1
1.
2
For as long as societies have depended upon natural resources for food, livelihood, and cultural
3
expression and identification, there have been conflicts arising from their use (e.g. Caldwell
4
1970, Gadgil and Berkes 1991, Foster 1992, Perry and Vanderklein 1996, Alston et al. 2000).
5
Who has access and rights to the resource? How are these rights claimed? How are those without
6
rights prevented from accessing or benefiting from the resource? How do those prevented from
7
accessing the resource respond, either finding novel ways to benefit or removing themselves
8
from the conflict? And, perhaps most critically from a modern management point of view (e.g.
9
Grumbine 1994, Ostrom 2010) do responses to these conflicts improve resource sustainability
Introduction
10
and economic stability at multiple levels, or are systems stresses and continued degradation
11
unabated despite management efforts (e.g. Acheson 2006, Ostrom et al. 2007)?
12
Answering these questions of access, and who benefits, both today and tomorrow, from preferred
13
access rights over others who might wish to use a natural resource for their own ends, forms the
14
basis of how resources are managed both today and for tomorrow. In some instances, the conflict
15
over resources is severe, leading to fractured social and economic systems (Le Billon 2001, Ross
16
2004). But for most, conflict plays out as a perpetual driving force within a society’s political
17
fabric, influencing day-to-day activities as well as long-term well-being (Frank et al. 2000,
18
Schnaiberg and Gould 2000, Collier and Hoeffler 2005, Jorgensen 2009). How a resource is used
19
and managed ultimately depends upon political will and societal demands, governance structures
20
and responses to those demands, economic factors that establish market and non-market
21
mechanisms for the resource to be captured, and the complex ecological underpinnings
22
surrounding conservation, renewability, and sustainability of the resource.
23
In the modern age of natural resource management, sustainable use and environmental
24
conservation have taken on a prominent role in policy decisions. Natural resources produce
25
ecological, social, and economic goods and services that, to be maintained sustainably and
26
equitably, require careful management and policies that are sensitive to the resource’s ecological
27
base and that society’s social-economic needs. Global fisheries (e.g. Pauly et al. 2005, Costello
28
et al. 2012, Sumaila et al. 2012, Ye et al. 2013), energy production (e.g. Clark 2012, Bilgen
29
2014), land use (e.g. Foley et al. 2011, Lambin and Meyfroidt 2011), and non-extractive
30
economies like tourism (Hunter 1997, Hall and Page 2014) have each recognized the importance
1
31
of limiting or reversing environmental degradation in their activities. In turn, there is a growing
32
recognition within policy discussions that holistic management approaches which consider
33
together environmental, economic, and social factors, collectively termed social-ecological
34
systems (Berkes et al. 2003, Anderies et al. 2004, Folke et al. 2005, Ostrom 2009), are better
35
suited for meeting sustainable use and conservation goals than those that are singularly focused.
36
Management styles that incorporate social-ecological systems (SES) approaches are considered
37
preferable because they work at negotiating each of the above drivers in tandem rather than
38
isolation. Efforts to simplify, reduce, or simply ignore certain aspects, such as management tools
39
that only consider economic drivers, threaten management success because they do not anticipate
40
where change might come from. Instead, SES literature encourages a holistic view that embraces
41
change and complexity. Berkes et al. (2003) identify four principal SES spheres, each linked to
42
one another at multiple temporal and spatial scales: ecosystems (i.e. ecological drivers), local
43
knowledge (i.e. social drivers), people and technology (i.e. social and economic drivers), and
44
property rights institutions (i.e. political drivers). Considered as a unit, these SES drivers reveal a
45
dynamic, ever-changing resource (Walker et al. 2004).
46
Of course, in practicality, managing four systems as one is a daunting, if not impossible task.
47
This is a major reason why management tends to focus on maximizing economic outcomes, or
48
land conservation and environmental preservation, or social justice and accessibility. The
49
realities of day-to-day natural resource management require difficult trade-offs. The question
50
then becomes clear: which driver(s) should management focus on as immediate issues while not
51
losing sight of long-term goals that are best met through a fully cohesive, adaptive SES
52
framework?
53
54
1.1 Identifying Social Perspectives and Demands to Guide Management
55
Achieving sustainable SESs requires a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic
56
relationships between resource units, resource users, and policy-makers. Scientists interested in
57
promoting the sustainability of resource units have provided a great deal of scientific knowledge,
58
yet a dearth of resource management success stories continues to plague ecosystems around the
59
world. Despite a greater understanding of the resources themselves, an incomplete understanding
2
60
of the social aspect has led to the passage of “simple blueprint policies” which fail to take into
61
account the complexity of the relationships between the multiple levels of policymaking (Ostrom
62
2009). Arguably, the greatest obstacle facing successful management is human behaviors and
63
responses under any management regime (Fulton et al. 2011). This uncertainty in human
64
behavior can lead to obstacles which hinder the effectiveness of management policies; therefore,
65
developing an improved understanding of the various perspectives of an environmental issue
66
could have a significant effect on promoting successful and ultimately more effective
67
management policy (Carr and Heyman 2012).
68
One approach which researchers have used to gain further insight into the human side of
69
environmental issues is the Q-method. First developed by William Stephenson, Q-methodology
70
is a research method originally used in the social-sciences to assess human subjectivity. The
71
purpose of this survey-based approach is to determine social perspectives through the use of an
72
interview setting where researchers directly interact with their subjects (Brannstrom 2011). Q-
73
methodology allows researchers to explore how members of a population feel about a selected
74
issue (known as the Q-Discourse) through face-to-face interviews in which subjects select from a
75
range of pre-developed opinions which best suit their own. Statistical analysis is then conducted
76
upon their responses in order to interpret whether a few common discourses can be identified
77
from the population (Webler et al. 2009). Thus, Q-method converts subjective opinions into
78
analyzable quantitative data which can contribute to an enhanced understanding of stakeholder
79
perception (Pike et al. 2014).
80
Examples of Q-method being used in assisting environmental policymaking have already been
81
found in a wide range of settings around the globe (Barry and Proops 1999, Robbins and Krueger
82
2000, Carr and Heyman 2012). An improved comprehension of the range of discourses found
83
throughout a population can help government officials decide which forms of policy are more
84
likely to garner social support at the local level, ultimately resulting in a widely accepted policy
85
which aligns with the interests of all participants affected (Barry and Proops 1999). Furthermore,
86
Q-method promotes a more balanced relationship between the researcher and the researched,
87
with the latter group receiving an elevated platform to provide their respective input. This survey
88
method simultaneously provides researchers with opinions that reflect the cultural and social
89
contexts of a region, while also empowering those at the grassroots level to have an increased
3
90
role in the policy-making process (Robbins and Kruger 2000). This was extensively studied by
91
Carr and Heyman in their 2012 study, in which Q-methodology was used to study the potential
92
for greater commercial fisher participation at the local level in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Human
93
subjectivity amongst local fishers was analyzed, and groups which could be most important for
94
assisting in policy implementation and acceptance were successfully identified using Q-method
95
surveying. Their study concluded that realizing the ecological, economic, and social
96
interpretations of grassroots stakeholders could better promote a system of co-management by
97
incorporating these fishers’ knowledge (Carr and Heyman 2012). This further illustrates that
98
garnering a greater understanding of the human side can lead to more widespread policy
99
acceptance, eventually resulting in increased probability of policy success.
