vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
1
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
xxii
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Background of the Problem
2
1.2.1 Erosion Control and Beach Nourishment in Malaysia
2
1.2.2 Study Shoreline
3
1.2.3
5
Beach Nourishment Design and Depths of Closure
1.3
Objectives of the Study
7
1.4
Benefits of the Study
7
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Cross-shore Sediment Transport and Equilibrium
8
8
Beach Profiles
8
2.3
Definition of Depth of Closure
9
2.4
Methods of Determination
12
2.4.1
Predictive Methods
12
2.4.2
Depth of Closure from Profile Surveys
15
2.4.3
Depth Change Criterion
16
2.5
Application of Depth of Closure
18
2.6
Depth of Closure – Malaysian Context
19
2.7
Summary
21
3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
23
3.1
Introduction
23
3.2
Scope of the Research
24
3.3
Research Methodology
27
3.3.1 Data Sets
27
3.3.2
Primary Data Collection
28
3.3.3
Numerical Modelling
29
3.3.4
Analysis
30
3.4
4
3.3.5 Depths of Closure from Beach Profile Data
30
3.3.6
31
Depth of Closure from Empirical Formulae
Summary
FIELD DATA ANALYSIS
31
33
4.1
Introduction
33
4.2
Study Area
34
ix
4.3
Environmental and Climatic Conditions
35
4.4
Data Sets
36
4.5
Beach Profile Survey
36
4.5.1
Survey #1 - 1998
37
4.5.2
Survey #2 - 1999
37
4.5.3
Survey #3 - 2000
38
4.5.4
Survey #4 - 2004
38
4.5.5 Survey Data Selection
38
4.5.6
42
4.6
Sediment Data
42
4.7
Wave
44
4.7.1
UKMO Design Wave Analysis
45
4.7.2
Measured Waves
50
4.8
Tidal Heights
52
4.9
Wind
54
4.10
Summary
55
5
NUMERICAL MODELLING
57
5.1
Introduction
57
5.2
Model Description
57
5.3
Numerical Modelling
59
5.3.1
Model Area and Orientation
59
5.3.2
Wave Breaking Conditions
59
5.4
6
Survey Data Filtering
5.3.3 Calibration
61
5.3.4
66
Prediction of Nearshore Waves from Wave Model
Summary
77
DETERMINATION OF DEPTHS OF CLOSURE
79
x
6.1
Introduction
79
6.2
Depth of Closure – Scope and Criteria
80
6.2.1
Definition
80
6.2.2
Algorithm for Determination of Dc from Profile Surveys
81
6.3
Predicted Depth of Closure, Dl,t
84
6.4
Monsoon Dc (1998-1999 surveys)
84
6.4.1
Profile Descriptions and Application of Algorithm
84
6.4.2
Monsoon Dc at Ch.3100 and Ch.2700
84
6.4.3
Monsoon Dc at Ch.2300 and Ch.1900
87
6.4.4
Monsoon Dc at Ch.1500, Ch.1200 and Ch.800
88
6.4.5
Monsoon Dc at Ch.400, Ch.200 and Ch.00
91
6.4.6
Monsoon Dc at Ch.-400, Ch.-900 and Ch.-1400
95
6.4.7
Summary for Monsoon Dc
97
6.5
Annual Dc (1999-2000)
100
6.5.1
Profile Description and Application of Algorithm
100
6.5.2
Annual Dc at Ch.3100
101
6.5.3
Annual Dc at Ch.2700
102
6.5.4
Annual Dc at Ch.1500
103
6.5.5
Annual Dc at Ch.1200
104
6.5.6
Annual Dc at Ch.800
105
6.5.7
Annual Dc at Ch.400
106
6.5.8
Annual Dc at Ch.200
107
6.5.9
Annual Dc at Ch.00
108
6.5.10 Annual Dc at Ch-400, Ch.-900 and Ch.-1400
109
6.6
Summary for Annual Dc (1999-2000)
111
6.7
Time-interval Dc (1999-2004)
113
6.7.1
Profile Description and Application of Algorithm
113
