International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 2, Issue 9, September-2013
ISSN 2278-7763
1
Preliminary Assessment of Water Quality Conditions of
Abandoned Mine Paddock for Conversion into a Micro Irrigation
Facility
Apori Ntiforo, Aaron N. Adazabra, Musah S. Zango
1
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box 24, Navrongo, Upper East Region,
Ghana;
2
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box 24, Navrongo, Upper
East Region, Ghana
Email: knapori@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the possibility of converting an abandoned dredged mine paddock into a micro-irrigation facility by assessing the water quality conditions of nine surface water sampling points created by the operations of defunct dredged gold
mine operations more than a decade ago. The concentrations of twenty water quality parameters (major ions, physicochemical,
trace metals and fecal coliform bacteria) were determined and compared with threshold values to evaluate the suitability of the
paddocks for irrigation of crops and the watering of livestock. The prevailing legal framework concerning water resources management in Ghana as well as the geophysical conditions of the studied sites was favorable for the development of the abandoned dredged gold mine paddocks into a micro-irrigation facility. But the apparent constraint is the observed temperature
difference between the control point Abudusu Upstream (AB1) and Abudusu Midstream (AB2-Abandoned Mine Paddock) that
is above the recommended guideline value of 3 °C. The nutrient loading and the major ion concentration of the studied sites
were moderate; the waters were therefore slightly eutrophic. These conditions will enhance the productivity of crops irrigated
with this water.
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Keywords : Abandoned; Defunct; Dredge; Paddock; Concession and Eutrophic.
1 INTRODUCTION
T
HIS study assesses the geophysical as well as the water
quality conditions of an abandoned dredged mine resources with the aim of crafting solutions for possible
conversion into a micro irrigation facility. Land and soil use,
mineral exploitation and water resources management, according to Okigbo [1] are global challenges that impinge on
human survival, development, welfare, peace and security
which are related to the provisions of the charter of the United
Nations. The operations and subsequent closure of the dredge
mine undertaken by the defunct Goldenrae mining company
that holds licensee over a concession totaling 111 km2 over the
Awusu basin led to the diversion of Abudusu, Obire-neObeng, and Awusu watercourses upstream as well as the excavation of mining paddocks and conversion of Anikawkaw
Swamp (All these constituting the Awusu meshwork) into a
Slime Retention Area for the Purpose of mining fig. 1.
The disturbed meshwork is underlain by Birimian formations
which are covered by forest oxysols [2]. The resources which
are obtained from the study area depending on the mineralization of the underlain geology include alluvial gold as well as
diamond embedded in the underlying rocks along the watercourses [3] which may be exploited through dredging by mining firms. This may cause mobilization of heavy metals into
water bodies in the study area with attendant toxicological
implications in some segments of the ecosystem as well as
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
plants irrigated from these abandoned paddocks [4], [5], [6],
[7], [8], [9].
The abandoned dredge mine operations generated bodies of
large stagnant water in the area. According to Winpenny [10],
human behavior can modify the physical environment thereby
making useful water scarcer. Notwithstanding the perceived
negative impacts, this abandoned concession totaling 111 km2
have the potential benefits especially the paddocks, for use in
watering of livestock and irrigation in agriculture provided
the water quality conditions and quantity meet certain minimum environmental criteria or guideline values for this venture in order to avert any severe potential problem that may
be expected to develop during a long-term use [11], [12].
Lack of access to water is expected to be one of the key constraints to achieving food security in the coming decades [13].
It is important to note that 30 to 40 % of the world’s food
comes from an irrigated 17% of the total cultivable land and
also about one-fifth of the total value of fish production comes
from freshwater aquaculture [10]. Agriculture employs about
sixty five percent (65%) of the workforce and contributes
about forty percent (40%) of gross domestic product as well as
forty percent (40%) of foreign exchange earnings of Ghana
[14]. The agricultural subsector of the economy is vulnerable
because it is rainfall dependent that is seasonal and unpredictIJOART
International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 2, Issue 9, September-2013
ISSN 2278-7763
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able due to climate change.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Irrigation is justified as a means to reducing rural unemployment, poverty and increase food production; even though its
development in Ghana since independence has been generally
low. Out of a total of 6.9 million ha of cultivable area as of
2007, only 33,800 ha were developed for irrigation [14]. This
according to the writers is less than two percent (2%) of the
estimated 1.9 million ha of potentially irrigable area of the
country. Micro-irrigation scheme for the extensive cultivation
of leguminous crops together with other horticultural crops
that will enhance soil fertility (through nitrogen fixing activity
of the legumes)as a mitigate/reclamation measure that provides livelihood for the vulnerable in a community after mine
closure is a welcome development.