100
For our particular study, decisions regarding the future development of the TCI tourism industry
101
could avoid detrimental social and ecological repercussions by resolving conflicts in their
102
prenatal stage. In order to accomplish this, however, policymakers must first be able to identify
103
those conflicts. By seeking out, then analyzing, the views and perspectives of stakeholder
104
groups, policymakers may be able to flag the critical issues that, if ignored, might prevent the
105
development and implementation of policies that are ecologically sustainable and
106
socioeconomically beneficial. In the case of the TCI tourism industry, particularly its present and
107
future development in Providenciales, addressing these conflicts is essential. Tourism in the
108
greater Caribbean region is notoriously finicky (Carr and Heyman 2009; Laframboise et al.
109
2014), and the past performance of the industry in Providenciales is not a guarantee for its future
110
success. With a tight connection between TCI tourism and its marketed image as a pristine
111
tropical marine destination, SES-constructed, stakeholder-informed policies that guide future
112
growth are necessary.
113
In our study, Q-methodology serves as the primary tool for identifying the perspectives held by
114
TCI residents and tourists on the state and direction of Providenciales’ tourism industry, and the
115
environmental and socioeconomic policies that guide its development. As tourists continue to
116
flock to the region, previously unforeseen issues are likely to arise as a conflict of interest
117
develops between these various groups. As Hunter (1997) has shown, global tourism industries
118
are beginning to recognize the importance of limiting the degradation and misuse of natural
119
ecosystems. Government policies which focus solely on maximizing the economic benefits of
4
120
tourism will almost certainly overlook, if not seek to ignore, the associated ecological and social
121
costs that come with such policies (e.g. Carr and Heyman 2009). By using a Q-methodology
122
approach, set in an SES framework, we can begin to understand the underlying issues that may
123
threaten Providenciales’ future economic success before they physically manifest themselves.
124
The social consequences of future policy must be acknowledged as significant determinants in
125
the policy’s eventual fate. How much, if at all, do local citizens reap the direct economic benefits
126
of a mass tourism industry, both in the short-term as well as the long run? Does an influx of
127
foreigners and an increased focus on commercial success marginalize the significance of local
128
TCI culture and the region’s natural ecology? Achieving an SES approach towards problem-
129
solving becomes essential, as policymakers aim to satisfy the economic, ecological, and social
130
impacts of a balanced tourism policy in the TCI.
131
132
2. Site Description
133
The study was conducted in Providenciales, Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI), British West Indies
134
(21° 50' N, 72° 16’ W, Figure 1). Known locally as “Provo”, the low-lying island is located on
135
the northwestern edge of the Caicos Bank. With an area of 122 km2 (47 mi2) and a population of
136
approximately 33,000 people, Providenciales is the largest island in the TCI in terms of
137
population, and third largest by area. Importantly from the perspective of this study,
138
Providenciales’ economy is dominated by island-based tourism, with approximately 78% of the
139
British territory’s $632-million GDP generated by the service sector (CIA 2013). In 2014, the
140
territory received 435,475 stop-over visitors (TCI Tourism Board 2015), the vast majority
141
arriving through Providenciales International Airport and staying at one of the many resorts and
142
hotels dotting the northern shore of Providenciales from Turtle Cove and down the entire 19-km
143
(8-mi) length of Grace Bay. Grace Bay in particular has undergone an extensive development
144
boom in the past couple of decades, with the area having played a significant role in helping
145
Providenciales earn its spot as the number one island destination in the world (Tripadvisor 2015).
146
It now boasts at least 34 major resort hotels, residential condominiums, an 18-hole golf course,
147
and numerous shopping and restaurant options within easy walking distance from the beachfront.
148
5
149
150
Figure 1. Providenciales, Turks and Caicos Islands, British West Indies.
151
152
Retreating inland and to the west along Airport Road, the tourism scene begins to fade into local
153
residential neighborhoods and small, locally-owned businesses. The local community is broken
154
down into two general categories: “Belonger” and “Non-Belonger”. Being a Belonger is a legal
155
classification for the British Overseas Territories, conferring certain rights including the right to
156
vote, own property, reside without immigration restrictions, and seek employment without a
157
work permit. In the TCI, Belongers have at least one parent also with Belonger status, regardless
158
of whether they were born in the territory or not. As a result, Belongers are able to trace their
159
family ancestry back several generations in the TCI. Non-Belongers immigrate to the TCI, with
160
most arriving from Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and The Bahamas. Non-Belongers, some of
161
whom are undocumented (Ferguson 2003), outnumber Belongers in the TCI, comprising 57% of
162
the adult population (TCI Census 2012). Regardless of identity or legal status, most residents are
6
163
employed within the tourism industry sector, filling both skilled and unskilled labor positions.
164
Non-Belongers have come to take many jobs throughout the tourism industry, which has taken
165
advantage of a surplus work force to offer lower wages. In response, skilled workers, particularly
166
those from the Belonger community, are increasingly searching for higher-paying work outside
167
both the tourism sector and the territory itself (TCI Government 2015).
168
169
3. Methodology
170
Following the general objectives set by Carr and Heyman (2012), this research employs Q-
171
methodology to quantify subject bias on the subject of marine resources, their management, and
172
environmental condition as a major contributor to Providenciales’ tourism industry. Thirty-nine
173
surveyors from the School for Field Studies in South Caicos, TCI, constructed a 15-statement Q-
174
methodology survey emphasizing the four spheres of an SES framework (Ostrom 2009): social,
175
economic, and political settings and drivers, and their interactions and outcomes as they impact
176
their associated ecosystem. These spheres represent the “Q discourses” (Barry and Proops 1999),
177
from which over 100 statements (the “Q concourse”) were formulated. The Q concourse
178
represented the full breadth of issues as related to the SES spheres. From the Q concourse,
179
surveyors selected, by vote, 15 Q-statements which best reflected perspectives most closely
180
aligned with research objectives. The final survey was edited for clarity and internal consistency,
181
and translated into Spanish.