6.7.2
Five-year Dc at Ch.3100
114
6.7.3
Five-year Dc at Ch.2700
115
xi
6.7.4
Five-year Dc at Ch.1500
116
6.7.5
Five-year Dc at Ch.1200
117
6.7.6
Five-year Dc at Ch.800
118
6.7.7
Five-year Dc at Ch.400
119
6.7.8
Five-year Dc at Ch.200
120
6.7.9
Five-year Dc at Ch.00
121
6.7.10 Five-year Dc at Ch.-400, Ch.-900 and Ch.-1400
122
6.8
Summary of 5-year Dc (1999, 2000 and 2004)
124
6.9
Comparison of Event and Time-Interval Dc
126
6.10
Measured Dc vs. Hallermeier’s Equation
127
6.11
Simplified Dc Equations
129
6.12
Observation
131
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
133
7.1
General Conclusions
133
7.2
Suggestions for Future Research
135
7
7.2.1
Dc Criteria and Survey Techniques
135
7.2.2
Wave Data
135
7.2.3 Profile Surveys and Bar Migration Phenomena
136
7.2.4
136
Determining a predictive formula for local Dc
REFERENCES
APPENDICES A - E
138
142-174
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
4.1
Profile Survey Data Register
40
4.2
Starting And Ending Points Of Selected Survey Dataset
(13 profile lines) off Pantai Sabak, Kelantan
41
4.3
Statistics of UKMO Wave Dataset
47
4.4
Tidal Levels Along Study Shoreline (meters, LSD)
53
4.6
Mean High Water (meters, LSD)
53
4.7
Difference between MSL and MLW at Study Coastline
54
4.8
Difference between MSL and MHW at Study Coastline
54
5.1
Results of Wave Model Calibration
63
5.2
Location of Offshore Points in Model Grid for Extraction
of Wave Parameters
Predicted Wave Heights At 10 M Depth Based On Offshore
wave of H0.137 = 2.9 m and Tm = 6.3 secs
74
Predicted Wave Heights at 10 m depth Based On Offshore
Wave of H0.027 = 3.13 m and Tm = 6.54 secs
75
6.1
Depths of Closure (SDDC) for Monsoon Event 1998-1999
99
6.2
Depths of Closure (FDC) for Monsoon Event 1998-1999
99
6.3
Annual Dc (May 1999 – May 2000)
111
6.4
Five-year Dc (1999, 2000, 2004 surveys) for beach-fill
design
125
5.3
5.4
67
6.5
Outer Closure Depths Dco (MLW) from Profile Plots
127
6.6
Effective Dc and Predicted depth of closure, Dl,t , MLW
128
6.7
Dc from simplified equations compared with effective Dc
130
6.8
Dc from simplified equation compared to Dco
130
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
NO.
1.1
TITLE
PAGE
Study Area - 4.5 km of Shoreline From Pantai Dasar Sabak
to South of Kg. K.S.P. Besar (Sungai Pengkalan Datu)
4
Evolution of Beach-fill based on Theory of Equilibrium
Profile
6
Zonation Of Seasonal Beach Profile (Hallermeier 1978,
1981); extracted from Rijkswaterstaat (1987)
10
3.1
Research Model
26
4.1
Location of Study Area
34
4.2
Close-up of Study Area from Kg. Pantai Dasar Sabak
to Kg. Senok
35
4.3
Profile Lines At The Study Area
39
4.4
Distribution of sediments along Pantai Sabak 1998, 1999
and 2004 (d50 averaged across all chainages)
43
Distribution of bed sediments along Pantai Sabak 1998-1999.
Negative chainages are south of the breakwater
43
4.6
Distribution of bed sediments along Pantai Sabak 2004
44
4.7
Location of Wavebuoy And UKMO Wavedata Source
Relative to Kelantan Coast.
