Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
Q1. What is the history of vehicle mileage standards in the United States?
A1. In 1975, Congress first enacted the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards,
which were intended to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks sold in the
United States. NHTSA: CAFE – Fuel Economy. These standards were implemented in the wake
of the 1973 Arab Oil Embargo. The CAFE standards are expressed as a mathematical function
depending on the vehicle “footprint,” which is a measure of vehicle size determined by
multiplying the vehicle’s wheelbase by its average truck width. NHTSA. An automotive
manufacturer must meet the CAFE standards using its entire fleet of models averaged together.
Discovery: Corporate Average Fuel Economy History. Fuel economy standards were first
implemented in 1978 for passenger vehicles, and, in 1979, mileage standards were introduced for
the new category of light trucks. NHTSA: Summary of Fuel Economy Performance. A vehicle
with a gross vehicle weight rating of over 8,500 pounds is considered a light truck. NHTSA. In
1978, the average efficiency of new passenger vehicles was 18.0 miles per gallon, but over the
next decade the mileage standards steadily increased until finally settling at 27.5 miles per gallon
in 1991. NHTSA. The mileage standards for new passenger vehicles held at 27.5 miles per
gallon until new rules that increased the average efficiency were implemented in 2010, and the
mileage standards of new passenger vehicles rose to 30.2 miles per gallon in 2011. NHTSA. In
1979, the average mileage efficiency of new light trucks was 17.2 miles per gallon, but mileage
standards for new light trucks have also steadily increased, and, in 2011, the CAFE standards for
new light trucks was 24.1 miles per gallon. NHTSA.
Figure 1. Historical average fleet CAFE standards
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
Q2. What are current fuel efficiency standards in the United States?
A2. In August 2012, the Obama Administration issued new rules requiring vehicle manufacturers
to increase the average efficiency of new cars and trucks to 54.5 miles per gallon by model year
2025. NY Times: Fuel Efficiency. These new rules will force the automotive industry to improve
the mileage efficiency of their mass-market models by improving engine technology and moving
away from petroleum-based fuels. NY Times. The Obama administration projects that these rules
will reduce the United States’ oil consumption by 12 billion barrels of oil, which would result in
an average savings of more than $8,000 per vehicle by 2025. NY Times. In addition, the
administration estimates that the new rules will cut greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2025 and
reduce emissions by 6 million tons over the life of the program. NY Times. Automobile
manufacturers are currently working toward achieving a 35.3 miles per gallon average by 2016.
NY Times.
Q3. What is the Vehicle Technologies Program?
A3. In order to achieve the increased mileage standards set forth by the Obama Administration, a
great deal of research and development for new vehicle technologies must be conducted, and the
Vehicle Technologies Program (VTP) serves as the federal government’s focal point for vehicle
technology research and development related to improving vehicle efficiency and reducing oil
dependency. About the VTP. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) supervises the
VTP, and its purpose is to develop and deploy fuel-efficient and environmentally friendly vehicle
technologies that will enable the United States to reduce its transportation petroleum use. About
the VTP. The VTP is partnered with the U.S. DRIVE Partnership and the 21st Century Truck
Partnership. About the VTP.
Q4. What is the history of the Vehicle Technologies Program?
A4. The VTP can trace its roots back to a 1968 program under the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare that was aimed at increasing awareness of air pollution and associated
health issues related to vehicle emissions. VTP Overview. In 1975, the program was transferred
to the Energy Research & Development Administration, which was the predecessor of the DOE.
VTP Overview. The program was renamed the Transportation Energy Conservation Program,
and its focus shifted to energy and petroleum savings. VTP Overview. Under the DOE the focus
of the program shifted slightly to petroleum savings and independence for transportation as a
primary goal for energy security. VTP Overview. In 2002, when multiple offices and programs
merged together, such as the Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies and the Office of
Heavy Vehicle Technologies, the program broadened its research and development focus and
was renamed the Vehicle Technologies Program. VTP Overview.
Q5. Why does the Vehicle Technologies Program exist/matter?
A5. The United States spends approximately $1 billion a day to import oil, and transportation
needs account for almost two-thirds of this use. VTP: Why It Matters. Moreover, transportation
accounts for thirty percent of the country’s greenhouse gas emissions. VTP: Why It Matters.
