosion or corneal or
conjunctival ulceration. Contact may result in
permanent damage to the eyes and even blindness.
• Inhalation of concentrated mists, spray, or vapor may
cause severe damage to the upper respiratory tract.
NFPA
Classification
Health:1
Flammability: 1
Reactivity: 0
40
4.3
Pool Fire
The ignitions at methanol storage tank are typically cause by several factors
such as lightning, frictional heat and sparks, hot surface and electrostatic discharge.
The size of the spillage pool depends critically on the size of pool fire and radian
flux. For this study, size of spillage pool computed from two difference sizes of pool
fire which are 5m and 10 m. While the hazard distances specified for pool fires are
determine based on three levels of thermal radiation.
The maximum flux is 37.5kW/m2 which can severely damage the unprotected
tanks and other process equipment. Another one is 12.5 kW/m2 which causes wood
and other cellulosic material to ignite after prolonged time. The minimum radian flux
is 4.0kW/m2 which roughly corresponds to the threshold of pain for human. The
others approximate radian flux level and corresponding damage conditions are as
shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Effect of thermal radiation
Radian Flux
Damage Conditions
(kW/m2)
37.5
25.0
12.5
9.5
Sufficient to cause damage to process equipment
Minimum energy required to ignite wood at definitely long
exposure (non-piloted)
Minimum energy required for piloted ignition of wood, melting
of plastic tubing
Pain threshold reached after 8 sec, second degree burns after 20
sec
Sufficient to cause pain to personnel if unable to reach cover
4.0
within 20 sec, however blistering of the skin (second degree
burns) is likely 0% lethality
1.6
Will cause no discomfort for long exposure
Source: EIA Guidelines for Risk Assessment (2004)
41
Figure 4.2 shows the pool fire with diameter of 5 m. The explosion at
methanol storage tank may hit the target in circular area of 6.31 m radius for 4kW/m2
radian flux. While for 12.5kW/m2 and 37.5kW/m2 the radius is in 3.57 m and 6.31 m.
When the fire at the methanol storage tank is sustained for more than five minutes,
the huge explosion may be expected.
Figure 4.3 shows the large pool fire with diameter of 10 m. for the large size
of pool fire the effected area are larger. The distances from the pool fire centre for 4
kW/m2, 12.5 kW/m2 and 37.5 kW/m2 radian flux are respectively 12.62 m, 7.14 m
and 4.12 m.
4.4
Failure Rate for Tank
The failure rate for fire and explosion phenomena at methanol storage tank
were typically 4.07 x 10-4 /yr. This included tank and sub dike fire (90-95%), full
dike fire (2-5%) and tank explosions (3-5%). The failure rate for tank fires is
increased to 65% of the total failure rate or 2.64 x 10-4 /tank/ yr.
4kW/m2
(6.31 m)
12.5kW/m2
(3.57 m)
37.5kW/m2
(2.06 m)
Figure 4.2: Small pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank
42
4kW/m2
(12.62 m)
12.5kW/m2
(7.14 m)
37.5kW/m2
(4.12 m)
Figure 4.3: Large pool fire at Methanol Storage Tank
43
44
4.5
Exposure Assessment
4.5.1
Air Emission
The types of activities that cause air pollution are those related to air emission
of Refined Glycerin plants. The potential of air pollution will be from the existing
boiler from chemical process of the existing Methyl Ester Plant. With the proper
control the plant operation will not have much impact on the air quality. The air
emission from the existing boiler using Light Fuel Oils (LFO) at Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd is obtained from the preliminary environmental impact assessment for
Refine Glycerin Plant, 2008. The specification of boiler is as tabulate in table 4.3
Table 4.3: Specification of boiler
Types
Boiler
Model
MB3000/250
Types of fuel
Diesel/Natural gaseous
Usage rate of fuel (kg/hr)
811.6 (Diesel)
713( Natural gaseous)
Limit Content of Sulfur (%)
3.5 (Diesel)
0 ( Natural gaseous)
Stack Height (m)
30.48
Exit velocity (m/s)
12.42 (Diesel)
14.14 ( Natural gaseous)
Capability (kg.wap/hr)
13608
Type of feeding
Pressure Jet Modulating
Source: Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008
Two sampling have been carried out by Envilab Sdn. Bhd. and Lotus
laboratory Services (M) Sdn. Bhd. for air emission from chimney of boiler. The
results are as tabulated in table 4.4.