45
Offshore Significant Wave Heights at 6.39N 102.92E;
28/05/1999 – 30/07/2004
46
4.9
Histogram of UKMO Waves
47
4.10
Wave Height vs. Wave Period for UKMO Offshore
Wave Records 1999 to 2004
48
1.2
2.1
4.5
4.8
xv
4.11
H0.137 Wave from 1999-2000 UKMO Wave Data
49
4.12
H0.027 Wave from 1999-2004 UKMO Wave Data
50
4.13
Wave Buoy Measurements at E19236.3 N33957
(Kelantan Cassini) off Pantai Sabak, Kelantan Coast;
30 June to 13 July 2004.
51
Comparison of Offshore (UKMO Data) and Nearshore
Waves Measured at the -12 m LSD Contour
51
Location Of Water Level, Current and Wave Stations At
Study Area.
52
Wind Rose for UKMO Offshore Wind Data (20 m Above
MSL)
55
Orientation of rectangle model layout for the input
(offshore) wave approach conditions N330o, N0o, N30o,
N60o, N90o and N120o
58
Sensitivity of kN parameter and location of breaking wave
based on waves in July
62
Water level measurements at Pantai Sabak during calibration
period
64
Wave Model Calibration – Wave Heights (for offshore waves
from 0 to 120 degrees)
64
Wave Model Calibration – Wave Directions (for offshore
waves from 0 to 120 degrees)
65
5.6
Location of extraction points in wave model
67
5.7
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.137 = 2.9, Tm = 6.3 sec;
North approach.
68
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.137 = 2.9, Tm = 6.3 secs;
N30o approach.
69
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.137 = 2.9 m, Tm = 6.3 secs;
N60o approach.
69
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.137 = 2.9 m, Tm = 6.3 secs;
N90o approach.
70
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.137 = 2.9 m, Tm = 6.3 secs;
N120o approach.
70
4.14
4.15
4.16
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
xvi
5.12
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.027 = 3.13 m, Tm = 6.54 secs;
North approach.
71
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.027 = 3.13 m, Tm = 6.54 secs;
N30o approach.
71
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.027 = 3.13 m, Tm = 6.54 secs;
N60o approach.
72
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.027 = 3.13 m, Tm = 6.54 secs;
N90o approach.
72
Wave Refraction Diagram; H0.027 = 3.13 m, Tm = 6.54 secs;
N120o approach.
73
Predicted Maximum Wave Heights at 10-m depth ACD
contour along Pantai Sabak, Kelantan.
76
Predicted Wave Heights at 10-m depth (ACD) contour along
Pantai Sabak, Kelantan averaged over all directions
77
6.1
Monsoon Dc at Ch.3100
85
6.2
Monsoon Dc at Ch.2700
86
6.3
Monsoon Dc at Ch.2300
87
6.4
Monsoon Dc at Ch.1900
88
6.5
Monsoon Dc at Ch.1500
89
6.6
Monsoon Dc at Ch.1200
90
6.7
Monsoon Dc at Ch.800
91
6.8
Monsoon Dc at Ch.400
92
6.9
Monsoon Dc at Ch.200
93
6.10
Monsoon Dc at Ch.00
94
6.11
Monsoon Dc at Ch.-400
95
6.12
Monsoon Dc at Ch.-900 (slope 1:400)
96
6.13
Monsoon Dc at Ch.-1400; closure is not defined with
SDDC method at Ch.-1400
97
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
xvii
6.14
Comparison of SDDC and FDC methods in determining
Monsoon Dc
100
6.15
Annual Dc at Ch.3100
101
6.16
Annual Dc at Ch.2700
102
6.17
Annual Dc at Ch.1500
103
6.18
Annual Dc at Ch.1200
104
6.19
Annual Dc at Ch.800
105
6.20
Annual Dc at Ch.400
106
6.21
Annual Dc at Ch.200
107
6.22
Annual Dc at Ch.00
108
6.23
Annual Dc at Ch.-400
109
6.24
Annual Dc at Ch. -900
110
6.25
Annual Dc at Ch.-1400
110
6.26
Radar Graph - Comparison between Dl,1-yr and
measured Annual Dc
112
Variation in Dl,1-yr and measured Annual Dc along
the study area
112
5-year Dc at Ch.3100 - Comparison of SDDC and mean
of FDC between consecutive surveys at Ch.3100
114
6.29
5-year Dc at Ch.2700
115
6.30
5-year Dc at Ch.1500
116
6.31
5-year Dc at Ch.1200
117
6.32
5-year Dc at Ch.800
118
6.33
5-year Dc at Ch.400; three closure points were detected
119
6.34
5-year Dc at Ch.200
120
6.35
5-year Dc at Ch.00
121
6.36
5-year Dc at Ch.-400
122
6.27
6.28
xviii
6.37
5-year Dc at Ch.-900
123
6.38
5-year Dc at Ch.-1400
123
6.39
Comparison of 5-year Dc (effective Dc for beach-fill
design), Dco (outermost Dc) and Dl,5-yr
125
Variation in 5-year Dc (effective Dc for beach-fill design),
Dco (outermost Dc) and Dl,5-yr across the study area
126
6.41
Dc along Pantai Sabak, Kelantan
129
6.42
Dc based on different closure criteria
132
6.40
xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CED
Coastal Engineering Division
CEM
Coastal Engineering Manual
cm
centimeter
DHI
Danish Hydraulic Institute
DID
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia
DSMM
Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia
HAT
Highest Astronomical Tide
Kg.