182
The development of discourses and concourses in Q-methodology are generally constructed
183
through the results of extended, open-ended interviews with targeted stakeholder groups (Barry
184
and Proops 1999, Brannstrom 2011, Carr and Heyman 2012). For this study, conducting
185
extended preliminary interviews in Providenciales was logistically impossible. This limitation,
186
rather than hindering the research aims and goals, allowed surveyors to develop a novel test on
187
researcher bias, allowed for the reflective introduction and application of SES principles in a
188
research setting, and expanded practitioner definitions of stakeholder groups in a social science
189
survey. This was done by having surveyors take their own survey. While there is some literature
190
on normative roles of surveyors (Aldridge 2001), there is no explicit prohibition on whether
191
surveyors cannot contribute to the work by taking a Q-methodology survey and analyzing their
7
192
own results alongside others. While perhaps not a true “control group”, including surveyor
193
responses helps measure how SES considerations are held by other community members who are
194
unlikely to be familiar with SES or Q-methodology. Surveyor perspectives help identify which
195
issues researchers might emphasize because of their own backgrounds, training, and biases, but
196
may not be particularly important to community members.
197
198
Table 1. Q-Method distribution and frequency of responses (from Carr and Heyman 2012).
Strength of Disagreement
Neutral
Strength of Agreement
Value
-3
-2
-1
0
+1
+2
+3
Frequency
1
2
2
5
2
2
1
199
200
201
On March 17, 2015, researchers conducted surveys at six predetermined sites around
202
Providenciales (Figure 1). These sites represent locations around Providenciales frequented by
203
tourists and local community members, although not necessarily in balanced numbers. After
204
being guaranteed anonymity and providing verbal consent to complete the survey, participants
205
were asked to sort each of the 15 Q-statements within a defined quasi-normal curve following
206
the design of Carr and Heyman (2012). Each slot on the curve could only receive one statement,
207
and all 15 slots were required to be filled without changing the shape and distribution of the
208
curve (Table 1). The score of -3 represents the single statement that respondents most strongly
209
disagreed with, while the score of +3 represents the statement they most strongly agreed with.
210
Surveyors did not provide additional information for any statement, and only answered questions
211
that improved clarity of the instructions. Once all 15 Q-statements were sorted (the “Q-sort”),
212
respondents gave a brief explanation on why they selected the two statements they most
213
disagreed and agreed with. Surveyors then completed the survey by collecting basic
214
demographic information. Surveys took five to ten minutes to complete.
8
215
After all surveys were completed, researchers removed incomplete or double-response surveys.
216
Incomplete surveys either did not have the quasi-normal curve fully filled with Q-statements, or
217
were missing demographic information. Double-responses were flagged by surveyors at the time
218
of administering surveys. In these instances, two (or more) individuals sorted responses
219
identically to one another. Where there were such duplicates, researchers selected one survey at
220
random without knowing demographic information, and discarded others. This final pool of
221
surveys underwent Q-Methodology analyses (Addams 2000).
222
Respondents were sorted by demographic information into three groups: surveyors, tourists, and
223
locals. Locals were then further categorized as either Belonger residents or Non-Belonger
224
residents. Four Q-methodology analyses, comparing respondent Q-Sorts, were completed:
225
1)
Surveyor respondents (n = 39)
226
2)
Tourist respondents (n = 165)
227
3)
Local respondents (n = 89)
228
4)
All respondents (n = 293)
229
230
For each iteration, PQ-Method (v2.11) was used to complete principal component factor (PCF)
231
analyses as well as correlation analyses between respondent Q-sorts. Underlying factors within
232
each round of analysis were identified via eigenvalues and z-scores (Addams 2000) using PQ-
233
Method’s Varimax rotation process. Factors were kept when eigenvalues were greater than one
234
and plotted values also passed a visual scree test, following the methodology of Cattell (1966).
235
Factors were then isolated and connected to survey respondents and demographic information,
236
forming sub-populations of like-minded individuals. These factors, once described, were used to
237
highlight the particular perspectives and biases of these sub-populations, with the purpose of
238
teasing out subtle differences within the larger survey population.
239
240
9
241
4. Results
242
4.1 Analysis of Q-Sort scores and correlation between all respondents
243
Table 2 provides a full comparison, including z-scores, of all four analyses, labeled Surveyor (S),
244
Tourist (T), Local (L), and All (A). In each scenario, group responses underwent PCF, and eight
245
eigenvalues were calculated. Eigenvalue and follow-on scree analyses supported the inclusion of
246
four factors in each analysis, labeled in Table 2 as groups 1, 2, 3, and 4. In each analysis, some
247
respondents were not identified to belong to any particular group. Respondents in the “None”
248
group share characteristics across two or more factors, but owing to PQ-Method software
249
limitations, were dropped from further statistical examination.
250
While there may be similar z-scores between analyses and groups, any such similarity is not
251
presumed to reflect cross-group associations. That is to say, for example, z-scores on Statement 1
252
for Surveyor Factor 3 (S3, z1 = 1.71) does not necessarily reflect the same perspectives and
253
biases that form Tourist Factor 3 (T3, z1 = 1.51, significant at p ≤ 0.05). The color codes seen in
254
Table 2 follow the quasi-normal curve frequencies presented in Table 1, with the strongest
255
disagreement within each sub-group coded red, and strongest agreement coded dark blue. Z-
256
scores are reported for each sub-group along the range -3 < z < +3.
257
While Table 2 shows a large range of perspectives across analyses and between group factors,
258
there are some commonalities to be seen. With the exception of group L4, all respondents
259
strongly support education as part of marine resource management and planning in the TCI
260
(Statement 8, mean z = 1.25). There is also strong agreement on the potential positive
261
contributions of marine protected areas (Statement 11, mean z = 1.10). There is cross-group
262
neutral perspectives on whether economic policies are damaging to the TCI environment
263
(Statement 4, mean z = -0.21), and shared disagreement to the idea that the TCI government
264
represents all stakeholders equally (Statement 5, mean z = -1.00).
265
266
267
10
268
Table 2. Statements and Q-Scores for Surveyors (S), Tourists (T), Locals (L), and All (A)
269
respondents. Color coding follows Table 1. Significant at: * (p ≤ 0.05); ** (p ≤ 0.01).