45
Table 4.4: The stack air quality emission
2 Nov 2007
21 Feb 2008
g/Nm3
g/Nm3
Particulate Matter
0.019
0.08
Sulphur Oxide (SOx)
0.013
0.02
0.3
0.31
Parameter
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Source: Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008
The air dispersion within Pasir Gudang Industrial Estate is shown in Figure
4.4, 4.5 and 4.6. It based on the worst case scenario independent of wind direction of
boiler using LFO. The result shows that the maximum concentration at the factory
site it self are 0.032 µg/m3 for TSP, 0.0016 for NO2, 0.0026 ppm for SO2 and 0.039
ppm for CO. The concentration of the air pollutants are decreasing through the
distance. The emission from the chimney of boiler also within the acceptable limits
of Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1978.
0.0090 mg/Nm3
(3km)
0.0184 mg/Nm3
(2km)
0.0325 mg/Nm3
(0.8km)
Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd
46
Figure 4.4: Predicted TSP dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008)
0.0005 µg/Nm3
(3km)
0.0009 µg/Nm3
(2km)
0.0016 µg/Nm3
(0.8km)
Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd
Figure 4.5: Predicted NO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008).
47
0.00072 µg/Nm3
(3km)
0.00147 µg/Nm3
(2km)
0.0026 µg/Nm3
(0.8km)
Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd
48
Figure 4.6: Predicted SO2 dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008).
0.0108 µg/Nm3
(3km)
0.0221 µg/Nm3
(2km)
0.0389 µg/Nm3
(0.8km)
Vance Bioenergy
Sdn Bhd
49
Figure 4.7: Predicted CO dispersion GLC within 3km radius from the factory (Dept of Environmental Engineering, 2008)
50
4.5.2
Air Ambient
The air quality sampling is done to identify either the emission from boiler
give an impact to the air ambient at the surrounding area and risk to people or not.
Overall the concentration of SO2, NO2, CO and TSP at all station are low and
complied with Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Standards. The amount of a
contaminant absorbed into the body through inhalation are calculate as equation 1
(refer Chapter 3) and the result for sampling station A1, A2 and A3 are as shown in
Appendix I
The computed health index for the individual air pollutants for A1, A2 and
A3 have been shown to be well less than 1 with the value below than 0.5 (Table 4.5).
The results of the analysis shows that air pollutants emitted from the factory plant are
not expected to have any significant impact on health of the workers and people
surrounding. Health effect of SO2, NO2, CO and TSP on human is tabulated in
Table 4.6
Table 4.5: Health Index for A1, A2 and A3
Health Index
A1
A2
A3
SO2
0.023
0.031
0.085
NO2
0.176
0.176
0.147
CO
0.082
0.075
0.082
TSP
0.238
0.419
0.283
51
52
Table 4.6: Type of pollutants and effect to health
Type of
Health effect
pollutants
•
Affect the respiratory system and the functions of the
lungs.
SO2
•
Causes irritation of the eyes.
•
Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing,
mucus secretion, aggravation of asthma and chronic
bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of the
respiratory tract.
•
Irritate the lungs and lower resistance to respiratory
infections such as influenza.
NO2
•
High concentration in ambient may cause increased
incidence of acute respiratory illness in children.
•
Long-term exposure to NO2 may cause adverse health
effects.
•
CO
CO enters the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to
the body's organs.
•
The health threat from CO is most serious for those who
suffer from cardiovascular disease.
•
TSP
The most frequent health problems occur within the
respiratory system.