2.1 Sampling Points
Nine surface water sampling points were selected, demarcated
and their coordinates located using a Global Positioning System GARMING 45XLS. Six of the sampling points were located along the Awusu-Abusu-Anikawkaw meshwork impacted
by the mine operations, and then three on the Kutuani stream
(not affected directly by the mine operations) as indicated on
Figure 1. These sampling points were quite representative for
the purpose of the study.
2.2 Spampling
Water samples were collected for a period of six months
spanning October 2005 to March 2006. The time at each site
was taken. Photographs of any interesting human activity and
abandoned structures at the mine site (study area) likely to
The abandoned dredged mined paddock
GOLDENRAEis at the bottom of a
impact on the possible conversion of the paddock into a migentle slope from the Atewa range,CAMP
withSITE
the Awusu, Obire-necro-irrigation facility were also captured.
Obeng and Abudusu upstream draining into it. It is about 120
Pre sterilized one-litre polyethylene bottles were used in
m wide by 60 m long having an average depth between 2-4 m.
the collection of water samples. For the collection of surface
The latter will help keep the water levels high for the prowater from streams, the bottles were held near the base in the
posed development of the paddock. The water is retained, not
hand, plunged neck downward below the surface of water
drained easily which is suggestive that the underlying rock or
with the neck pointing slightly upward and mouth of bottle
the linings of the paddock may be composed of fine clay that directed toward the current. Ample space (about 2.5 cm) was
is impervious. The utilization of this abandoned dredge pad- left in the bottles to facilitate mixing by shaking before examiKwabenggeophysical characteristics will
dock with the aforementioned
nation. The collected water samples were placed in an ice
reduce or eliminate the need/ cost of excavation and haulage
chest containing ice to maintain the temperature at 4 °C and
of spoil that are to be associated with the development.
transported to the laboratory for analysis. Within the period of
KW7
sampling to analysis, the properties of water can be altered
The management of water resources in this community affectdue to the chemical, physical, and biological reactions. Sample
GR.9
ed by the operations
of this defunct surface gold mine may be
preservation was therefore necessary to inhibit the reactions in
difficult given the various jurisdictions, resource users, and DRY DUMP
the samples until itGR.2
was analyzed [15].
GR.6
AREA
GR.5
heavy exploitation of indigenous freshwaterKW6
resources
M by subsistence populations, resource quality and integrity I and the 2.3GR.3
Analysis of Physico-Chemical Parameters
N
GR.8
fragile and dynamic nature
of the freshwater
ecosystem.E The Some of the physicochemical
parameters were measured on
GR.7
GR.1
KW3
impact on the quality of the fragmented Awusu KW1
meshwork Sin the field (site) using portable water kits. pH, temperature, elecI
KW5 challenges due to the aggra- T
the community present different
Etrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen were measured usSLIME RETENTION
vation by human responses and
perceptions notwithstanding ing HORIBA U-10 Water Quality Checker. The instrument
AREA
the various socioeconomic benefits that were associated with was calibrated on–site before measurements were taken. Turthe operations of the mine during active mine life.
bidity of the water samples was determined within twelve
E G E Nissues
D
The potential water Lrelated
after the mine closure will KW2
hours after sampling using the HACH 2100P Turbidimeter
include:
Road organisms indicated by the pres- [16]. The depths of the streams at the sites were measured us• increase in pathogenic
ATEWA
ing a calibrated PVC pipe
of aboutRANGE
four-meter length.
ence of faecal and
total coliform bacteria
River
Appropriate reagents were added to the nutrient samples
• increase in traceDiverted
metal concentrations
FOREST
RESERVE
and their concentrations
determined
by spectrophotometric
Watercourse as well as
• increase inGRnutrient loading above recommended guide- method using 6505 UV/Vis. Spectrophotometer. Other chemiPointfor watering of livestock
GR.4
line values for Old
useSampling
as a facility
cal parameters
(such as the major cations and anions, hardness
KW
KW4
New Sampling Point
and micro-irrigation.
etc.) were determined through analytical chemistry using
The study accessed Contours
the water
quality
condition of the aban- Standard Methods as specified by the American Public Health
(50ft
intervals)
doned fragmented Awusu-meshwork. This is intended to Authority [16].
proffer regulations within an integrated framework for effec- With the exception of turbidity analysis carried out at the Lative development and management of the Awusu river basin boratory of the Centre for African Wetlands at the University
after mine0closure
use of600
the abandoned
mine pad- of Ghana-Legon, all other analysis were done at the laboratory
100 for 200
800 1000dredge
m.
docks and impoundments as a livestock watering and micro- of Water Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and
irrigation facility.
