vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
i
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LISTS OF TABLES
xii
LISTS OF FIGURES
xiii
LISTS OF ABBREVIATION
xviii
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General Background
1.2
GPS and Its Ability to Predict the Plate
1
Deformation
4
1.3
Problem Statement
6
1.4
Research Objective
8
1.5
Research Scope
8
1.6
Research Contribution
9
1.7
Research Methodology
10
1.7.1
Hardware and Software Setup
11
1.7.2
Data Preparation
13
viii
1.8
2
Literature Review
13
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Background of Global Positioning System
(GPS)
16
GPS Satellite Signals and its Application
19
2.2.1
Pseudo-Random Codes
20
2.2.2
The Navigation Message
21
2.2.3
Signal Processing
22
GPS Continuous Observation Centers
23
2.3.1
International GPS Service (IGS)
23
2.3.2
MASS
25
2.3.2.1 The MASS System
27
The GPS Observables
28
2.4.1
Pseudoranges
28
2.4.2
Pseudorange Observation Equation 29
2.4.2.1 Code Pseudorange
Observation Equation
29
2.4.2.2 Phase Pseudorange
2.4.2
2.4.3
Observation Equations
30
GPS Differencing Techniques
31
2.4.2.1 Single Difference
32
2.4.2.2 Double Differencing
32
2.4.2.3 Triple Differncing
33
Linear Phase Combination
34
2.4.3.1 Ionosphere-free
35
2.4.3.2 Geometry-free
36
2.4.3.3 Wide-Lane
36
2.4.3.4 Melbourne Wubenna
37
ix
2.5
2.6
GPS Errors Elimination and Biases
Reduction
38
2.5.1
Satellite Orbit
38
2.5.2
Keplerian Orbit
41
2.5.3
Earth Rotation Parameters (EOP)
43
2.5.4
Antenna Phase Center
Variations (PCV)
44
2.5.5
Receiver Clock
45
2.5.6
Ionosphere
46
2.5.7
Troposhere
47
2.5.8
Tide and Loading
50
2.5.8.1 Ocean Loading
50
2.5.8.2 Ocean Tide
51
2.5.8.3 Atmosphere Loading
52
Ambiguity Resolution
52
2.6.1 Directly Resolving
Ambiguities on
Short Baselines
54
2.6.2 The Quasi-Ionosphere-Free
(QIF) Ambiguity Resolution
Strategy
3
54
2.7
ITRF
55
2.8
Summary
57
GPS for Geodynamic Studies
3.1
Introduction to Geodynamic
58
3.2
Evolution of the Plate Tectonic Theory
58
3.2.1
59
3.3
3.4
Pangea
Continental Drift
60
3.3.1
61
Sea-Floor Spreading
Plate Boundary Zones
64
x
3.4.1
Divergent Boundaries
65
3.4.2
Convergent Boundaries
65
3.4.2.1 Oceanic-oceanic
convergence
66
3.4.2.2 Oceanic-continental
convergence
66
3.4.2.3 Continental-continental
3.4.3
67
Transform Boundaries
67
3.5
The “Ring of Fire”
67
3.6
Plate Tectonic and GPS
69
3.7
Malaysia
70
3.8
Site Description
71
3.9
Previous Regional Campaigns
72
3.9.1
Geodyssea
72
3.9.2
APRGP
73
3.9.3
GDM2000
73
3.10
3.11
4
convergence
Velocity
74
3.10.1 Velocity Frame
74
3.10.2 Absolute
74
3.10.3 Relative
74
3.10.4 Absolute-Free Velocities
75
3.10.5 Absolute-Fix Velocities
75
3.10.6 Relative-Free Velocities
75
3.10.7 Relative-Fix Velocities
75
Summary
76
DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING
4.1
Introduction
77
4.2
Data Acquisition
77
4.3
Data Preparation
78
xi
4.3.1
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
5
TEQC
78
Bernese Version 4.2
79
4.4.1
RINEX Files
79
4.4.2
Ocean Loading Files
80
4.4.3
Velocity Files
80
Data Processing
81
4.5.1
RXOBV3 (Transfer Part)
82
4.5.2
PRETAB & ORBGEN
83
4.5.3
CODSPP
86
4.5.4
SNGDIF
88
4.5.5
MAUPRP
88
Adjustment- Parameter Estimation
90
4.6.1
Parameter Estimation GPSEST1
90
4.6.2
RESRMS
92
4.6.3
SEROBVS
92
4.6.4
GPSEST II
92
4.6.5. GPSEST III
93
4.6.6
GPSEST IV
94
4.6.7
Troposphere Estimation
95
4.6.8
Ionosphere Modelling
96
4.6.9
Ocean Loading Parameters
96
4.6.10 Ambiguity Resolution
96
4.6.11 Weekly Solution
96
4.6.12 Helmert Transformation
97
4.6.13 Generating Velocity
98
Summary
98
RESULTS AND ASSESSMENT
5.1
Outcome and Reliability
99
5.2
Helmert Transformation
104
5.3
Final Coordinates
105
xii
6
5.4
Station Velocity
106
5.5
Residual Graphs
107
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
Summary
6.2
Other Method of Detecting Earth
6.3
References
109
Deformation
109
Recommendations
110
111
xiii
LISTS OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
2.1
Components of the satellite signal
2.2
Linear combinations (LCs) of the L1 and L2
PAGE
19
observables used in Bernese
38
2.3
Errors in baseline components due to orbit errors
40
2.4
Estimated quality orbits in 2000
41
2.5
Pertubing accelerations acting on a GPS satellite