•
Bronchitis and lung damage can also occur.
Source: USEPA, 2008
4.6
Emergency Response Plan (ERP)
This Emergency Response Plan outlines the guidelines to be followed by the
employees, contractors and visitors to Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. The scope of this
plan includes the necessary details covering organization, communications,
53
responsibilities and plan of action which shall be used by all personnel involved in
emergency response. The objective of this plan is to provide overall plan of action to
be followed in an emergency situation with specific aim of
a) Ensuring the safety of all personnel
b) Minimizing damage to property
c) Ensuring safety of neighbouring plants, residential and public
Section Heads shall be responsible for regular reviewing and updating of
those sections in the plan which are relevant to his section's activities. The revision
shall be submitted to Safety, Health and Environment Section to be incorporated as
changes into the plan, after approved by the Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd Safety
Committee Chairman. The reviewing and updating shall be carried out at least
annually. The ERP will be amended when important components become outdated
or business and regulatory changes occur. Whenever changes are made, a revision
date and appendix number shall be noted. The updated revision will be issued to all
relevant personnel. At least one copy should be in every building including in the
guardhouse. In table 4.7 described the definition of some term used in ERP.
Table 4.7: Definition of term used in ERP
Definition
Emergency
Defined as the fully responsible person for the entire
Controller
emergency operation. Emergency Controller shall be the
Technical Director. In the case of any emergency occurring
during night time, week-end or holiday, the Duty Supervisor
will act as Emergency Controller until the arrival of the
Technical Director, Production General Manager or other
managers. During his absence, Production General Manager,
Production Manager / Sr. Officer or other managers will take
over.
Emergency
Defined as the Production General Manager who will assist
Commander
Emergency Controller giving instructions in controlling the
54
emergency at the site.
Table 4.7: Definition of term used in ERP (cont’d)
Definition
Fire Fighting
Defined to be all Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd personnel who
Team
have been assigned a duty / duties during emergency, to fight
fire or control emergency under the command of Fire Fighting
Chief or Emergency Commander.
First call-out is
Defined as calling up the key personnel i.e. Technical Director,
Production General Manager, Fire Fighting Chief, Safety
Health and Environment Officer, Senior Production Officers
and Engineers. For outside assistance call - out for government
and neighbourhood plants information, the calling must with
the consent by the Technical Director / Production General
Manager.
Second call-out
Defined as calling up the off duty personnel and outside
assistance in case of emergency become worsened.
Plant Area
Defined to be the entire process plant and its facilities including
tank yard area.
Vance Bioenergy Defined to be all employees who have been employed,
Sdn Bhd
permanently or temporarily and to whom have been issued with
employee
Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd Identification Badge.
Contractors
Defined to be all workers, employed by third parties, which are
called in by Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd to perform a job at
Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd's premises.
Visitors
All other persons who are legally authorized and want to visit
or enter Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd's premises.
55
4.6.1
Declaration of Emergency
The first response to all fires, explosions or condition that creates a potential
for injury or destruction shall be announced through the speaker system plant wide.
Announcement through the speaker system plant wide shall initiate the Emergency
Response Plan (ERP). Other form of communication such as hot line, walkie-talkie
and telephone can also be used to initiate the emergency. When notifying the
emergency provide information such as name of person that make announcement, the
exact location of the emergency and the type of emergency; fire, leak, explosion and
etc.
On the announcement of an emergency, the personnel at the affected area
which are not involved in the Fire Fighting Team shall proceed immediately to the
Assembly Point in front of the main office building. The Fire Fighting Team shall
proceed to the scene of the emergency fire.
The Emergency Controller or Commander shall assess the emergency
situation and declare an emergency where appropriate. He shall announce through
speaker system the type and condition of emergency. The Emergency controller
shall declare an emergency in the plant area. When the emergency is beyond control
and the Emergency Controller announced plant evacuation, all personnel not
involved in Emergency Response Plan in the plant area shall proceed to the
Assembly Point (Figure 4.8).