Improving vehicle efficiency and moving away from oil dependence are essential to reducing
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
fuel costs, increasing energy security, and minimizing pollution. VTP: Why It Matters. The
average consumer spends more than $2,000 a year on gasoline and oil for their vehicle;
therefore, purchasing a vehicle with better fuel efficiency can save consumers a substantial
amount of money over the lifetime of the vehicle. VTP: Why It Matters. In addition, improving
vehicle efficiency and replacing oil with alternative fuels helps reduce American dependence on
foreign oil, thus improving the country’s resiliency to oil price volatility and curbing the outflow
of money from the United States. VTP: Why It Matters. Moreover, the development of efficient,
clean technologies can significantly lower vehicle emissions and improve public health and
protect the global ecosystems. VTP: Why It Matters. As an example of the beneficial effects
resulting from improved vehicle efficiency, a reduction in fuel consumption by 50 percent in
light duty vehicles would eliminate the use of 2.2 million barrels of oil a day, and it would
eliminate 6 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions overall. VTP: Why It Matters.
Figure 2. U.S. Dependence on Imported Oil from 1970 projected to 2025
Q6. What is the goal/mission of the Vehicle Technologies Program?
A6. The main goal of the VTP is to “develop technologies that enable cars and trucks to become
highly efficient, through improved power technologies and cleaner domestic fuels, and to be cost
and performance competitive.” VTP: Mission, Vision, and Goals. The VTP also strives to
implement these technologies in the automotive industry in order to develop more energy
efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles that use less petroleum than the current fleet of
American vehicles. VTP: Mission, Vision, and Goals. The intended result of these new
technologies is an overall reduction in both energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, which will
improve the United States’ energy security by greatly reducing dependence on foreign oil. VTP:
Mission, Vision, and Goals. The projected benefits of these new technologies include saving 4 to
6 million barrels of oil per day, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 50%, and enabling United
States automotive manufacturers to be internationally competitive. VTP: Mission, Vision, and
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
Goals. Ultimately, the VTP pursues the goal of “developing ‘leap frog’ technologies that will
provide Americans with greater freedom of mobility and energy security, while lowering costs
and reducing impacts on the environment.” VTP: Mission, Vision, and Goals. The Multi-Year
Program Plan 2011-2015 provides an in-depth outline of the VTP’s plans for the next five years.
Q7. What are the different program areas of the Vehicle Technologies Program?
A7. The VTP engages in a variety of activities, in order to achieve its goals of fuel efficiency and
oil independence, that fall under the following program areas:
 Hybrid and Vehicle Systems Technologies
 Energy Storage Technologies
 Power Electronics and Electrical Machines Technologies
 Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies
 Fuels and Lubricants Technologies
 Materials Technologies
Q8. What is the focus of the Hybrid and Vehicles Systems Technologies subprogram?
A8. The Hybrid and Vehicles Systems Technologies subprogram engages in analysis and testing
activities that identify opportunities for improving vehicle efficiencies, especially concerning the
technology used in advanced electric drive vehicles. VTP: Hybrid and Vehicle Systems.
According to the DOE, this subprogram “evaluates and validates the integration of technologies,
provides component and vehicle benchmarking, develops and validates heavy hybrid propulsion
technologies, and develops technologies to reduce the parasitic losses from heavy vehicle
systems. Analytic and empirical tools are used to model and simulate potential vehicle systems,
validate component performance in a systems context, benchmark emerging technology, and
validate computer models.” VTP: Hybrid and Vehicle Systems.
Q9. What is the goal of the Hybrid and Vehicle Technologies subprogram, and what strategies
have been implemented to achieve this goal?
A9. The main goal of the Hybrid and Vehicle Technologies subprogram is to facilitate a shift in
America’s vehicle fleet to advanced electric drive vehicles, and the envisioned pathway to this
goal is the large-scale production of advanced electric drive vehicles that are cost-competitive
with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Hybrid Electric Systems. This
subprogram focuses on the technological developments that are necessary to make this possible,
such as reducing the production cost of market-ready, high-power batteries by 70% by 2014
(compared with 2009 costs) and reducing the cost of a market-ready advanced electric
propulsion system by 35% by 2015. Hybrid Electric Systems. The Hybrid and Vehicle
Technologies subprogram has established a three-pronged approach to enable the large-scale
production of advanced electric drive vehicles: (1) reduce the cost of electrochemical energy
storage by developing lithium-ion batteries and other advanced energy storage technologies that
allow for higher energy densities without sacrificing safety and performance; (2) enable the use
of advanced energy storage technologies in vehicle systems by developing low-cost advanced
power electronics and electric motor components (PEEMs); and (3) develop and validate models
and simulation tools to predict the performance, fuel economy, and emissions of advanced
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
vehicle systems. Hybrid Electric Systems. The DOE has issued a more complete description of
the goals, strategies, and accomplishments of this subprogram.
Q10. What is a hybrid electric vehicle?