Industrial Research (CSIR)-Accra.
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u
us
bud
R. A
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
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International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 2, Issue 9, September-2013
ISSN 2278-7763
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Fig. 1.1: Map Showing the Operational Area of Goldenrae Mining Company.
Source: Goldenrae Mining Company-Kwabeng, 1993
2.4 Trace Metal Analysis
Water samples were collected into 80 ml polyethylene bottles
that had been previously washed with acid (10% HNO 3 ),
rinsed thoroughly with tap water and then with deionised
water. The samples were acidified with conc. HNO 3 (pH < 2)
and kept in an ice chest maintained at a temperature of 4 °C
with ice cubes before transporting to the laboratory.
The sampled solutions were aspirated into a flame and atomized. The concentrations of the trace metals were determined
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
at specified wavelengths by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) using a calibrated Unicam 969 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer [16].
2.5 Bacteriological Analysis (Faecal Coliform Bacteria)
The tests were done using the Membrane Filtration method
[17]. 100 ml of each water sample was separately filtered
through 0.45 μm membrane filter and placed on MFC Agar
medium for the detection and enumeration of the Faecal ColiIJOART
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form Bacteria. Incubation was done at 44±0.5 °C for eighteen
(18) to twenty-four (24) hours.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Major Ions and Physicochemical Parameters
Irrigation water quality guidelines provide safe water that are
primarily needed for agricultural irrigation and watering of
livestock. These guidelines provide minimum treatment required of available water resources for use as a resource for
irrigation and watering of livestock without any repercussions
or adverse effects on consumers of products from such
schemes. With the exception of three sampling sites (AW1,
AW2 $ AB1-Table 1), the concentration of dissolved oxygen do
not meet the minimum guideline value of 4.0 ppm (Table 1.)
for surface water used primarily for agricultural irrigation and
the watering of livestock.
The values of temperature appear quite moderate but any
sudden increase due to forcing environmental conditions will
reduce dissolved oxygen [18]. The situation is being heightened by the fact that the temperature change between the control point Abudusu Upstream (AB1) and the Abandoned Mine
Paddock (AB2) -3.14 °C, exceeds 3 °C which is the recommended maximum range [19] (WWW-P, 2007). This may further reduce the dissolved oxygen content of the resource. The
observed change in temperature may be attributed to the fact
that the physicochemical parameters were not measured simultaneously at the sampling sites so the duration of sunshine
associated with this time lag which has a direct bearing on
temperature was enhanced. This effect was further increased
by lack of vegetative cover at the Abandoned Mine Paddock
compared to the control point Abudusu Upstream (AB1).
The analytical values obtained for pH for all the sampled media was within the guideline interval of 6.5 to 8.4; an indication of good quality physical characteristics of the water resource [20]. The observed pH may be as a result of the buffering effect of the increased alkalinity due to water running off
impervious surfaces, cleared lands, draining wetlands over the
acidity by drainage of soils rich in reduced sulphur compounds such as arsenopyretic rocks associated with goldbearing rocks within the studied area [18], [21], [3], [22], [2],
[23].
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The concentrations of major ions analysed as well as the electrical conductivity of the samples in Table 1 are within the
guideline interval of water intended for agricultural water
supply/irrigation water supply and the watering of livestock.
The presence of nutrients in the impoundments including the
abandoned paddock may be due to inputs (especially phosphates and nitrates) from agricultural drainage and storm water runoff from refuse dumps, remnants of animal feedlots,
human excreta as well as overflowing septic tanks. Large nutrient inputs enhance increased productivity by photosynthetic phytoplankton. This accelerates oxygen depletion during
warm conditions thereby impacting on the water quality for
the intended purpose. The large nutrient input will serve as
fertilizer for irrigated crops.
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
The presence of Bicarbonates (HCO 3 -) at relatively higher concentrations that contribute to the hardness of the water may be
due to dissolution from limestone and probably dolomite in
the parent rock. This may likely be the case due to highly
leached and acidic forest oxysols developed over pyritiferous
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phyllites in the parent Birimian formations underlying the
study area that have poor retentive properties [24] (Brian,
1962). The bicarbonates act as a buffer to the effects of acid
mine drainage that is associated with the waste rocks left on
the abandoned mined concession.