Once an emergency is declared, the Emergency
Controller shall direct the Assistant Supervisor to activate First and Second Call-out
for the key personnel.
All Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd employees who are called out should report
immediately to the Assembly Point and assume their respective assignment as laid
56
down in the Emergency Response Plan. Those not involved in emergency Response
Plan shall report to their Section Leader appointed by the Section Head for further
instructions and standby as back-up emergency supports.
4.6.2
Emergency Procedure
For Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd the emergency response plan categorized into
three (3) types. There are Plant Emergency, Person Emergency and Transportation
Emergency.
4.6.2.1 Plant Emergency
If any personnel observe any emergency incidents at plant area, it should alert
on-site personnel of possible dangers and provides for an orderly stop of operations
in the affected area or evacuation if necessary. It shall also signal the emergency
response team (ERT) to take necessary action.
When a major emergency is declared, all personnel in the plant area have to
follow emergency procedure and discontinue all the operations.
When the
emergency is beyond control and the Emergency Controller announced plant
evacuation, all personnel not involved in Emergency Response Plan in the plant area
shall proceed to the assembly point as shown in Figure 4.8. If the situation is out of
control, the emergency response team should call for assistance from external
sources like Fire Department (Bomba), Ambulance or Police. Figure 4.9, 4.10 and
4.11 show the emergency procedure for various situations.
57
Assembly point
Fi
56
gure 4.8: Assembly Point
57
Fire
Fight fire
Fight fire only if it is safe enough to do so
Raise alarm
Raise alarm to notify ET and alert others to
evacuate and stay away from area
ERT response
Identify hazards
Prepare action plan
Assess situation. Any causality? Shut
down electricity and gas supplies
Refer MSDS if necessary. Any risk of fire
escalating quickly/explosion? Any
structural collapse
Proceed with fire fighting, contain fire or
withdraw? Fight fire with fire extinguisher
or hose reel. Remove flammable substance
from vicinity. Need to carry out rescue
operation
Work in pairs. Be prepared to withdraw if
situation gets out of control.
Action
Hand to Bomba and
report to DOE
Hand over to Bomba on their arrival.
Report to DOE. Update them on the
situation. Standby to offer any help if
required.
Figure 4.9: Emergency procedure for fire
58
Chemical
Get away
Raise alarm
Identify spill if
possible
ERT response
Move away a safe distance on discovering a hazardous
spill and put on PPE
Inform direct supervisor or committee members to raise
alarm to notify ERT and alert others to evacuate and
stay away from area
Try to recall details of spilled chemical but do not go
back for a second look (label on container, foaming,
fuming, fire, smell colour, etc). Immediately inform the
DOE. Determine whether to inform Bomba
Assess situation. Any causality? Switch of electricity
Cordon of area
Seal off area to prevent others from entering area and
all other areas where spill can spread
Identify hazards
Refer MDMS. Any risk of fire/explosion? Any danger
of absorption through skin?
Prepare action plan
Wear PPE
Control and clean
Hand over to
Bomba
Report to DOE
Decontaminate
Decide how to handle spill (close leaking valve,
neutralize spill)
Wear full protection with encapsulating and breathing
apparatus, if unsure.
Control spread of spill. Prevent spill entering open
drains. Work in pairs. Contain used adsorbents in
bag/drum and label it properly for disposal. Flush area
with water
Hand over to Bomba. Update them on the situation.
Standby to offer any help that is required.
Submit report of the occurrence to DOE
Flush contaminated clothing with water. Remove PPE to
down
Figure 4.10: Emergency procedure for hazardous chemical spill
59
Toxic gas
release
Get away
Raise alarm
Identify toxic
release
Move away a safe distance on discovering a hazardous
spill and put on PPE
Inform direct supervisor or committee members to raise
alarm to notify ERT and alert others to evacuate and
stay away from area
Try to recall details of spilled chemical but do not go
back for a second look (label on container, foaming,
fuming, fire, smell colour, etc). Immediately inform the
DOE. Determine whether to inform Bomba
ERT response
Assess situation. Any causality? Switch of electricity
Cordon of area
Seal off area to prevent others from entering area and
all other areas where spill can spread
Identify hazards
Refer MDMS. Any risk of fire/explosion? Any danger
of absorption through skin?