S1
(n=7)
T1
(n=53)
S2
(n=9)
T2
(n=19)
S3
(n=3)
T3
(n=30)
S4
(n=4)
T4
(n=18)
L1
(n=28)
A1
(n=58)
L2
(n=10)
A2
(n=28)
L3
(n=11)
A3
(n=38)
L4
(n=5)
A4
(n=45)
0.04
1.26
1.46
-1.15**
1.73
1.51*
0.01
1.07
0.20
1.32*
0.31
1.10
0.76
-0.59**
0.75
1.38
-0.17
0.13
1.08**
0.31
-0.86*
0.34
-0.13
0.83**
-0.69**
0.58
0.43
0.64
1.23**
0.03*
0.27
-0.19*
-1.12
-0.54**
-1.42
0.19
0.00**
-1.91**
-0.96
0.42
0.43
-1.61**
1.19**
0.55
-0.01
0.57
-0.02
-0.81**
-0.16
0.38**
0.44
-0.17
-0.54
-0.01
-0.13
-0.24
-0.13
0.03
-0.67*
-0.58**
-1,79**
-0.01
-0.14
0.34**
-1.69**
-1.51*
-0.17
-1.03
-0.76
0.01**
-0.13
-1.21
-1.81
-0.16**
-1.75
-1.51
-0.55
-1.63
-0.48
-1.59
-0.65
-1.34**
-0.35
-0.54
-1.30
-0.16*
0.07
-0.53
-1.27**
-0.28
0.02
-0.30
-0.18
-1.05**
-0.51
-1.37**
0.54
0.31**
0.12
1.57**
0.65
0.92**
0.18
-0.68**
1.00
0.91
-1.75**
-0.78**
0.93
1.12*
0.77
0.21**
1.41
1.49*
1.73
1.07
1.08
0.97
1.61
1.76*
1.55**
1.54
0.90**
2.02**
2.11**
1.47
-1.86**
1.21*
-0.30
-0.66
-0.64
-0.90
-1.95
-1.21*
-1.31
0.13**
0.21
-1.27**
0.12
0.02**
-1.19
-0.32**
-0.99
-0.68**
-1.40
-1.35**
-1.17
-0.32
-0.11
-0.47
0.00
0.13**
-0.75*
-0.90*
0.73**
0.57**
-0.32*
-0.49**
-1.57**
-1.15*
1.32
1.44
0.58
1.14
1.41
1.46
0.96
1.27
0.86
1.05
1.41*
1.21
0.35
0.80*
0.81
1.56**
1.11
-0.11**
0.21
1.21**
0.54
0.38**
1.35
-1.29**
0.24
0.50
-1.32**
-1.40**
-0.04
0.56
1.36**
-0.17**
-0.06
-0.69
-1.77
-1.64**
0.00
-0.96
-1.96
-0.72
-0.95
-1.42
0.74
-0.33*
-0.91
-1.45
1.20
-0.04*
1.43
0.78
0.10
0.89
-0.11
0.23*
1.22
0.61
1.57**
0.15**
-0.16
-0.34**
-0.70
1.56**
-0.61
1.01**
-0.31
0.41**
-0.18
-0.64**
0.22
-1.11**
-0.13
-1.55**
-0.48
-0.42
-0.19
-0.87*
0.31*
-0.56
1.01
0.29**
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Statement
Tourism in the TCI is dependent on the health of the
marine environment.
Turks and Caicos islanders have strong cultural ties to
their marine environment.
Tourists come to experience the culture of the TCI.
Economic policies are damaging to the TCI environment.
TCI government represents all stakeholder groups
equally.
Environmental policies in the Turks and Caicos Islands
address the concerns of all local stakeholders.
The TCI need to prepare for negative impacts of climate
change.
Education is the key for ensuring a stable future for the
TCI’s marine resources.
Tourists leave the TCI with a better understanding of the
local natural environment.
Providenciales’ tourism industry is environmentally
friendly.
Marine protected areas are important for ensuring the
health of marine resources in the TCI for the future.
Climate change is the major threat to the TCI and its
economy.
Tourists forgo certain amenities in order to protect coral
reefs and marine biodiversity in the TCI.
There are limited job opportunities in industries outside
tourism in the TCI.
Resorts with eco-labels appeal to tourists in the TCI.
11
270
4.2 Analysis of Q-Sort scores and correlation amongst tourists
271
Q-methodology and PCF identified four factors for defining the range of tourist perspectives (n =
272
165). Forty-five tourists (27%) did not associate strongly with any one factor group, and were
273
dropped from subsequent analyses. Group T1 (n = 53) strongly supports education (z8 = 1.49,
274
significant at p ≤ 0.05), and holds a heightened recognition on the connection between the health
275
of the marine environment and Providenciales’ tourism industry (z1 = 1.26), including the need
276
for active management approaches like MPAs (z11 = 1.44). Like almost all other groups, T1
277
members do not believe that the government represents all stakeholders equally (z5 = -1.51,
278
significant at p ≤ 0.05), with a strong sense that tourism-friendly policies exist in the TCI, at the
279
expense of the environment (z10 = -1.35, significant at p ≤ 0.01), and people (z6 = -1.34,
280
significant at p ≤ 0.01). And while not scoring as strongly as other statements, T1 members are
281
the only tourist group who see the positive role that tourists themselves can play with protecting
282
the environment (z15 = 0.41, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
283
Group T2 (n = 19) carry a much more pragmatic viewpoint that verges on acute pessimism of
284
how tourism impacts Providenciales, a viewpoint seen within segments of the tourism industry in
285
other parts of the region (Carr and Heyman 2009). Group T2 members disagree with the
286
statement that tourism relies upon a healthy marine environment (z1 = -1.15, significant at p ≤
287
0.01). They also acknowledge that tourists negatively impact the island (z9 = -0.90) and its
288
marine environment (z13 = -1.64, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z15 = -0.64, significant at p ≤ 0.01). As
289
an extension of this, T2 members believe that the issue might be larger than is manageable in the
290
TCI, with relative low-ranking support of education (z8 = 1.07), and making the statements
291
concerning climate change their most strongly agreed upon view (z7 = 1.57, significant at p ≤
292
0.01; z12 = 1.22, significant at p ≤ 0.01). Tying this pragmatic view to a weak agreement on the
293
role and value of local culture in the TCI as it relates to tourism and Providenciales’ economy (z2
294
= 0.31; z3 = 0.19), and the T2 perspective becomes clear. Tourism is not going anywhere in
295
Providenciales, it is likely harming both the environment and the imposing hardships on the local
296
community, and there isn’t much that can be done if the TCI is going to continue to encourage
297
tourism. Or, in their own words, “we come for the beaches, not the people”.