3.2 Trace Metals
The concentrations of trace elements determined from the various sites in the study are presented in Table 2. Samples analysed from the sampling sites indicated that the concentration
of dissolved iron was significantly higher than the other trace
elements with cadmium recording the least values. The concentration of dissolved iron ranged from 0.096 to 4.979 ppm.
The concentration of iron at the Slime Retention Area (SRA),
4.979 ppm is very close to the recommended maximum guideline value of 5.0 ppm for water intended for irrigation water
supply and the watering of livestock.
this recommended guideline value for water intended for irrigation water supply and the watering of livestock.
With the exception of the sampling points; Abudusu Upstream (AB1), and the Slime Retention Area (SRA), water from
all the other sampling sites may be suitable as a resource intended for irrigation water supply and the watering of livestock due to the higher concentration of trace elements above
proposed guideline values. The concentration of trace elements around the mined out area (Abudusu MidstreamExcavated Paddock) was below that of the pristine upstream
environment (AB1 and AW1). This suggests that the disturbance at the mined out area accelerated the leaching of these
trace elements within the area, hence the observed concentration a decade after mine closure. This process might have been
enhanced by the poor retentive properties of the parent material of the forest oxysols which are strongly leached [24].
Fuels, exhaust of automobiles, industrial emissions and effluents, leachate from landfill sites and refuse dumps contain a
variety of toxic elements including heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, etc), radioactive elements, acids
and other toxic substances [18], [25], [26], Oyewo and DonPedro, 2003). The most important or significant source of
heavy metals in freshwater ecosystems in Ghana have been
attributed to mining and associated operations not excluding
mineral processing [7], [4], [5], [29]. These heavy metals accumulate in fish tissues, foodstuffs and irrigated vegetables and
are passed on to humans [6]. Also the drinking of water or
ingestion of food including fish products as well as livestock
contaminated with these trace elements at relatively low dosage in the parts per million concentrations (or at instances
parts per billion) can lead to brain damage, birth defects, and
infant mortality among others [18], [30]. These toxic heavy
metals (trace metals) may also be released from weathered
rocks/natural soils, carried by storm water runoff into the
impoundments.
The occurrence of heavy metals in various aspects of the environment has also been attributed to the indiscriminate disposal or discharge of industry and mine waste or effluent [26].
These activities, according to Sarkodie, et al, [6] had neither
been regularized nor monitored. The situation has led to serious impacts on both the terrestrial and aquatic environment
due to the high toxicity and persistence of these metals [27].
Mine drainage and leaching of mining wastes are serious
sources of metal pollution of water [28]. However, waste piles
left from the operations of the defunct Goldenrae Mining
Company, refuse dumps and abandoned washing plant after
mine closure remain a visual blight on the landscape. They
may contain some amounts of potentially toxic ions, such as
lead, arsenic, copper, mercury, cadmium, zinc, dissolved iron
and other trace metals, which have low solubility.
Increasing attention is now paid to water quality criteria for
heavy metals. These metals pose a threat to water use and the
functioning of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems as a
result of their toxicity, persistence, potential for bioaccumulation and/or their carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects. Irrigated water supply containing phytotoxic trace elements/heavy metals may stunt the growth of plants, or render
the crop unfit for human consumption or as fodder for livestock. The human food chain may be contaminated through
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The rest of the analysed concentrations of iron from the other
sampling sites were below the maximum contaminant value.
With the exception of the analysed concentration of copper at
Abudusu Upstream (AB1), 0.213 ppm that was above the recommended guideline value of 0.2 ppm, the rest were below
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
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International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 2, Issue 9, September-2013
ISSN 2278-7763
the accumulation of heavy metals in soils, crops (vegetables)
and livestock.
One of the most important water quality considerations of
irrigation water supply is the electrical conductivity (salinity).
This has an effect on the osmotic pressure in the unsaturated
soil zone which has an influence on the availability of water
for plant consumption [19]. Soil structure according to WWWP [19] is also adversely affected by excessive sodium in irrigation water thereby reducing the rate at which water moves
into and through soils. Fruits can also be damaged by the intake of sodium beyond certain concentration.
Nitrates, sulphates, electrical conductivity (salinity) and a
number of heavy metals or trace elements may cause death,
sickness and impaired growth in livestock [19]. The purpose of
using good quality water for the watering of livestock is to
protect both the livestock and the consumer.
