TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxi
INRTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the research
1
1.2
Statement of the problem
3
1.3
Objectives
5
1.4
Scope of work
6
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Urban water pollution
7
2.2
Runoff Quality
9
2.3
Control of non point source pollution
13
2.4
Pollution Build up and Wash off Process
14
2.5
Concentrations
16
2.5.1 Event Mean Concentration
16
2.6
Load Estimation
17
2.7
Hysteresis Loop
18
2.8
Concepts of first flush
23
2.8.1 Analysis by difference between
25
dimensionless Cumulative Pollutant
and Volume Mass
2.8.2 Dimensionless cumulative
26
analysis
3
2.8.3 Analysis by cumulative curve ratio
27
2.9
Non point source pollution simulation models
31
2.10
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM)
33
2.11
Sensitivity Analysis
35
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Catchment Description
36
3.2
Rainfall Measurement
39
3.3
Flow Measurement
40
3.4
Sampling Procedure
42
3.4.1 Analysis of water quality
43
3.5
Event mean concentration
45
3.6
Correlation Analysis
46
3.7
Box plot analysis
46
3.8
Pollutant loading
47
3.9
First Flush Concept
48
3.9.1 Dimensionless cumulative analysis
48
Storm Water Management Model (SWMM)
48
3.10
3.11
Water Quantity
49
3.12. Hydrologic Parameter
50
3.12.1 Horton Equation
50
Routing Method
53
3.13.1 Kinematic Wave
53
3.14
Calibration and Validation
54
3.15
Sensitivity Analysis
56
3.16
Goodness of fit
56
3.17
Water Quality
58
3.17.1 Estimation of Buildup Parameters
58
3.17.2 Estimation of Wash-off Parameters
63
3.13
4
5
RUNOFF QUALITY AND POLLUTANT LOADINGS
4.1
Characteristics of Rainfall Events
66
4.2
Event Mean Concentrations (EMC)
67
4.3
Correlation Analysis
70
4.4
Baseflow and Stormflow Concentrations
71
4.5
Hydrograph and Pollutograph Analysis
80
4.6
Hysteresis Loop Analysis
85
4.7
First Flush Phenomenon
89
4.8
Pollutant Loadings
94
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL (SWMM)
5.1
Hydrologic Parameters
97
5.2
Sensitivity Analysis
99
5.2.1 Sensitivity to Runoff Depth
99
5.2.2 Sensitivity to Peak Flow
102
5.3
Model Calibration and Validation for
104
Commercial Catchment
5.4
5.3.1 Calibration of Runoff Depth
104
5.3.2 Validation of Runoff Depth
105
5.3.3 Calibration of the Peak Flows
106
5.3.4 Validation of the Peak Flows
108
Calibration and Validation for Residential
112
Catchment
5.5
5.6
5.4.1 Calibration of the Runoff Depth
112
5.4.2 Validation of the Runoff Depth
112
5.4.3 Calibration of the Peak Flows
113
5.4.4 Validation of the Peak Flows
115
Water Quality
118
5.5.1 Estimation of Buildup Parameters
118
5.5.2 Estimation of Washoff Parameters
122
Calibration of water quality for commercial
127
catchment
5.7
Calibration of water quality for residential
134
catchment
6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
Conclusion
141
6.2
Recommendations
143
REFERENCES
144
APPENDICES
160
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
2.1
TITLE
Mean concentrations (mg/l) of stormwater
PAGE
17
runoff for various types of studies
2.2
Ranges of pollutants loads for various
18
types of studies (in kg/ha/year)
2.3
Summary of C/Q relationship
19
2.4
Summary of methodologies for
29
determining First Flush
3.1
Physiographical conditions of sub catchments
39
3.2
The analytical methods used in this study
44
3.3
Independent variables and parameters
50
influencing stormwater pollution washoff
3.4
Initial Infiltration Capacity
51
3.5
Minimum value of infiltration capacity
51
for different hydrologic soil group
3.6
Decay rate of infiltration
52
4.1
Characteristics of monitored storms
67
4.2
Event means concentration (EMC) of water
68
quality parameters
4.3
Water Quality Index Class Standard
68
4.4
Comparison between the results obtained from
69
this study with the other studies
4.5
Statistical analysis of pollutant concentration for
70
both catchments
4.6a
Correlation analysis of pollutant concentration
in the residential catchment
71
4.6b
Correlation analysis of pollutant concentration
71
in the commercial catchment
4.7a
Median concentration of stormflow and
74
baseflow quality in the commercial catchment
4.7b
Median concentration of water quality parameters
78
for residential catchment
4.8
Characterisation of pollutographs for each event
82
4.9
Summary of pollutographs for both catchments
82
4.10
Summary of C/Q hysteresis loop characterization
86
for both catchments
4.11
Cumulative load at 20-30% of the runoff volume
91
in the commercial catchment
4.12
Cumulative load at 20-30% of the runoff volume
93
in the residential catchment
4.13
