Russell Sage Foundation
EXeCUTIVe SUMMARY
Whither Opportunity?
Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances
Edited by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane*
A
This executive summary compiles research on the consequences of rising inequality for America’s education. The complete findings are published in
Whither Opportunity? (Russell Sage and Spencer Foundations, 2011).
merica has always taken pride in
tional attainments of children raised in rich
being the land of opportunity, a
and poor families has also grown markedly
country in which hard work and
during this period. This pattern portends di-
sacrifice result in a better life for one’s chil-
minishing economic opportunities for low-
dren.
For the first three-quarters of the
income children in the next generations of
twentieth century, economic growth, fueled
Americans. Explaining the forces that have
in large part by the increasing educational
translated growing gaps in family incomes
attainments of successive generations of
into growing gaps in educational outcomes –
Americans, was a rising tide that lifted the
and what we can do about it – provides the
boats of the rich and poor alike. In con-
focus for this volume, the result of an ambi-
trast, during the last three decades, the fruits
tious interdisciplinary project examining the
of economic growth have not been widely
corrosive effects of economic inequality, dis-
shared. Instead, the gap between the in-
advantaged neighborhoods, insecure labor
comes of the nation’s rich and poor families
markets, and worsening school conditions
has grown enormously.
on K-12 education. The project was co-fund-
Little noticed, but vital for nation’s future
prosperity, is that the gap between the educa-
ed by the Russell Sage Foundation and the
Spencer Foundation. This paper summarizes
some of the study’s most salient findings.
* Greg J. Duncan is Distinguished Professor in the Department of Education at the University of California, Irvine. Richard J. Murnane is
Thompson Professor of Education and Society at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
The Russell Sage Foundation
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Income Inequality and
Children’s Attainments
F
income of families in the top five percent of
the distribution rose by 50 percent.
igure 1 shows the growing gap be-
Figure 2, which is based on research by Sean
tween the incomes of the nation’s rich
Reardon (chapter 5), shows the academic
and poor families over the past 30
achievement gap between children from
years. In 2009, the average inflation-adjusted
rich and poor families. Between 1978 and
income of families in the bottom 20 percent
2008, the gap between the average math-
of the income distribution was only slightly
ematics test scores of children from high-
higher than it was in 1977. In contrast, the
and low-income families grew by a third
incomes of families in the top 20 percent of
(from 96 points on an SAT-type scale to 131
the income distribution rose by more than
points in 2008). Given the importance of
one third over this period and the average
cognitive skills in determining educational
success, it should come as no surprise that
Russell Sage Foundation
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
2
this growing test score gap has translated into
of the most affluent and poorest American
a growing gap in completed schooling. Data
families stems primarily from economic and
compiled by Martha Bailey and Susan Dy-
demographic forces. The economic forces,
narski (chapter 6) shows that the fraction of
which include computer-based technologi-
children raised in affluent families who com-
cal changes, the globalization of trade, and
pleted college was 21 percentage points high-
the decline of labor unions, resulted in large
er among children starting high school in the
declines in the earnings of American work-
mid-1990s than among those starting school
ers with no college credentials over the last
in the mid-1970s. In contrast, among chil-
three decades, during a period when the
dren from low-income families, the gradua-
earnings of college graduates continued to
tion rate was only 4 percentage points higher
increase.
for the later cohort than for the earlier one.
forces is the increase in the number of chil-
Chief among the demographic
dren growing up in single-parent families,
These growing gaps in educational attain-
particularly among children of parents who
ment have translated into less educational
did not continue their education beyond
mobility, particularly for men. Until about
high school.