Kampung; village (malay)
LAT
Lowest Astronomical Tide
LSD
Land Survey Datum
m
meter
mm
millimeter
MSL
Mean Sea Level
MHW
Mean High Water
MHHW
Mean Higher High Water
MLHW
Mean Lower High Water
MLW
Mean Low Water
MHLW
Mean Higher Low Water
MLLW
Mean Lower Low Water
Sg.
Sungai; river (malay)
SSMO
Synoptic Shipboard Meteorological Observation
UKMO
United Kingdom Meteorological Office
xx
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Dc
depth of closure
Dc,1-yr
depth of closure over 1 year
Dc,5-yr
depth of closure over 5 years
Dci
depth of closure, innershore; from profile survey
Dcm
depth of closure, middleshore; from profile survey
Dco
depth of closure, outershore; from profile survey
Dl
predicted depth of closure; water depth at the seaward limit of
significant sediment transport
Dl,t
predicted depth of closure over t years
Dl,1-yr
predicted depth of closure over 1 year
Dl,5-yr
predicted depth of closure over 5 years
d
water depth
di
lower limit of the shoal zone
dl
lower limit of the littoral zone
d50
size of material of which 50% is finer
g
acceleration due to gravity
H
predicted depth of closure (Birkemeier's equation)
hc
predicted depth of closure (Hallermeier's equation)
Hm0
energy-based wave height of the zeroth moment
Hs
significant wave height
Hs50
median annual significant wave height
Hl,t
significant wave height exceeded 12 hours over t years
H0.137
significant wave height exceeded 12 hours in a year
H0.027
significant wave height exceeded 12 hours in t = 5 years
He,t
non-breaking significant wave height that is exceeded 12 hours per t
years or (100/730t) % of the time
kN
Nikuradse's roughness parameter
xxi
s
standard deviation
t
time
T
wave period associated with a particular wave height
Te, t
wave period corresponding to He,t
Tm
mean wave period
Tp
peak wave period
Ub
maximum horizontal wave-induced near-bed velocity
xi
measurement
xm
mean of all measurements
n
number of measurements
σH
annual standard deviation of significant wave height
Φc
sediment entrainment parameter
γ’
ratio of the difference in density between sediment and fluid density
γ1
wave breaking parameter which controls wave steepness condition
γ2
wave breaking parameter which controls limiting water depth
condition
α
adjustable constant in energy dissipation equation
xxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A
TITLE
Profile Surveys from the coastline of Pantai Sabak, Kelantan
1998, 1999, 2001 and 2004
B
E
159
Summary of Grain Size Distribution from Pantai Sabak,
Kelantan Surveys 1998, 1999, 2004
D
142
Description of United Kingdom Meteorological Office
(UKMO) Dataset
C
PAGE
165
Tidal Data From Pantai Sabak, Kelantan;
2004 Survey
168
Model Wave Bathymetry
171