A10. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) uses a small internal combustion gas engine in
combination with an electric motor that assists the engine when the vehicle accelerates.
Eartheasy: Hybrid Cars. High-voltage batteries that automatically recharge while the vehicle is
being driven power the electric motor. Eartheasy: Hybrid Cars. As a result of this combination,
HEVs can achieve twice the fuel economy of conventional vehicles, and they produce up to fifty
percent less emissions than conventional gas engines. NRDC: Grasping Green Car Technology.
This DOE interactive website offers a more detailed description of how HEVs work.
Figure 3. Simple diagram of a hybrid electric vehicle
Q11. What are the advantages of hybrid electric vehicles over conventional vehicles?
A11. HEVs have several advantages over conventional vehicles. First, HEVs have greater
operating efficiency because they use regenerative breaking and periodic engine shut off. VTP:
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). In a regenerative breaking system the electric motor acts as a
generator and charges the batteries while the car is decelerating, thus helping to minimize energy
loss and recover the energy used to slow or stop a vehicle. VTP: Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs). Periodic engine shut off temporarily shuts off the engine when the vehicle is stopped
and automatically restarts the engine when put back into gear, thereby reducing energy lost while
the vehicle idles. Eartheasy: Hybrid Cars. Second, HEVs offer greater fuel efficiency than
conventional vehicles because they consume significantly less fuel than vehicles powered solely
by gasoline. VTP: Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). Third, HEVs operate cleaner than
conventional vehicles because they can run on alternative fuels, which have lower emissions than
gasoline. VTP: Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs). Lastly, HEVs are designed to operate more
efficiently than conventional vehicles, evidenced by the use of low-rolling resistance tires,
advanced aerodynamic bodies, and special lightweight materials in the manufacturing of HEVs.
Eartheasy: Hybrid Cars. The combination of these factors results in HEVs being approximately
two times more efficient to operate than conventional vehicles while offering the extended range
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
and refueling availability of conventional vehicles and many of the energy and environmental
benefits of an exclusively electric vehicle. VTP: Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs).
Q12. What is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle?
A12. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) functions the same way as a hybrid electric
vehicle, but it has the added benefit of being able to plug-in to household electricity when the
vehicle is not in use. Eartheasy: Plug-In Cars. This feature enables further increases in mileage
and fuel savings than hybrid electric vehicles. Eartheasy: Plug-In Cars. PHEVs can operate in
electric-only mode or in “blended” mode, which is a combination of gas and electricity that is
used when the battery runs low or higher energy performance is required. Eartheasy: Plug-In
Cars. However, PHEVs require larger batteries constructed of more expensive materials than
hybrid electric vehicles, so the future of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles hinges on technological
improvements to energy storage. Eartheasy: Plug-In Cars.
Figure 4. Simple diagram of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
Q13. What is the focus of the Energy Storage Technologies program area?
A13. The Energy Storage Technologies subprogram “supports the development of durable and
affordable advanced batteries covering the full range of vehicle applications, from start/stop to
full-power hybrid electric, electric, and fuel cell vehicles.” VTP: Energy Storage. The largest
issues facing the automotive industry concerning energy storage are cost, performance, life, and
abuse tolerance, and these technical barriers to more efficient energy storage are the focus of this
subprogram. VTP: Energy Storage. The Energy Storage Technologies technical researchers work
in conjunction with battery manufacturers to address these issues. VTP: Energy Storage.
Q14. What is the focus of the Power Electronics and Electrical Machines Technologies
subprogram?
A14. Power electronics and electrical machines (PEEM) enable a vehicle to use energy from a
battery to assist in the propulsion of a vehicle, either on its own or in conjunction with a
conventional gas engine. VTP: Power Electronics and Electrical Machines. Advanced electric
drive vehicles, such as hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
electric vehicles, require PEEM to function. VTP: Power Electronics and Electrical Machines.
However, PEEM technology is currently insufficient to produce market-viable advanced electric
drive vehicles. VTP: Power Electronics and Electrical Machines. Therefore, the Power
Electronics and Electrical Machines Technologies subprogram focuses on developing PEEM
technology so as to reduce the cost, weight, and volume of advanced electric drive vehicles.
VTP: Power Electronics and Electrical Machines.
Figure 5. Simple diagram of a PEEM system
Q15. What is the focus of the Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies program area?
A15. The Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies subprogram focuses on improving the
fuel economy of vehicles by increasing the efficiency of the combustion engines powering them.
VTP: Advanced Combustion Engines.
Q16. Why is the Vehicle Technologies Program focused on improving combustion engine
efficiency?