298
Group T3 (n = 30) shares some attributes with T2 in terms of how the issues surrounding tourism
299
and marine resource health play out as issues larger than TCI governmental policy is able to
12
300
account for (z7 = 0.92, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z10 = -0.47; z12 = 0.38, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
301
Unlike T2, however, group T3 members believe that tourism in Providenciales requires a healthy
302
marine environment (z1 = 1.51, significant at p ≤ 0.05), suggesting that tourists who choose to
303
visit the TCI do so, at least in part, because other potential destinations in the region cannot
304
compare in terms of aesthetics, environmental condition, and locally-focused policies (z4 = -0.01;
305
z5 = 0.01, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z11 = 1.46). Such attention to the economic connections of
306
tourism to the environment does not extend to the local community. Group T3 have strong
307
disagreement that TCI culture and community play any real role in the success of tourism in
308
Providenciales (z2 = 0.34; z3 = -1.91, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z9 = -1.21, significant at p ≤ 0.05),
309
stating that TCI islanders “don’t have a culture”. They also do not feel strong environmental
310
obligations (z13 = -0.96; z15 = -1.11, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
311
While most tourists might not recognize, or value, the culture of the TCI, it still represents an
312
important draw for at least some tourists, as seen in the Q-methodology z-scores of Group T4 (n
313
= 18). Members of this group can be identified by their interest in the cultural connections
314
available for discovery in Providenciales (z2 = 0.83, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z3 = 0.42). They
315
carry a more diverse range of perspectives on environmental connections, leading to more
316
neutral z-scores on tourism impacts (z10 = 0.13, significant at p ≤ 0.01) and how the island
317
educates visitors (z8 = 1.76, significant at p ≤ 0.05; z9 = 0.13, significant at p ≤ 0.01). Group T4
318
members self-identify as “enlightened travelers” (Di Giovine 2009), who distance themselves
319
from other, less culturally and environmentally sophisticated tourists (i.e. Groups T1, T2, and
320
T3). Group T4 members recognize and value cultural attributes of Providenciales and disparage
321
other, less-enlightened tourists (z15 = -1.55, significant at p ≤ 0.01), with comments like “most
322
tourists come for a change in the weather, not the culture.”
323
324
4.3 Analysis of Q-Sort scores and correlation amongst Belongers and Non-Belongers
325
Q-methodology and PCF identified four factors for defining the range of local resident
326
perspectives (n = 89). Thirty-five residents (39%) did not strongly associate with any one factor
327
group, and were dropped from subsequent analyses. Separate analyses, including additional
328
factor rotations, were conducted within PQ-Method to test if Group L4 was correlated with
13
329
another group or members of the “None” group, but those tests led to weaker variation, an
330
increase in “L-None” numbers, and overall decrease in total variation being accounted for. As a
331
result of these quality-control tests, Group L4 was retained.
332
Group L1 (n = 28) and L-None (n = 35) are composed of similar numbers and percentages of
333
Belongers relative to total group size (Table 3). Group L1 includes 20 resident Belongers, 71%
334
of the group’s size. Similarly, L-None has 29 Belongers, 82% of that group. They are similarly
335
aged, with L1 members having a mean age of 36.9 ± 11.5 yrs, while L-None are 38.0 ± 11.1 yrs.
336
Group L1 also have tended to live on Providenciales longer (20.8 ± 12.7 yrs) than Group L-None
337
(15.9 ± 13.4 yrs), although this difference is not statistically significant. When comparing the
338
length of residency on Providenciales between Non-Belongers from Group L1 (16.6 ± 12.7 yrs)
339
and Non-Belongers from Group L-None (26.3 ± 6.4 yrs), a statistically significant difference
340
exists (p = 0.03, t-test with unequal variance). Group L1 is also significantly different than
341
Group L4 when comparing Belonger populations (p = 0.01) and overall group populations (p =
342
0.004).
343
Table 3. Demographic comparison of Belonger and Non-Belonger sub-group populations.
Age
Residency Length
Belonger (n = 20)
37.0 ± 12.6
20.8 ± 12.7
Non-Belonger (n = 8)
36.8 ± 9.0
16.6 ± 12.7
Belonger (n = 7)
45.9 ± 19.2
23.1 ± 20.0
PCF Group
Group L1
Group L2
Non-Belonger (n = 3)
37.7 ± 12.5
24.7 ± 17.2
Belonger (n = 4)
47.0 ± 23.7
22.0 ± 16.2
Non-Belonger (n = 7)
36.0 ± 14.3
17.4 ± 7.6
Belonger (n = 4)
30.8 ± 10.8
11.0 ± 4.8
Group L3
Group L4
Non-Belonger (n = 1)
22.0
5.0
Belonger (n = 29)
36.3 ± 10.2
15.9 ± 13.4
Non-Belonger (n = 6)
46.5 ± 12.4
26.3 ± 6.4
Group L-None
14
344
345
As seen in the z-scores from Table 2, Group L1 holds a very strong view that tourism remains
346
the only real employment option for residents (z14 = 1.57). They also hold significantly negative
347
perspectives on the ecological (z10 = -0.75) and socioeconomic (z6 = -1.27 impacts of tourism
348
more generally, and share a dim view with the other z-scored groups of how well the TCI
349
government represents themselves (z5 = -1.81). Indeed, if there were a unifying theme across all
350
the local groups, it would be with how poorly each resident group views the local government’s
351
appearance of being beholden to the tourism industry. Q-statements 4, 5, and 6 each reflect
352
government policies at one level or another, with a clear agreement that TCI government policies
353
are tourist-friendly, perhaps at the expense of the environment (z4 = -0.68, z6 = -0.49 across all
354
local groups), or resident opportunities (z5 = -1.15). These views are strengthened in follow-up
355
statements, where Group L1 members show a clear dissatisfaction for tourists, and governmental
356
agenda overly focused on tourism and the tourist experience, saying tourists “come to drink”,
357
and that tourists are “shocked” by the poor environmental and economic conditions away from
358
Grace Bay.
359
Group L2 (n = 10) is identifiable principally through its older (43.4 ± 17.2 yrs), longer-term
360
residents (23.6 ± 18.2 yrs), significantly different than Group L4. Group L2 is also heavily
361
weighted with males, being significantly different than their respective Belonger male
362
populations in Group L-None (p = 0.04), L1 (p = 0.04), and L4 (p = 0.04). Group L2 has, unlike
363
other residents, a broadly positive view of the tourism industry, balanced with a pragmatic
364
perspective on those government policies that support the industry and safeguard the
365
environment. Group L2 members believe that the tourism industry is environmentally friendly
366
(z10 = 0.73, significant at p ≤ 0.01), and discount the environmental risk of those economic
367
policies that support tourism (z4 = -0.67, significant at p ≤ 0.05). This positive perspective is
368
further enhanced by their belief that tourists themselves are respectful to their environmental
369
potential impacts on Providenciales (z13 = 0.74) and wish to absorb local culture while visiting
370
(z3 = 1.19, significant at p ≤ 0.05).