There is therefore the need for Ghana to develop irrigation/agricultural water use classification criteria and guidelines for the maintenance of physical, chemical and biological
integrity of the nation’s waters. The surface water classification criteria and use specific guidelines being adopted now
cannot be applicable to the Ghanaian situation, because of different climatic conditions and natural background quality of
the waters.
6
domestic waste, human and animal excreta contribute to turbidity, faecal pollution and nutrient loading of the freshwater
ecosystem in the study area. Hence the freshwater ecosystem
is enriched with nutrients that will fertilize irrigated crops.
The relatively low concentration of trace metals at the Abudusu Midstream (the mine impacted area where the mine
paddock is situated) is an indication that acid mine drainage
has reduced tremendously. It may also be attributed to the
resilience, enhanced assimilation capacity as well as the restoration of the integrity of water resource by the freshwater ecosystem after a decade of mine closure. Notwithstanding these
observations, good environmental management and interventions for mitigation during mine operations might have enhanced the restoration of the quality conditions of the freshwater resources within the Awusu-Abudusu meshwork.
Alternative approach to reclamation of abandoned mine lands
for the sustenance of livelihoods has become apparent due to
emerging concepts that emphasize the need for the conversion
of fragmented/disturbed water resources to beneficial uses.
The risk of developing the abandoned paddock and other impoundments into a micro-irrigation facility and the watering
of livestock as food security measure will be a worthy cause.
The apparent constraint is the observed temperature difference between the control point Abudusu Upstream(AB1) and
the Abudusu Midstream (AB2-Abandoned Mine Paddock)
which is above the recommended guideline value of 3 °C that
may reduce dissolved oxygen content thereby affecting the
quality of the water as a resource for use as water used for
micro-irrigation and watering of livestock. The elevated
counts of Faecal Coliform Bacteria may also be a hindrance
because of pathogenic effect on humans when fresh
food/vegetables irrigated with contaminated water are eaten
or animals watered with this water are ingested by humans.
The development of the impoundment into micro-irrigation
facility must be preceded by the transfer of appropriate technology, needed financial resources and cost –benefit analysis
based on market survey. This plan, program or the project or
conversion should not only be limited to the mining companies and regulatory agencies but also the beneficiary communities for the latter to better understand and appreciate post
mining livelihood empowerment or food security issues. An
integrated approach ab-ignitio must be incorporated in the
decommissioning plans to ensure that dredge mining paddocks are converted to potential beneficial facility such as micro-irrigation facility has been considered provided the water
quality conditions based on extensive monitoring program is
desirable.
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3.3 Bacteriological Analysis (Faecal Coliform Bacteria)
With the exception of Awusu Downstream (AW3) which does
not meet the guideline value of water intended for agricultural
water supply or irrigation (source/Table 2), all the other
sources, though have relatively significant counts, meet the
standard for agricultural or irrigation water supply and the
watering of livestock. The sources of water in the study area
are subjected to faecal contamination reaching them directly
with storm water runoff from refuse dumps, animal feedlots,
and remnants of human excreta from casual disposal by residents as well as overflowing septic tanks that are spaced so
densely and close to these sources. They contain pathogenic
bacteria that contaminate the surface waters/sources of water,
so by eating livestock that has been watered or fresh foods
irrigated with such untreated water, these micro-organism
will infect people and other organisms through the food chain.
A vicious cycle of health impacts may be established when
human/animal waste are not treated and disposed off casually. The elevated counts of Faecal Coliform Bacteria in all the
sources were close to the guideline value of 1000 counts/100
ml. This may be a constraint because of pathogenic effect on
humans when fresh foods/vegetables irrigated with the contaminated water are eating or animals watered with this water
are ingested by humans. This water may cause wound infections to humans working with it [18].
5 CONCLUSION
The operations of the defunct Goldenrae Mining Company led
to the fragmentation of the Awusu-Abudusu meshwork into
impoundments such as the Mining Paddocks and the Slime
Retention Area in the study area. Land clearance, erosion from
mined out lands, agriculture, forestry and community runoffs,
Copyright © 2013 SciResPub.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are very grateful to Goldenrae Mining Company
(Now X-tra Gold Mining Company) for allowing access to
their concession, Professor J.J Fletcher and Dr. Martin Ofosu of
the University for Development Studies for their mentorship,
the Centre for African Wetlands, University of Ghana and Water Research Institute (WRI) of Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) - Accra; Ghana for allowing the use
of their laboratories.
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