A16. More than 230 million cars and light trucks consume three quarters of U.S. highway
transportation fuel, mostly as gasoline. VTP: Advanced Combustion Engines. Because of their
relatively low cost, high performance, and ability to use renewable fuels, such as ethanol and
biodiesel, conventional vehicles with combustion engines will likely dominate the market for at
least the next 20 years. VTP: Advanced Combustion Engines. However, significant
improvements in energy efficiency and emissions reduction to internal combustion engines are
possible, and the United States can cut its transportation fuel use by 20%–40% through the
commercialization of advanced combustion engines. VTP: Advanced Combustion Engines.
Moreover, as advanced electric drive vehicles gain more market share, using advanced
combustion engines in these vehicles will allow for even greater fuel savings. VTP: Advanced
Combustion Engines. As evidence of the impact that advanced combustion engine technology
can have on energy consumption, over the past five years, technology improvements to
combustion engines funded by the VTP has saved more than 2 billion gallons of petroleum-based
fuel. Commercialization of advanced combustion engines leads to improved fuel economy, and,
thus, a significant reduction in petroleum use. VTP: Advanced Combustion Engines.
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
Q17. What is the goal of the Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies subprogram?
A17. The main goal of the Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies subprogram is the
commercialization of advanced combustion engines in the passenger vehicle sector, and it has set
forth a two-pronged strategy for achieving this goal. First, the subprogram seeks to develop costcompetitive, production-ready vehicles with advanced gasoline engines that are at least 25%
more efficient than conventional engines by 2014. Advanced Combustion Engine R&D. Second,
the subprogram intends to develop cost-competitive, production-ready diesel passenger vehicle
engines based on high-efficiency, clean combustion technologies that are at least 40% more
efficient than current gasoline engines by 2014. Advanced Combustion Engine R&D.
Q18. How is the Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies subprogram attempting to
develop higher-efficiency combustion engines?
A18. The Advanced Combustion Engines Technologies subprogram has focused on three
technological areas to create higher-efficiency, cleaner-burning combustion engines. Advanced
Combustion Engine R&D. First, the subprogram seeks to improve the fuel economy of
traditional spark-ignited gasoline engines by more than 25% using advanced technologies such
as downsizing, variable compression ratio, and lean-burn engine operation. Advanced
Combustion Engine R&D. Second, the subprogram has focused on developing new combustion
approaches that are more efficient than diesel combustion, but with near-zero emissions, which
would enable engines to meet emissions regulations without the complicated and expensive
equipment that is currently required. Advanced Combustion Engine R&D. Third, the subprogram
seeks to recover energy from the engine’s exhaust to achieve a 10% or greater efficiency
improvement using turbocompounding, bottom cycles, and thermoelectric devices that convert
heat to electricity for powering the vehicle and auxiliary loads. The DOE has issued a more
complete description of the subprogram’s goals, strategies, and accomplishments.
Q19. What is the focus of the Fuels and Lubricants Technologies program area?
A19. The Fuels and Lubricants Technologies subprogram focuses on increasing petroleum fuel
efficiency, such as blending gasoline with ethanol, and developing cost-competitive nonpetroleum-based fuels. VTP: Fuels and Lubricants. There are two main goals of this subprogram.
First, the subprogram seeks to enable post-2010 advanced combustion engines and emission
control systems to be more efficient while meeting future emission standards. VTP: Fuels and
Lubricants. Second, the subprogram seeks to reduce reliance on petroleum-based fuels through
direct fuel substitution by non-petroleum-based fuels. VTP: Fuels and Lubricants. Not only does
this subprogram research and develop the new fuels and lubricants, but it also evaluates the
feasibility of their implementation and their environmental and health effects. Fuel Technologies.
The research and development conducted by the Fuels and Lubricants Technologies subprogram
has led to more stringent sulfur requirements for diesel engines, stricter enforcement of biodiesel
fuel systems specifications, and optimized engines for ethanol use. Fuel Technologies. These
activities are coordinated with the Environmental Protection Agency’s fuels and emissionsrelated activities. VTP: Fuels and Lubricants. The DOE has released more detailed information
on the goals, strategies, and accomplishments of this subprogram.
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
Q20. What are some renewable non-petroleum-based fuels currently being developed?