1970, fewer than one in ten young adult men
and women had completed less schooling
than their parents. By the 1990s, more than
Families
20 percent of men and almost as large a frac-
D
tion of women had less education than their
parents. Since education has been the dominant pathway to upward socio-economic
mobility in the United States, the growing
ifferences in family life contribute to the growing gaps in educational outcomes between children
growing up in high-income and low-income
gap in educational attainment between chil-
families. First, of course, is the growing gap
dren from rich and poor families is likely
in how much parents can spend on their
to result in increased income inequality in
children’s development. In the early 1970s,
future generations and hinder the intergen-
the 20 percent of parents with the highest in-
erational socio-economic mobility that has
comes spent approximately $2,700 more per
been a source of pride for Americans.
year (expressed in 2008 dollars) than bottom
income quintile parents on goods and services aimed at enriching the experiences of
The growth in the gap between the incomes
Russell Sage Foundation
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
3
their children. In 2005-06, the correspond-
families have much higher reading achieve-
ing inflation-adjusted difference in enrich-
ment than those from bottom quintile fami-
ment expenditures was $7,500. Spending dif-
lies, are more engaged in school, and exhibit
ferences are largest for enrichment activities
fewer behavioral problems.
such as music lessons, travel, and summer
camps. Differential access to such activities
may explain the gaps in background knowl-
Schools
H
edge between children from high-income
families and those from low-income families
that are so predictive of reading skills in the
middle and high school years.
its public schools to level the playing field for children born into
different circumstances. However, all of the
A second mechanism is time. High-income
gaps in achievement and behavior between
parents spend more time in literacy activities
high-income and low-income children were
with their children than low-income parents.
larger in grade 5 than they were in kinder-
Most disparate is time spent in “novel” places
garten. George Farkas (chapter 4) shows that
– other than at home, school, or in the care
this pattern continues through high school.
of another parent or a day care provider. In
Residential segregation by income, which in-
her chapter, Meredith Phillips documents
creased during the 1980s, is one critical rea-
that between birth and age six, children from
son schools have not been able to level the
high-income families spend an average of
playing field. Increased residential segrega-
1,300 more hours in novel contexts than chil-
tion by income has resulted in an increase in
dren from low-income families. Finally, eco-
the segregation of children from low-income
nomic insecurity and concerns about safety
families into schools not attended by children
take a toll on the mental health of low-income
from more affluent families. A consequence
parents, especially those living in high-crime
is that children from low-income families are
neighborhoods. Depression and other forms
much more likely to have classmates with low
of psychological distress profoundly affect
achievement and behavior problems than are
parents’ interactions with their children.
children from more affluent families.
Differences in income, in time, and in stress
At least two kinds of peer effects hinder the
all contribute to differences in school readi-
effectiveness of schools serving high con-
ness. On average, children from top quintile
Russell Sage Foundation
istorically, America has relied on
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
4
centrations of low-income children. First,
of student mobility. Moreover, the negative
children with behavior problems reduce the
effects apply to students who themselves are
achievement of their classmates. Second, as
residentially stable as well as to those who are
Stephen Raudenbush, Marshall Jean, and Em-
not. The likely mechanism is the disruption
ily Art document in chapter 17, urban fami-
of instruction caused by the entry of new stu-
lies living in poverty move frequently, and as
dents into a class.
a result of school sorting by socioeconomic
Teacher quality is another major factor con-
status, children from poor families are espe-
tributing to the weak academic performance
cially likely to attend schools with relatively
of students in high-poverty schools. Schools
high rates of new students arriving during the
serving high concentrations of poor, non-
school year. Children attending elementary
white, and low-achieving students find it dif-
schools with considerable student mobility
ficult to attract and retain skilled teachers.
make less progress in mathematics than do
In their chapter, Donald Boyd and his col-
children attending schools with a low level
Russell Sage Foundation
leagues (chapter 18) show that teachers also
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
5
favor schools in neighborhoods with higher-
Several chapters in the volume document
income residents and less violent crime. The
that consistently high-quality schooling
net result is that the nation’s most economi-
improves the life chances of children from
cally disadvantaged children are much less
low-income families. The authors agree that
likely than children from affluent families to
effective schools are characterized by an or-
be taught by skilled teachers. Moreover, the
derly and safe environment, an intense focus
high rate at which teachers leave high pover-
on improving instruction, frequent assess-
ty schools reduces the payoff to investments
ments of students’ skills and rapid interven-
in improving teachers’ skills and also hinders
tions as needed, and substantial increases in
the coordination of instruction among teach-
instructional time. Authors present evidence
ers that characterizes effective schools.
on whole school reform efforts and charter
schools that have been effective in improving the achievement of low-income children.