Prepare action plan
Wear PPE
Rectify up spill
Hand over to
Bomba
Decontaminate
Decide how to handle spill (close leaking valve,
neutralize spill)
Wear full protection with encapsulating and breathing
apparatus, if unsure.
Work in pair
Hand over to Bomba. Update them on the situation.
Standby to offer any help that is required.
Flush contaminated clothing with water. Remove PPE to
down
Figure 4.11: Emergency procedure for toxic gas released
60
4.6.2.2 Transportation Emergency
The potential impacts due to the methanol storage tank will arise if accidents
occur and cause spillage or release of such waste into the environment.
The
methanol storage tank discharged or spilled may cause hazard to plants or animals
due to the toxicity of the waste. In the worst scenario, accidents could result in fire
or explosion. The following rules will be followed while transporting:
a) Use highways, trunk roads and other main roads.
b) Avoid damaged/ uneven roads, congested roads and roads passing
through dense populated areas or other environmentally sensitive areas.
c) Follow the speed limit.
d) Minimize the transit time from the waste generator to the proposed site.
e) The methanol storage tank will be sent to project proponent directly
without transit.
The lorries should be equipped with the following safety equipment:
a) Fire extinguisher
b) Safety gear like masks, goggles and gloves
c) First aid kits
d) Sawdust
e) Scoop
f) Plastic bag
The lorry driver will carry the necessary information which has all the
necessary information such as type of waste, its physical and chemical properties,
first aid, spill control procedures and the necessary precaution needed to be taken
while handling the waste. The lorry driver will be trained on how to use the safety
equipment and the emergency response methods. Should there be fire, explosion or
major leak, the wastes will be moved or transferred to a safer, place. All spills will be
considered hazardous. No one will approach the spills until the identity of spill is
61
known. In all cases, the personnel at the accident site should wear protective
clothing. The safety precautions will be as follows:
a) Always approach a spill from upwind
b) Do not touch the waste materials
c) Remove all possible ignition sources (e.g. running engine)
d) Do not smoke
e) Restrict access to the area
The most effective way to control a spill resulted from transport related
accident is to contain it. This act can facilitate on-site clean-up operations and
prevent of contamination of water sources. In case of spill on land, earthen dikes
will be built with the help of shovels or bulldozer; or the land is excavated to pond
the waste. Pumps will be used to recover the spillage of methanol from truck and
storage tank. For the part too little to be pumped up, saw dust or clay powder will be
used to adsorb the spilled waste. If the situation is out of control, the lorry driver
should summon assistance from sources like office, Fire Department (Bomba),
Ambulance or Police. Personnel not actively involved will be evacuated from the
area.
Action will be taken to return the environment to its conditions before
accident. Actions that might be taken under this phase will be replacement of
contaminated earth and replanting of vegetation. Figure 4.12 and 4.13 are the ERP
for various situations during transportation.
62
Control room
Stop vehicle
Switch of engine
Evacuation
Identify hazard
Prepare plan of action
Fight fire
Contact Office/
Bomba/ DOE
Hand over to
Bomba
Is situation
in control?
Clean up
Report
Figure 4.12: Emergency procedure for fire during transportation
63
Chemical spill
on road
Stop vehicle
Evacuation
Turn on hazard light
Display hazard sign
Wear PPE
Identify spill
No
Contact Office/
Bomba/ DOE
Yes
Is situation
in control?
Refer to waste
card
Refer to waste
card
Wear all
appropriate PPE
Wear appropriate
PPE
Contain spill
Stop spill from
containers and
contain spill
Clean up
Report
Wait for help
Figure 4.13: Emergency procedure for chemical spill during transportation
64
4.6.2.3 Injured Person
The safe removal and care of injured persons is of utmost importance. The
On-Scene-Commander is responsible for assuring that care is provided for injured
persons.