Event pollutant loadings for residential and
94
commercial catchments
5.1
The Manning’s roughness values
98
5.2
Default parameter coefficient in SWMM
98
5.3
Parameters values used for calibrating SWMM
104
in the commercial and residential catchments
5.4
Observed and simulated runoff depths of the
105
calibrated events in the commercial catchment
5.5
Observed and simulated runoff depths of the
106
validated events in the commercial catchment
5.6
Comparison between observed and simulated
107
peak flows of calibrated events in the
commercial catchment
5.7
Statistical fits of the validated peak flows in the
109
commercial catchment
5.8
Comparison between observed and simulated
runoff depths of calibrated events in the
residential catchment
112
5.9
Comparison between observed and simulated
113
runoff depths of validated in the residential
catchment
5.10
Observed and simulated peak flows of
113
calibrated events in the residential catchment
5.11
Comparison between observed and simulated
115
peak flows of validated hydrographs in the
residential catchment
5.12
Collected dust and dirt in the commercial
120
catchment
5.13
Deposition of dust and dirt in the residential
121
catchment
5.14
Parameters of buildup data in the commercial and
121
residential catchments
5.15
Washoff parameters for the commercial catchment
124
5.16
Washoff parameters for the residential catchment
126
5.17
Calibration of SS loading for 16 March 2004’s storm
128
5.18
Peak load of SS (kg/s) for the event on
128
March 16, 2004
5.19
Calibration of SS loading for March 11, 2004
129
5.20
Peak load (kg/s) for the event on March 11, 2004
129
5.21
Calibration of SS loading for storm on March 19, 2004
130
5.22
Peak load of SS (kg/s) in the commercial
131
catchment for storm on March 19, 2004
5.23
Calibration of SS loading for storm on
132
April 14, 2004
5.24
Peak load of SS (kg/s) in the commercial
132
catchment on April 14, 2004
5.25
Calibration of SS loading in the commercial
133
catchment for storm on September 10, 2004
5.26
Peak load of SS (kg/s) in the commercial
133
catchment for storm on September 10, 2004
5.27
Calibration of SS loading in the residential
catchment on March 4, 2004
135
5.28
Peak load of SS (kg/s) on March 4, 2004
135
5.29
Calibration of SS loading in the residential
136
catchment for storm on 12 July 2004
5.30
Peak load of SS (kg/s) in the residential
137
catchment on 12 July 2004
5.31
Calibration of SS loading from residential
138
catchment on September 8, 2004
5.32
Peak load of SS (kg/s) from the residential
138
catchment on September 8, 2004
5.33
Calibration of SS loading from the residential
139
catchment on November 4, 2004
5.34
Peak load of SS (kg/s) from the residential
catchment on November 4, 2004
139
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
2.1
TITLE
PAGE
Nitrogen cycle
11
2.2
Phosphorus cycle
12
2.3
Pollutant accumulation on impervious surfaces
15
of urban areas
2.4
Three subgroups of single-valued-line class
20
2.5
Clockwise loop C-Q relationship
21
2.6
Counter-clockwise loop C-Q relationship
21
2.7
Single-valued plus a loop C-Q relationship
22
2.8
Figure eight C-Q relationship
22
2.9
Typical first flush of solids
25
2.10
Definition of the first flush
26
2.11
Cumulative mass/volume ratio for determining
27
the presence of first flush
2.12
Calibration procedure for SWMM
34
3.1
Location of the study site
37
3.2a
Residential Catchment
37
3.2b
Commercial Catchment
38
3.3
A rain gauge installed on roof top in the
40
residential catchment
3.4
Water Level – Discharge Rating Curve for
41
both catchments
3.5
Typical stormwater sampling interval
43
employed in this study
3.6
Information that can be derived from a box plot
46
3.7
Decay rate coefficient
52
3.8
Buildup relationship
59
3.9
Test strip for the commercial catchment
61
3.10
Test strip for the residential catchment
62
3.11
Cumulative values of KW and runoff rate (R)
65
4.1
Box plot analysis of stormwater quality in
73
the commercial catchment
4.2
Effects of antecedent dry days on
75
Pollutant concentrations
4.3
Box plot analysis of stormwater quality in
77
the residential catchment
4.4
Effects of antecedent dry day on
79
pollutant concentrations
4.5a
Pollutographs and hydrographs in the residential
83
catchments
4.5b
Pollutographs and hydrographs in the commercial
84
catchments
4.6
Hysteresis loops for residential catchment
87
4.7
Hysteresis loops for commercial catchment
88
4.8
Mass Volume, M(V) ratios of BOD5, COD, SS,
90
NO3-N, NO2-N, NH3-N and P in the commercial
catchment
4.9
Mass Volume, M(V) ratios of BOD5, COD, SS,
92
NO3-N, NO2-N, NH3-N and P in the residential
