American Sociological Association
Parental Role Strains, Salience of Parental Identity and Gender Differences in Psychological
Distress
Author(s): Robin W. Simon
Source: Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Mar., 1992), pp. 25-35
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136855 .
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ParentalRole Strains,SalienceofParentalIdentity
and
GenderDifferences
in Psychological
Distress*
ROBIN W. SIMON
Indiana University
Journal
of Healthand Social Behavior1992, Vol. 33 (March):25-35
Althoughpast researchindicatesthat women'shigherlevels of psychological
distresscan be accountedfor by theirgreaterexposureand vulnerability
to
role-relatedstress, the social psychologicalfactors contributing
to female
vulnerability
havenotbeenfullyidentified.
Thispaperappliesidentity
theory
tothe
phenomenon
of genderdifferences
in distressamongparents.From an identity
perspective, I propose that salience of the parental identity in women's
self-conceptions
contributes
to theirvulnerability
to parentalrole strains.Using
1988 surveydata froma stratifiedrandomsample of marriedand divorced
Indianapolisresidents(N= 448), I find thatgenderdifferences
in distressare
explainedby differences
in exposureto parentalrole strains.Furtheranalyses
reveal,however,thatsalience of theparentalidentity
contributes
to bothmen's
and women'svulnerability
toparentalrole strains.Thesefindingsunderscorethe
utility
of identity
theory
for explaining
psychologicaldistressamongwomenand
men.
Genderdifferences
in distressareexamined 1982; Dohrenwend
et al. 1980; Meyerset al.
hereamongparents,takingintoaccountthe 1984; Robins et al. 1984; Weissman and
salience of parentalidentityin men's and Klerman 1977). Stress researchersoften
women's self-conceptions.
Two hypotheses attributethe differentialdistributionand
are evaluated.First,parentalidentity
is more etiologyof mentalillnessto women'sgreater
salient to women than to men. Second, exposureto role-related
stress(Gove 1972;
parentalidentitysalience contributes
to fe- Gove andTudor1973). Thishypothesis
led to
male vulnerability
to parentalrole strains. researchon genderdifferences
in exposureto
This research underscoresthe utilityof ongoing role strains. Studies have docuidentity
theoryforexplainingdistressamong mentedthe pronouncedsex differencein
womenand men.
distress among the married (Fox 1980;
Epidemiological
researchhas foundconsis- Radloff1975) and thegreateremotionalcosts
tentlythat women have higher rates of of parenthoodformothers,especiallythose
psychologicaldistress than men (Al-Issa withdependentchildrenwhen parentalrole
demandsare greatest(Aneshensel,Frerichs
and Clark 1981; Barnettand Baruch 1987;
* Addressall correspondence
to Robin W. Gore and Mangione1983).1 Thoughmixed,
Simon,Department
of Sociology,
Ballantine
Hall resultsgenerallyindicatethat employment
IN 47405. does notbenefitwomenas muchas mendue
Bloomington,
744; IndianaUniversity,
An earlierversion
of thispaperwas presented
at to thestrainof meetingfamilyand workrole
the 1989 AnnualMeetingof the American obligations (Cleary and Mechanic 1983;
Sociological
San Francisco,
Association,
Califor- Kessler and McRae 1982; Thoits 1986).
nia. I am verygrateful
to PeggyThoits,Brian These
findingssuggestthatwomen'sgreater
Powell,SheldonStryker,
and JamesSimonfor
exposure
to familyrole strainsis partially
their
many
contributions
tothispaper.I alsowould
responsible
fortheirhigherratesof distress.
liketo thank
theanonymous
JHSBreviewers
for
Stressresearchers
also haveemphasizedthe
theirvaluablesuggestions.
This researchwas
supported
of women to ongoing
by NIMH GrantNo. MH43802and greatervulnerability
NIMHFellowship
No. MHO1 0.
familyrole strainsthan men. Pearlin and
25
26
JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
for self-conception.
Lieberman(1979) foundthatmaritalstrains identitiesare important
are conceptionsof oneselfin
impacton womenthanon men. Role identities
havea greater
Kessler and McLeod (1984) showed that termsof one's locationin thesocial structure
and Serpe 1982; Thoits1983, 1986).
by networkevents (Stryker
womenare moreaffected
eventsthatoccurto others). Since social roles consist of expectations
(i.e., undesirable
Like theongoingstrainsassociatedwiththeir attachedto social structural
positions,role
provideindividualswithbehavioral
family roles, these events are linked to identities
women'scaregiverrole. Althoughsomehave guidelines.Thoits(1991) recently
arguedthat
stemsfrom because role expectationsare normative
arguedthatwomen'svulnerability
resources expectations,
experiencesin identity
their inadequate stress-buffering
domains
and shouldbe
(Belle 1982; Pearlin and Schooler 1978), are a basis forself-evaluation
forpsychologicalwell-being.Acothershave documentedthe fact that sex important
in distressare notexplainedfully cordingto Thoits,problemsexperiencedin a
differences
by social support and coping resources role domain could underminethe identity
relatedto thatroledomainand consequently,
(Kesslerand Essex 1982; Thoits1984).
theindividual'swell-being.