If an injured person is in an area of immediate danger, that person must be
removed as carefully and as quickly as possible, to the safe area. The On-SceneCommander shall be notified immediately of all injuries occurring as a result of the
emergency. If necessary, the On-Scene-Commander or designated technician shall
request assistance from the Plant First Aid to provide care and/or transportation of
the injured person to the hospital.
When an ambulance is coming for transportation of the injured, contact
Security Guardhouse at main entrance so that, an ambulance is on route. In the event
of transporting a victim or injured person, using the plant ambulance, the red
emergency light may be utilized, but all traffic signs and signals must be obeyed.
Drive defensively and get the victim to the hospital quickly and safely.
emergency procedure for injured person is described briefly in figure 4.14.
The
65
Control room
Production General
Manager & Section
Manager of the Area
Fire Fighting Team
for rescue operation
Technical Director
To the scene
emergency
Fatality
Apply first
aid
treatment
Police Report
Call for ambulance
(If own ambulance
inadequate)
Describe the injuries
and the number of
affected personnel
Transport the injured
or fatal case to
hospital
Figure 4.14: Emergency procedure for Injured Person
66
4.7
Evacuation Plan
An evacuation shall take place when the health and safety of plant personnel,
contract personnel, and visitors are endangered by fire, explosion or release of toxic
gas and vapors. The On-Scene-Commander or a designated technician shall contact
the guardhouse and the main entrance and inform them that there will be an
evacuation. The Security Supervisor or designated security personnel shall actuate
the alarm for “Evacuation” (See figure 4.15).
Evaluation plan for facility personnel need to be prepared where there is a
possibility that evacuation could be necessary. It will describe the signals to be used
to begin evacuation, the evacuation routes and alternate evacuation routes if there is a
possibility that the primary routes could be blocked by fires or releases of hazardous
wastes. The potential types of incident will have appropriate response laid out. This
will be the essence of the contingency plan. For each incident, a series of steps will
be devised to adequately respond. Also, the equipment, materials and personnel
protection e.g. respirators and protective clothing necessary to respond to each
incident must be identified.
The response strategy should specify when or invoke the arrangements with
state and local authorities and decisions criteria for evacuation. As the contingency
plan is not a static document, it must be reviewed and amended, if necessary,
whenever:
a) Applicable regulations are revised
b) The plan fails in an emergency
c) The facility changes in a way that materially increases the potential for
incidents or changes the response necessary to emergencies
d) The list of emergency coordinators changes; and
e) The list of emergency equipment changes.
67
Copies of the contingency plan and all revisions must be maintained at the
plant. In addition, the plan and all revisions can be submitted to the following
organizations that may be called on to provide emergency services:
a) Police departments
b) Fire departments
c) Hospitals
d) State and local emergency response teams.
The head of department or plant supervisor have to ensure that the head count
of their personnel is completed. Evacuation shall be made to the safest and closest
assembly point which has been assigned in the Assembly Point Area (Figure 4.4) of
this plan or as directed by the Emergency Controller. Evacuation for operating areas
should as far as possible avoid having to travel through or under vessel, pipe
structures, process areas etc. to the assembly point. Plant personnel shall stay at the
assembly point for further instructions and do not leave the assembly point without,
proper clearance from the department head or supervisor;
All plant personnel shall remain at their designated assembly area until it has
been determined that it is safe to return to the plant. To avoid delaying evacuation to
the assembly point, maximize the occupancy of each vehicle or plant truck within
safe limits and obey all traffic rules and signs out of the plant.