catchment
5.1
Relationship between observed runoff and rainfall
96
depth for commercial catchment
5.2
Relationship between observed runoff and rainfall
96
depth for residential catchment
5.3
Sensitivity analysis for percentage of impervious
99
area on runoff volume
5.4
Sensitivity analysis of catchment width on runoff
99
volume
5.5
Sensitivity analysis of impervious depression storage
100
on runoff volume
5.6
Sensitivity analysis of percentage of impervious area
101
on runoff volume
5.7
Sensitivity analysis of runoff volume for catchment
101
width
5.8
Sensitivity analysis of runoff volume for impervious
101
depression storage
5.9
Sensitivity analysis of percentage of impervious area
102
on the peak flows
5.10
Sensitivity analysis of catchment width on the
103
peak flows
5.11
Sensitivity analysis of percentage of impervious area
103
on the peak flows
5.12
Sensitivity analysis of peak flows for catchment width
103
5.13
Observed and simulated hydrographs in the
107
commercial catchment for storm on March 16, 2004
5.14
Observed and simulated hydrographs in the
108
commercial catchment for storm on March 11, 2004
5.15
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the
109
commercial catchment for storm on April 14, 2004
5.16
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the
110
commercial catchment for storm on March 19, 2004
5.17
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the
110
commercial catchment for storm on
September 10, 2004
5.18
Observed and simulated runoff depth in the
111
commercial catchment
5.19
Observed and simulated peak flows in the
111
commercial catchment
5.20
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the residential
catchment for storm on March 4, 2004
114
5.21
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the residential
114
catchment for storm on July 12, 2004
5.22
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the residential
115
catchment for storm on November 4, 2004
5.23
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the
116
residential catchment for storm on September 8, 2004
5.24
Observed and simulated hydrographs of the
117
residential catchment for storm on March 6, 2004
5.25
Observed and simulated peak flows for the
117
residential catchment
5.26
Observed and simulated runoff depth for
118
the residential catchment
5.27
Total dust and dirt (DD) buildup rate in the
119
commercial catchment
5.28
Dust and dirt (DD) buildup rate of particulates
119
≤ 150 µm
5.29
Total dust and dirt buildup rate in the
120
residential catchment
5.30
Dust and dirt (DD) buildup rate for particulates
120
< 150 µm
5.31
Cumulative washoff coefficient and cumulative
124
runoff exponent for the commercial catchment
5.32
Cumulative washoff coefficient and cumulative
126
runoff exponent for the residential catchment
5.33
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS on
128
16 March, 2004
5.34
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS on
130
March 11, 2004
5.35
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS on
131
March 19, 2004
5.36
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS on
132
April 14, 2004
5.37
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS on
September 10, 2004
133
5.38
Relationship between observed and simulated
134
loadings of SS in the commercial catchment
5.39
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS in
136
the residential catchment on March 4, 2004
5.40
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS in
137
the residential catchment on 12 July 2004
5.41
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS from
138
the residential catchment on 8 September 2004
5.42
The observed and simulated loadographs of SS from
140
the residential catchment on November 4, 2004
5.43
Relationship between observed and simulated
loadings for the residential catchment
140
LIST OF SYMBOLS/ ABBREVIATIONS
ALD
-
Absolute Load Difference
ARE
-
Absolute Relative Error
EMC
-
Event Mean Concentratotion
F
-
Dimensionless cumulative runoff volume
FF
-
First Flush
Fp
-
Infiltration capacity
Kw
-
washoff coefficient
L
-
Dimensionless cumulative pollutant mass
M
-
Mass
R
-
Runoff rate
RE
-
Relative Error
RLD
-
Relative Load Difference
Qo
-
Observed discharges
Qs
-
Simulated discharges
V
-
Volume
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A
TITLE
Phosphorus, P Analysis (ICP – MS)
PAGE
160
Calibration
B
Sample Analysis
162
C
Residential Catchment
164
D
Commercial Carchment
166
E
Hydrographs and Pollutographs
167
F
Hysteresis Loops
182
G
Sieve Analysis
200
H
Estimation of Washoff Parameters
201