371
On the other hand, Group L2 has contrasting impressions on the functional value of a healthy
372
environment against the need to protect it. They strongly support marine protected areas as a
373
management tool (z11 = 1.41, significant at p ≤ 0.05), and, like Groups L1 and L3, the role of
15
374
education in building support for managing the marine resources in the TCI (z8 = 0.90,
375
significant at p ≤ 0.01). Yet, Group L2 fully discounts the immediacy of ecological (z7 = -1.75,
376
significant at p ≤ 0.01) and socioeconomic (z12 = -1.32, significant at p ≤ 0.01) threats of climate
377
change to the territory. Indeed, their strong disagreement to Q-statements 7 and 12 place them
378
alone within all resident groups. In follow-up questions, Group L2 respondents noted a range of
379
justifications for disagreeing with those statements: that climate change is a “global issue” that is
380
not just the responsibility of the TCI government to address; that the climate is changing but that
381
there are much more immediate concerns that must first be addressed in the TCI; or that climate
382
change is not happening or is “not real”. This range of rationales within Group L2, while
383
illustrating some level of topical disagreement, is one that unifies those members at the level of
384
decision-making and policies supporting the continued growth of tourism in Providenciales. If, in
385
the eyes of Group L2, tourism is a benefit to the TCI, with limited negative impacts on an
386
otherwise strongly resilient marine ecosystem, then policy decisions should favor continued
387
tourism growth and opportunities over other stakeholder group concerns (z5 = -1.75).
388
Group L3 (n = 11) holds few significant differences compared to other resident groups identified
389
by Q-methodology. As a whole, L3 members are 40.0 ± 18.0 years old, having resided in
390
Providenciales for 19.1 ± 10.9 years, demographically very similar to the overall sample age
391
(38.0 ± 13.0 yrs) and residence (18.7 ± 13.1 yrs). Yet, once L3 individuals are sorted between
392
Belongers and Non-Belongers, some differences begin to reveal themselves. Group L3 is, unlike
393
all other groups, comprised principally of Non-Belongers, who are younger (36.0 ± 14.3 yrs)
394
than their fellow L3 Belongers (47.0 ± 23.7 yrs) (p = 0.05).
395
Group L3 members, regardless of identifying as Belonger or Non-Belonger, have perhaps the
396
most SES-grounded views on tourism and managing resources in the TCI of all resident groups.
397
They distinguish themselves by their strong belief in the cultural ties between islanders and their
398
home (z2 = 1.23, significant at p ≤ 0.01). Ecologically, they recognize the positive relationship
399
between a healthy marine environment and a healthy tourism industry (z1 = 0.76), and that there
400
are negative impacts that the tourism industry incurs upon Providenciales’ environment (z10 = -
401
0.32, significant at p ≤ 0.05). They also have a nuanced appreciation for a range of management
402
tools in promoting this health at both local (z11 = 0.35) and global (z7 = 0.93) scales. Group L3
16
403
members also believe that the government is doing generally well balancing economic and
404
environmental interests (z4 = -1.79, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
405
Finally, while Group L3 members do hold negative views on tourist interests and motivations (z9
406
= -1.19, z13 = -0.91), these perspectives are not defining characteristics for the group. Indeed,
407
although there is a range of views held by locals on tourists and their contribution to life in the
408
TCI, whether strongly negative (L1 and L3), weakly positive (L4), or strongly positive (L2),
409
none of these views are defining characteristics through Q-methodology. This suggests, at least
410
within the resident population surveyed, that tourists are more an incidental aspect of the tourism
411
industry. Instead, government and industry policies are more responsible for strengthening
412
environmental sustainability and economic stability both on Providenciales, and more broadly
413
across the territory. Such a perspective is personified by Group L3 comments, including that “no
414
one would come if the beaches were shot” and “without a healthy marine [environment], there is
415
no tourism in Provo”.
416
Finally, Group L4 (n = 5) is unique from other resident groups identified by Q-methodology by
417
both their age (29.0 ± 10.1 yrs) and residency (9.8 ± 5.0 yrs), differences that make it statistically
418
different than other groups by age (Group L2, p = 0.03) or residence length (Group L1, p =
419
0.004; Group L2, p = 0.02; Group L3, p = 0.02; Group L-None, p = 0.01). In a number of ways,
420
Group L4 represents a small, contrarian minority voice, a characteristic that has been seen by
421
other young, less established groups in a previous study by Carr and Heyman (2012). Group L4
422
stands apart not only from other locals but also the entire survey population in their strongly
423
negative perception on the value of education in contributing towards resource use, management
424
and sustainability (z8 = -1.86, significant at p ≤ 0.01). They have views that are more negative
425
than other groups on the impacts of tourism on Providenciales’ environment (z10 = -1.57,
426
significant at p ≤ 0.01), and that the policies in place to protect the environment balance a range
427
of stakeholder concerns (z6 = -0.51). Group A4 separate themselves by identifying climate
428
change as the major threat to the TCI (z12 = 1.36, significant at p ≤ 0.01), and that tourists are
429
informed to some level on environmentally-friendly aspects of tourism (z13 = 1.20; z15 = 1.01,
430
significant at p ≤ 0.01).
431
17
432
4.4 Analysis of Q-Sort scores and correlation within all respondents
433
Table 2 shows the average z-scores for each identified factor within the analysis (A1, A2, A3,
434
and A4), based on the aggregated Q-sort responses by all members within that group. There was
435
broad positive consensus among all four groups on the value of education for ensuring a stable
436
future for marine resources in the TCI (Statement 8), with a mean z-score of 1.56. Similarly,
437
there was broad negative consensus regarding how equally the TCI government represents all
438
stakeholders (Statement 5), with a mean z-score of -1.53. Statement 5 was the lowest scored
439
statement for groups A2, A3, and A4.
440
Group A1 (n = 58) is dominated by individuals with a much more limited level of experience and
441
understanding of Providenciales and the TCI than locals, either Belonger or Non-Belonger.
442
Tourists (62.0% of A1) and surveyors (27.6% of A1) account for nearly 90% of Group A1.
443
Group A1 is noted for their overall negative impression on social and ecological contributions of
444
tourism to Providenciales and the TCI. A1 members have strongly negative views on tourists’
445
interest in local culture (z3 = -1.61, significant at p ≤ 0.01) or their understanding of the
446
environment (z9 = -1.27, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
447
Group A2 (n = 28) was evenly balanced between tourists (53.6% of A2) and locals (46.4% of
448
A2), with no surveyors being members. Like Group A1, Group A2 holds positive views on the
449
importance of a healthy marine environment for Providenciales and the TCI (z1 = 1.10; z11 =
450
1.21), the importance of education for ensuring a stable future for marine resources in the TCI (z8
451
= 2.02, significant at p ≤ 0.01), and the cultural ties locals have with the marine environment (z2
452
= 0.64). They also disagree that governmental policies are damaging the environment in and
453
around Providenciales (z4 = -0.58, significant at p ≤ 0.01), although they share the belief with
454
Groups A3 and A4 that policies do favor tourism stakeholders (z5 = -1.03). Group A2 does hold
455
negative, distinguishing perspectives on the risk of climate change (z7 = -0.78, significant at p ≤
456
0.01; z12 = -1.40, significant at p ≤ 0.01), and its potential impacts to the territory (TCI
457
Government 2011), particularly in relation to how they perceive the threat of climate change to
458
other, more keenly visible threats.