68
Alarm
activation
Activation of fire alarm
Stop work
Stop work / telephone calls / meetings immediately
Evacuation
Supervisors evacuate their staff through the
nearest safe exit. All visitors / contractors to be
Process to
assembly area
Walk brisk but do not run. Proceed straight to
Assembly area. If the front exit is blocked,
Emergency Director should decide to use the
back exit and proceed to External Assembly
area. Announcement should be made to inform
all evacuees to proceed to External Assembly
area. Do not collect personal belongings or stop
Assembly
Assemble according to assembly stands laid out.
Stay in line and do not move about
Head count
Evacuation Officer conducts headcount of their
staff. Report any suspected missing personnel
Standby
Remain in Assembly Area until further
instruction. Do not return to work until ALL
Figure 4.15: Evacuation Procedure
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusions
The followings are the conclusion obtained from the study.
1)
Methanol is the most hazardous and flammability material used at
Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. Large explosion at one of the methanol
storage tank would affect 12.62 m in radius from the fire. The failure
rate for explosion happened at methanol storage tank is 4.07 x 10
-4
/year
2)
Air quality within Vance Bioenergy Sdn. Bhd. is in good condition
because the Health Index (HI) recorded is less than one.
3)
Emergency Response Plan for Plant, Injured Person and Transportation
emergency had been proposed as evacuation if any incident happened.
The plan must be posted at or near raw material storage, treatment area
and inside the plant itself. ERP consist the information necessary to
respond effectively to any incident occurred. Thus it can minimize
hazards to human health or environment.
70
With proper management as proposed in emergency response plan, the
activity within Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd wil not cause any catastrophic or failure
events.
5.2
Recommendations
Following recommendation should be carried out in order to improve the
study.
1)
Beside determine the radius of affected area, this study can be improved
by calculate the height of flame and burning duration.
2)
Use other analysis such as BLEVE model to get more result on the risk
that may occur.
3)
Beside focus on methanol storage tank only, Sodium Methylate 30%
solution also very flammability at Vance Bioenergy Sdn Bhd. The
analysis should be carried out to identify risk from Sodium Methylate
30% solution storage tank.
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75
APPENDIX A
76
77
78
79
80
81
APPENDIX B
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
APPENDIX C
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
APPENDIX D
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
APPENDIX E
103
104
105
106
107
108
APPENDIX F
109
110
111
112
113
114
APPENDIX G
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
APPENDIX H
Example of Calculation for Pool Fire
Size of pool fire = 5m
χr :
0.3
m" :
0.017 kg/m2.sec
ΔH :
20000 kJ/kg
kβ :
100 m-1
For q” = 37.5 kW/m2
Area of pool fire
Heat release rate
124
kW
Radius of area affected
APPENDIX I
Result for Air Sampling
CA (mg/m3)
EDair (mg/kg.days)
Normal Operation
Normal Operation
*Standard
A1
A2
A3
SO2
3
4
11
NO2
3
3
CO
2450
TSP
0.062
*Standard
A1
A2
A3
130
0.587
0.783
2.153
25.440
25
170
5.871
5.871
4.892
33.268
2240
2450
30000
479.452
438.356
479.452
5870.84
0.109
0.0735
0.26
0.012
0.021
0.014
0.051
*Based on Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Standards
125
126
APPENDIX J
Example of Calculation for Health Index
For normal operation of SO2,
For standard of SO2,
Health index for SO2
mg/m3
mg/m3
127
APPENDIX K
Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines
Pollutant
Ozone (O3)
Carbon Monoxide
(CO)
Nitrogen Dioxide
(NO2)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Particulate Matter
(PM10)
Total Suspended
Particulate (TSP)
Lead (Pb)
Note: * mg/m3
Averaging Time
1 Hour
8 Hour
1 Hour
8 Hour
1 Hour
24 Hour
1 Hour
24 Hour
24 Hour
12 Month
1 Hour
8 Hour
3 Month
Malaysia Guidelines
ppm
(µg/m3)
0.10
200
0.06
120
30.0
35*
9.0
10*
0.17
320
0.04
10
0.13
350
0.04
105
150
50
0.1-0
260
0.60
90
1.5