A20. There are currently several different non-petroleum-based fuels in development, including,
but not limited to, hydrogen, electricity, biodiesel, and ethanol. Popular Mechanics: Crunching
the Numbers on Alternative Fuels. Most of the world’s vehicle manufacturers are deeply
engaged in hydrogen fuel cell research, because not only is hydrogen the most abundant element
on Earth but it also burns clean, emitting only water. Popular Mechanics. Vehicles powered
solely by electricity are another option because they are cheap to “refuel,” at an average price of
2 cents per mile, and they have no tailpipe emissions. Popular Mechanics. Biodiesel uses
recycled sources, such as vegetable oil and animal fat, to power vehicles, and using biodiesel
reduces carbon dioxide emissions more than 75 percent compared to petroleum diesel. Popular
Mechanics. Ethanol is ethyl alcohol, which is a clean-burning fuel that produces more
horsepower than gasoline. Popular Mechanics. The DOE website offers a more complete and indepth description of these renewable non-petroleum-based fuels.
Figure 6. Production of ethanol
Q21. What are the main obstacles facing commercialization of these non-petroleum-based fuels?
A21. Hydrogen, electricity, biodiesel, and ethanol all face certain obstacles that must be
overcome before they become viable vehicle fuel alternatives to petroleum. The technology
involved in producing hydrogen is still very expensive and energy consuming, and an expansive
infrastructure of hydrogen fueling stations does not yet exist. Popular Mechanics. Therefore,
most energy and industry experts agree that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will not be widely
available until at least 2020. Popular Mechanics. The future of electricity as a petroleum
alternative hinges on the development of longer-lasting, cheaper batteries, because electric
vehicles currently have a limited range of only 100 to 120 miles. Popular Mechanics. Moreover,
because only a small percentage of the United States’ electricity comes from renewable
resources, the electricity generated to power the vehicles would mostly come from non-
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
renewable resources, ultimately counterbalancing any positive environmental benefits offered by
electric vehicles. Popular Mechanics. The largest issue facing biodiesel is the cost of fuel, which
is higher than petroleum diesel; however, the price gap between biodiesel and petroleum diesel is
narrowing. Alternative Fuel Price Report, October 2012. Because ethanol is produced through
refining corn, there are numerous potential problems with using ethanol to power vehicles.
Popular Mechanics. Not only will there be less corn for food consumption, but less corn can lead
to shortages of feed for livestock as well. Popular Science: Is America Headed for a Food
Shortage? Moreover, because of a greater demand for corn from the automotive industry,
farmers are more likely to seed their land with corn, thereby leading to a shortage of other crops.
Popular Science. Because of these effects, using ethanol could ultimately result in higher food
prices. Popular Science.
Figure 7. Overall average fuel prices from October 2012
Q22. How has the United States government incentivized consumption and production of nonpetroleum-based fuel vehicles?
A22. In an effort to incentivize production and consumption of non-petroleum-based fuel
vehicles, the federal government has established a number of tax credits for consumers that buy
these vehicles and for companies that produce them. For example, hybrid electric vehicles
purchased or placed into service after December 31, 2005 may be eligible for a federal income
tax credit of up to $3,400, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles purchased in or after 2010 may be
eligible for a federal income tax credit of up to $7,500, and qualifying alternative fuel vehicles
purchased or placed into service between January 1, 2005 and December 31, 2010 may be
eligible for a federal income tax credit of up to $4,000. Tax Incentive Information Center.
Q23. What is the focus of the Materials Technologies program area?
A23. The Materials Technologies subprogram focuses on the development of advanced
materials, such as metals, polymers, composites, and intermetallic compounds, that will improve
the efficiency of vehicles. VTP: Materials Technologies. The development of these advanced
materials centers on making the vehicle lighter, because weight reduction is one of the most
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Mileage Standards and the Vehicle Technologies Program Q&A – Craig Harasimowicz
effective ways to increase a vehicle’s fuel economy while also reducing emissions. VTP:
Materials Technologies. By improving the materials used in manufacturing vehicles, vehicles
can provide better fuel efficiency without sacrificing any of the size, comfort, and safety of
current vehicles. VTP: Materials Technologies.
Q24. What success has the Vehicle Technologies Program had?
A24. The VTP has experienced a great deal of success, having funded research of now
commercial technologies, such as nickel-metal hydride batteries used in hybrid electric vehicles,
lightweight tie rods for heavy trucks, and new metal-forming technologies used in vehicle
manufacturing. VTP Overview. Furthermore, research conducted as part of the VTP helped the
development of the Ford Escape Hybrid SUV and the General Motors Silverado/Sierra Full-Size
Hybrid Pickup Trucks. VTP Overview. The VTP has also created a sophisticated systems
analysis tool called ADVISOR (Advanced Vehicle Simulator), which answers questions about
specific component and vehicle designs in order to model conceptual vehicles. VTP Overview.
The DOE has released a more complete description of the VTP’s successes.
Figure 8. Major transportation technology evolution since 1990
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