459
Group A3 (n = 38) has a strong tourist sub-population (57.9% of A3), but unlike Group A1, is
460
much more strongly represented by local individuals, with 26.3% of A3 being Belonger, and
18
461
10.5% being Non-Belonger (Table 2). Given this breadth of membership across multiple survey
462
populations, it should not be surprising that Group A3 stands apart in a number of ways. Group
463
A3 is identifiable principally through a few contrarian positions that put them at odds with other
464
groups’ members. They do not believe that tourism in the TCI is dependent on the health of the
465
marine environment (z1 = -0.59, significant at p ≤ 0.05). They also agree that there are few
466
economic avenues available outside of tourism in the TCI (z14 = 1.56, significant at p ≤ 0.01),
467
their most strongly-held perspective. Further, A3 members alone tend to have weakly negative
468
views on the positive contributions of tourism to the environment (z4 = -0.01; z9 = -0.32,
469
significant at p ≤ 0.01; z10 = -0.49, significant at p ≤ 0.01).
470
Finally, Group A4 (n = 45) has a strong tourist sub-population (64.4% of A4), with nearly equal
471
percentages of Belongers (15.6% of A4) and surveyors (17.8% of A4), and only a single Non-
472
Belonger (2.2% of A4). Group A4 holds positions that reflect an expectation of government
473
response and action for promoting environmental sustainability and economic stability. Like
474
Groups A1 and A2, A4 members recognize the economic value of a healthy marine environment
475
(z1 = 1.38; z11 = 1.56, significant at p ≤ 0.01). But while they do value education (z8 = 1.21,
476
significant at p ≤ 0.05), more concern is focused on a lack of stakeholder representation (z5 = -
477
1.59), poor policy decisions (z4 = 0.34, significant at p ≤ 0.01; z6 = -1.37, significant at p ≤ 0.01),
478
and lack of oversight on tourism (z10 = -1.15, significant at p ≤ 0.05).
479
480
5. Discussion
481
5.1 Identifying Stakeholder Differences in Perspectives
482
Research examining SES approaches for resource management highlights the benefits of holistic
483
approaches for examining the interconnections between economic goals, social pressures,
484
environmental conditions, and conservation needs within a policy framework. Governance
485
structures, market demands, and the ecological foundation of a resource base must all be
486
accounted for. In the case of Providenciales, balancing these needs is necessary to best ensure
487
tourism’s long-term economic stability and sustainability of the island’s natural resources. The
488
industry is currently centered around the beauty and allure of the marine environment, making it
489
critical for the government to account for potential ecological repercussions associated with
19
490
development plans. The successful long-term implementation of policies centered around
491
conservative practices can only be accomplished if the territory’s socio-economic needs are also
492
taken into account; integrating the concerns and needs of the many stakeholders involved
493
severely diminishes the possibility of oversimplifying an issue, resulting in a policy that
494
embraces change and complexity.
495
The TCI tourism industry currently finds itself at a crossroads, at which seemingly standard
496
decisions can have tremendous influences on the longstanding development and trajectory of the
497
territory’s economy. Accounting for the four principal SES spheres proposed by Berkes et al.
498
(2003), and identifying the complex relationships between them can be difficult. And the reality
499
of policy development often centers around politically expedient responses to specific issues,
500
rather than a cohesive, organized, and multi-faceted approach (Fulton et al. 2011). This research
501
shows that it is possible, however, to identify issues of immediate concern within stakeholder
502
groups, while also highlighting pathways to long-term sustainability. Using Q-methodology to
503
account for the wide range of stakeholder perspectives, this research has revealed several distinct
504
viewpoints about both the current state and the future direction of tourism in the TCI.
505
As seen across nearly all groups and analyses, policies appear to strongly favor tourism and
506
marginalize local stakeholders, particularly those not employed within the tourism sector. While
507
favoring tourism, the dominant economic engine in the territory, may be necessary, perceived
508
disregard for affected local community members can ultimately fracture local support and derail
509
growth. Tourism throughout the region has shown a stark divide in socioeconomic benefits,
510
despite a generally agreed upon conclusion that tourism is an economic benefit at regional and
511
national scales (Freitag 1994; Pattullo 2005; Carr and Heyman 2009; Amaghionyeodiwe 2012).
512
Finding pathways to expand economic benefits beyond the tourism sector will help garner
513
stakeholder support and policy legitimacy going forward. In the case of Providenciales, this will
514
require pro-environment policies, given the keen sense of connection between tourism and the
515
marine environment. Tourist and local stakeholder groups both broadly recognize the value of a
516
healthy marine environment for tourism, and so the government should continue to pursue
517
“smart growth” policies (McLaren 2003) that safeguard the environment and natural beauty of
518
Providenciales. Demonstrating a commitment to environmental stewardship and community
20
519
regard will help make tangible their marketing slogan of “beautiful by nature” (TCI Tourism
520
Board 2015).
521
522
5.2 Integrating Local Stakeholder Views into Tourism Planning
523
As seen both in this study and supporting literature, tourism-dependent economies benefit most
524
when they actively integrate with their local communities. Yet, it can be difficult to account for
525
local concerns, much less address them, when the economic pressures from within the tourism
526
sector are pervasive. As has been seen elsewhere in the Caribbean region, governments are
527
largely beholden to the demands of the tourism industry. Government priorities are therefore
528
dedicated to gaining development interest, and then securing those interests over
529
Simultaneously, competition for tourists between destinations is fierce (Carr and Heyman 2009).
530
As a direct response to this competition, government policies take one of two basic paths: large-
531
scale, discount tourism, as seen in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, and specialized, high-
532
end tourism that caters to a specific market group, as seen, for example, in island getaways in
533
Antigua and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Both provide valuable contributions to their respective
534
economies, although environmental and community effects can be severe.