43
5.1
Final Coordinate Difference
105
xiv
LISTS OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Earth’s Core
1
1.2
Continental Plates of the Earth
2
1.3
The Ring of Fire
3
1.4
Fault lines in the South-East Asian Region
4
1.5
IGS Sites selected to tie the MASS to ITRF
5
1.6
MASS sites in East and West Malaysia
6
1.7
GPS Processing Diagram
10
1.8
Process Control Script flow chart
12
2.1
GPS orbits (Earth and orbital planes)
17
2.2
GPS Block II satellite and satellite-fixed
coordinate System
19
2.3
Biphase modulation of the GPS signal
20
2.4
The Distribution of the IGS stations
24
2.5
Distribution of the MASS locations in Malaysia
26
2.6
Geodesy Data Processing Centre Configuration
in Kuala Lumpur
26
2.7
Remote Base Station set-up
27
2.8
The set of orbital elements
42
2.9
GPS Signals with Ionospheric Delays
46
2.10
Tilting of the ‘Tropospheric’ Zenith by the Angle β
50
2.11
The ocean tides for harmonics M2
51
2.12
The IGS stations are distributed all around the globe
57
3.1
PANGAEA
59
3.2
Holmes’ model of convection currents
60
3.3
Earth’s Interior
61
xv
3.4
Sea Floor Spreading
62
3.5
The Tectonic Plate Boundaries
63
3.6
The ‘Ring of Fire’
68
3.7
Malaysia and Its Plate Location
69
3.8
Malaysia
71
4.1
Bernese Concise Processing Diagram
81
4.2
Transfer Menu
82
4.3
Orbit Menu
83
4.4
Standard Orbit Generation Menu
84
4.5
Results for ORBGEN Program
85
4.6
Results for ORBGEN Program
85
4.7
Input Menu for CODSPP
86
4.8
Determining the Atmosphere Models
86
4.9
Result from CODSPP Program
87
4.10
SNGDIFF program Menu 4.3
88
4.11
MAUPRP Program Menu 4.4.2
89
4.12
MAUPRP Input Menu 4.4.2-1
89
4.13
Diagram of the Daily Adjustment of the
Bernese Processing
90
4.14
GPSEST I Menu 4.5
91
4.15
Output files for GPSEST I
91
4.16
Menu 4.5-2.4 GPSEST IV Program
94
4.17
Menu 4.5-2.4B
95
5.1
Ambiguity Resolution Percentage of the
first day of year 2001
100
5.2
RMS of Residuals of Observation
101
5.3
Daily RMS
102
5.4
Weekly Residual RMS GPS Week 1046
102
5.5
Formal Accuracy of the Coordinate week 1046
103
5.6
Overall Weekly Residual RMS
104
5.7
Velocity for the year 2000-2002 for the first months
106
5.8
Residual Weekly Graph
107
xvi
LISTS OF ABBREVIATION
AIUB
-
Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern
AR
-
Ambiguity Resolution
ARP
-
Antenna Reference Point
AS
-
Anti-Spoofing
BKG
-
Federal Agency of Cartography and Geodesy
CBIS
-
Centre Bureau Information System
CGGS
-
Centre for Geodynamics and Geodetic Study
CIO
-
Conventional International Origin
CODE
-
Centre for Orbit Determination in Europe
CPC
-
Central Processing Center
DS
-
Data Screening
DSMM
-
Department of Survey and Mapping, Malaysian
ERP
-
Earth Rotation Parameter
EUREF
-
European Reference Frame
GDPC
-
Geodesy Data Processing Center
GIPSY
-
GPS-Inferred Positioning System
GLOSS
-
Global Sea Level Observing System
GMT
-
Graphical Mapping Tools
GPS
-
Global Positioning System
GPSEST
-
Program used in Bernese for Parameter Estimation
IAG
-
International Association of Geodesy
IAU
-
International Astronomical Union
IERS
-
International Earth Rotation Service
IGN
-
Institute Geographical National
IGS
-
International GPS Service
ITRF
-
International Terrestrial Reference Frame
ITRS
-
International Terrestrial Reference System
xvii
IUGG
-
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
JPL
-
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
JUPEM
-
Malaysia Language for DSMM
LLR
Long Laser Ranging
LOD
-
Length Of Day
MASS
-
Malaysian Active GPS System
MAUPRP
-
Program used in Bernese for Phase Check
MSRF
-
Malaysian Spatial Reference Frame
N
-
Number for independent baseline
NASA
-
National Aeronautic and Space Administration
NAVSTAR GPS
-
NAVigation Satellite Timing and Ranging GPS
NGS
-
National Geodetic Survey
PRN
-
Pseudo-Range Number
RINEX
-
Receiver Independent Exchange
RTK
-
Real Time Kinematic
RMS
-
Root Mean Square
SA
-
Selective Availability
SINEX
-
Solution Independent Exchange
SIO
-
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
SLR
-
Satellite Laser Ranging
SNGDIF
-
Program used in Bernese for Single Differences
SVN
-
Satellite Vehicle Number
UTM
-
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
VLBI
-
Very Long Baseline Interferometry