The chapters by Roland Fryer and his col-
Policy Responses
T
leagues (chapter 23) and by Harry Brighouse
he papers in the volume identify sev-
and Gina Schouten (chapter 24) provide dif-
eral promising areas for policy inter-
fering judgments about the promise of par-
ventions. As Charles Nelson III and
ticular system-level education policies for
Catherine Sheridan explain (chapter 2), im-
promoting and sustaining schools that serve
proving the learning environments of poor
low-income children well.
children during the early years of life when
***
developing brains are especially sensitive
to external stimuli is especially important.
In summary, as the incomes of affluent and
Recent evidence about the effects of high-
poor American families have diverged over
quality center-based child care and universal
the past three decades, so too have the edu-
pre-K programs are promising. In contrast,
cational outcomes of the children in these
Frank Furstenberg sees the track record of
families. Test score differences between rich
programs aimed at improving parenting skills
and poor children are much larger now than
as generally disappointing. One exception is
thirty years ago, as are differences in rates of
the nurse home-visitation program, in which
college attendance and college graduation.
nurses pay repeated home visits to high-risk,
Only if our country finds a way to reverse
first-time mothers.
Russell Sage Foundation
these trends will it be able to maintain its rich
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
6
Book Chapters Referenced
heritage of upward social mobility through
educational opportunity.
Duncan, Greg J. and Richard J. Murnane. Whither
Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances. Russell Sage Foundation. 2011.
Chapter 2, Charles A. Nelson III and Margaret A.
Sheridan – Lessons from Neuroscience Research
for Understanding Causal Links Between Family and Neighborhood Characteristics and Educational Outcomes
About the Editors
Greg J. Duncan is Distinguished Professor in
the Department of Education at the Univer-
Chapter 3. Greg J. Duncan and Katherine Magnuson – The Nature and Impact of Early Achievement Skills, Attention Skills, and Behavior Problems
sity of California, Irvine. Richard J. Murnane
is Thompson Professor of Education and Society at the Harvard Graduate School of Edu-
Chapter 4. George Farkas – Middle and High
School Skills, Behaviors, Attitudes, and Curriculum Enrollment and Their Consequences
cation.
Chapter 5. Sean F. Reardon – The Widening Academic-Achievement Gap between the Rich and
the Poor: New Evidence and Possible Explanations
Chapter 6. Martha A. Bailey and Susan M. Dynarski – Gains and Gaps: A Historical Perspective on
Inequality in College Entry and Completion
Chapter 8. Michael Hout and Alexander Janus –
Educational Mobility in the United States Since
the 1930s
Chapter 10. Meredith Phillips – Parenting, Time
Use, and Disparities in Academic Outcomes
Chapter 17. Stephen W. Raudenbush, Marshall
Jean, and Emily Art – Year-by-Year and Cumulative Impacts of Attending a High-Mobility Elementary School on Children’s Mathematics
Achievement in Chicago, 1995–2005
Chapter 18. Don Boyd, Hank Lanford, Susanna
Loeb, Matthew Ronfeldt, and Jim Wyckoff – The
Effects of School Neighborhoods on Teacher Career Decisions
Chapter 23. Vilsa E. Curto, Roland G. Fryer, Jr.,
and Meghan L. Howard – It May Not Take a Village: Increasing Achievement Among the Poor
Chapter 24. Harry Brighouse and Gina Schouten
– Understanding the Context for Existing Reform
and Research Proposals
Russell Sage Foundation
Whither Opportunity? by Greg J. Duncan and Richard J. Murnane
7