535
Providenciales actually pursues both avenues, with family-oriented resorts like Club Med
536
Turkoise, and up-scale retreats like Amanyara Resort, which caters to a highly personalized
537
experience. Both styles reflect “enclave-style” tourism that removes guests from the surrounding
538
local community. Yet, they do so at their own peril, given the ease with which such tourism
539
destinations can replace one another. As seen with local stakeholder responses, there are few
540
tangible connections between the culture of the TCI and tourism. While not likely to be a major
541
draw compared to the natural beauty of Grace Bay in the immediate future, developing industry
542
outlets that highlight Providenciales and Turks and Caicos culture nonetheless can help generate
543
connections that retain market share through repeat visitors. As members of Group L1 and L2
544
reveal, the current relationship between the local community and tourists can be greatly
545
improved, benefitting both tourists and islanders. The TCI, while perhaps not a cultural
546
stronghold like other destinations in the Caribbean, has a rich history and connections to their
547
island resources. Building such connections can also benefit conservation efforts when tourists
time.
21
548
link community welfare and pride to the environmental health of the island (Scheyvens 1999). In
549
doing so, such community-oriented policies become supported within a SES framework.
550
551
5.3 Expanding Concepts of Surveyor Roles in SES Research
552
Discussions on the practical application of SES principles in resource management continue to
553
mature in policy considerations (Holling 2001; Berkes et al. 2002; Folke et al. 2005; Ostrom
554
2009, 2010). Accepting system complexity and acknowledging the effects of uncertainty has not
555
slowed the potential of SES-structured policy recommendations for managing economically and
556
culturally important natural resources, especially in data-limited situations (Carr and Heyman
557
2014). This recognition, however, brings up an important point: do researcher goals match the
558
scale of issues facing stakeholders, or are opportunities to examine the potential of a cohesive,
559
complex SES framework to address resource management dissonant to community voices and
560
concerns? Or, more plainly, how likely are SES-styled “solutions” being brought forward in
561
search of a problem?
562
As seen in Table 2, SES researcher perspectives are generally in line with the more broadly held
563
views of interviewed stakeholders. This suggests that, at least in the case of Providenciales, SES
564
researchers have a functional understanding of the ecological, socioeconomic, and political
565
pressures within the tourism industry and its continued support from the TCI government.
566
Building on education efforts toward both tourist and local stakeholders should continue to be a
567
priority for the TCI, as a greater attitudinal awareness to the positive and negative aspects of
568
tourism can be parlayed into increased stakeholder participation. Tourists can support various
569
conservation efforts, such as eco-labeling, if they understand the rationale and ultimate goals of
570
such strategies, and how small changes in their behavior can have large positive impacts.
571
Similarly, the tourism sector can improve their standing with local stakeholders by expanding
572
outreach efforts demonstrating their commitment to a healthy community and environment. In
573
both cases, stakeholder views are brought in from the periphery of the policy table, an important
574
aspect of the SES approach. That these policy elements were first constructed by SES
575
researchers should not dilute their importance. Q-scores from tourist and local stakeholder
576
groups reveal that perspectives are sufficiently complex to move beyond single issue
22
577
management, which for the tourism industry tends to focus on short-term economic growth and
578
capturing market share, and toward a more nuanced, multi-faceted policy framework that
579
champions ecological and socioeconomic issues in equal measure.
580
This research also highlights the need to continue seeking and quantifying stakeholder
581
perspectives and input, a foundational component in Q-methodology that provides much of its
582
analytical strength. The purpose of the researcher-designed Q-sort is not to supersede or replace
583
stakeholder views with those of SES-trained researchers, but to assess stakeholder sophistication
584
and perspective complexity in a reflective process. There will always be a need for experts and
585
stakeholders to join in policy discussions. Employing a researcher-designed Q-methodology that
586
is sensitive to a range of stakeholder issues may shorten the distance required to bring those
587
perspectives to the policy table, while iteratively reducing system uncertainty that plagues the
588
decision-making process. Stakeholder perspectives are still identified by factors and z-scores,
589
and follow-up questioning provides the vital insights that can help inform discussions and guide
590
more inclusive, broadly supported policies. Follow-on work and continued stakeholder
591
participation, either directly at the policy table or through studies such as these, can encourage
592
adaptive management opportunities, another hallmark of the SES approach.
593
Finally, this research shows that SES training is tangibly strengthening Q-methodology as a
594
policy-oriented tool. The Q-sort developed by researchers was done through an exhaustive,
595
multi-step process that sought to capture the issues most relevant to the stakeholders being
596
interviewed. Z-score patterns for surveyor factor groups can be seen also with both tourist and
597
local stakeholder groups. From an academic angle, such results support the idea that one can
598
successfully introduce SES theory prior to stakeholder interviews without impacting any
599
subsequent management and policy review. While researchers should continue to be wary of
600
introducing their own biases into their work, this study shows that there may be occasions or
601
valid reasons for not fully removing themselves from the course and tenor of their work. In this
602
regard, the Q-methodology approach presented here has similarities to other survey tools already
603
well-established in the social sciences. Semi-structured interviews, closed-ended questioning,
604
and discrete choice surveys all reflect a level of predetermination guided by the informed
605
surveyor and their chosen research focus. In more “traditional” Q-methodology studies,
606
researchers may not know the range of perspectives held by respondents, and so preliminary
23
607
interviews are necessary (Carr and Heyman 2012). In the case of resource management,
608
however, SES theory suggests that the range of issues being confronted fall within well-defined
609
ecological, socioeconomic, and political spheres of influence that can be identified in a number
610
of manners, from direct observation to stakeholder inquiry to comparison studies of similar
611
systems and circumstances. The successful adaptation of Q-methodology from one that is purely
612
stakeholder-derived to one that can find its formation in theoretical constructs such as SES
613
increases its functionality for practitioners, and, by extension, stakeholders and policy-makers.
614
615
6. Conclusions
616
Tourism accounts for 77% of the GDP of TCI, and that percentage rises to nearly 98% when
617
including the construction sector. Further, the TCI is the number one destination in the world in
618
terms of per capita visitor arrivals per resident, with nearly 13 tourists for every resident (TCI
619
Tourism Board 2015). It is clear that the tourism industry in the TCI has a disproportionately
620
large influence over the territory’s future. Continued reliance on tourism in the TCI will produce
621
unique SES stresses, and so tourism-focused policies would be wise to proactively address them
622
so as to not jeopardize the territory’s future economic well-being and environmental health.
623
Improving policies requires a sensitivity to stakeholder perspectives as they relate to the breadth
624
of issues that may require management responses. Q-methodology is a uniquely valuable policy
625
tool because it successfully identifies and quantifies a range of stakeholder perspectives. Policy-
626
makers can use Q-methodology analyses to inform the decision-making process by highlighting
627
stakeholder perspectives as they relate to the environment and economy. Voicing community
628
concerns, as can be done through Q-methodology, is a positive step toward greater stakeholder
629
participation and more inclusive policies that would enjoy greater support and likelihood of
630
success. With Q-methodology, policy-makers are better equipped to not only develop SES-
631
attuned responses to the pressing needs of today, but also anticipate future considerations that
632
stakeholders hold important.
24
633
634
635
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