The inabilityto accountsuccessfullyfor threaten
in distresshas led some
Identitytheoryalso posits thatthe many
genderdifferences
heldbypeoplearenotequally
authorsto acknowledgepotentialdifferences socialidentities
to self-conception.
in thesalienceof role domainsto males and important
Role identities
females(AneshenselandPearlin1987; Bielby varyin theirpsychologicalsalience(McCall
and Bielby1989; Thoits1991). To theextent and Simmons1966; Rosenberg1979; Stryker
thatstrainsin salientrole domainsare more and Serpe 1982). Social identitiesare orgato well-being,women's greater nized hierarchicallysuch that emotional
threatening
in and commitments
the investments
to some
responseto familyrolestrainsmayreflect
are greater
thanothers.Socioculturimportance
theyattachto theserolesrelative identities
ally appropriateroles also may be more
to men.
That the parentalrole is more salientto salientin a person'sidentityhierarchy
than
roles(Thoits1991).
women than to men can be gleaned from less normative
It follows,then,thatproblemsin a role
qualitativework on parenthood.Women
in theparentalrole domainshouldbe moredistressing
to individinvestmoreemotionally
and theirsenseof selfis tiedmorecloselyto uals who are highlycommittedto the role
thanto thosewho are less investedin
parenthoodthan is men's (Daniels and identity
sinceongoingproblemsthreaten
Weingarten1983; LaRossa and LaRossa theidentity,
1981). Parenthoodis perceivedas a central a valued aspectof self. In otherwords,the
role by mothers,regardlessof employment impactof parentalrole strainsshould vary
and maritalstatus (Wallersteinand Kelly dependingon the salience of the parental
is not identityin the individual'sself-conception.
1980; Weiss 1979). Whileparenthood
to males, these studiessuggest To theextentthattheparentalidentity
is more
unimportant
than in
thattherelativesalienceoftheparentalrolein salientin women's self-conception
is impli- men's,theyshouldnotonlybe moreexposed
men'sandwomen'sself-conceptions
in vulnerability
to to parental role strains, but also more
cated in sex differences
ongoingparentalrole strains.However, to vulnerableto theireffects.
have been madeto establish Researchon male and femaleroles prodateno attempts
videsinsightintothesalienceof theparental
thisconnection
systematically.
If sex differencesin vulnerabilityto identityin women's self-conception.
Socioparentalrole strainsare a functionof the culturalconceptionsof adulthoodemphasize
differential
salienceof theroleto womenand the primacyof motherhoodfor women's
men, researchshould assess whetherthe social self. Fromchildhoodon, femalesare
salience of family roles exacerbates the socialized to view the parental role as
while males are socializedto view
impactof ongoingrole strainson women primary,
theoryprovidesa the occupationalrole as primary.Structural
comparedto men. Identity
forexaminingthe social psycho- factorscontribute
to women'scommitment
framework
to
logical processes throughwhich chronic the parentalidentity.By holding women
strainsin roledomainsaffectthepsychologi- responsibleforchildren,the organization
of
cal statesof persons.
familylife reinforcesearlier socialization.
have notedthatrole Mothers'experiencesoutsidethefamilyalso
Social psychologists
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS
27
encouragetheiridentification
withtheparen- namesof 800 couples,or 1,600 individuals,
tal role. Less rewarding"female" occupa- who obtaineda divorcein 1986 or 1987. A
tionsmay lead womento seek theirprimary current
Indianapolisaddresswas availablefor
sourceof self-definition
in parenthood.
Wom- 311 of thesepersons,resulting
in a location
en's emotionalinvolvement
in the parental rateof 37 percent.
role, and theirpsychologicalinvestment
in
The response rates for the RDD and
the parental identity,may lead them to courthousesampleswere 63 percentand 75
experienceparental role strains as more percent,respectively;the overall studyreIn lightoftheculturalassumption sponseratewas 66 percent.The low response
distressing.
that motherhoodpromoteswomen's well- ratemaybe due to respondents'
opportunity
being, it may seem ironicthatthe parental to refuseparticipation
since theywere conrole contributes
to women's distress.How- tactedaboutthestudyin advance.2Whilethe
ever, the thesis of this paper is that it is responseratelimitsthegeneralizability
of the
preciselybecause femalesare morecommit- findings,
the sampleis usefulforexamining
ted to theparentalidentity
thatstrainsin the theoretical
anddrawingtentative
relationships
rolehave a greaterimpacton womenthanon substantive
conclusions.A comparison
of the
men.
characteristics
of the study sample to the
Two hypothesesare evaluated in this RDD probability
sampleof eligiblemarried
paper.First,parentalidentity
is moresalient and divorcedIndianapolisresidentsindicates
in women's self-conceptions
thanin men's, thattherewas no responsebias withrespectto
regardlessof marital status. Second, the age, numberof children,and income.Howsalienceof the parentalidentity
in women's ever,thesampledoes includea disproportionself-conceptions
contributes
to femalevulner- ate numberof employedwomen.
abilityto parentalrole strains.Demonstrating This analysisis based on a subsetof 448
the occurrenceof the second hypothesis men and womenwho had at least one child
addressestheprocessesthrough
whichstrains under18. This restriction
is madein orderto
associatedwitha major social role become holdconstantlife-cyclevariationin exposure
troublesome
forwomen.An identity
approach to parentalrolestrainsand thesalienceof the
also providesopportunities
to account for parentalidentity.
Also, the"active" phaseof
within-group
in distressful
variation
outcomes parenting
typicallyoccurswhenchildrenare
of ongoingstrains,not only in the parental dependent. Respondent characteristicsby
role domain but across a varietyof role maritalstatusand genderare shownin Table
domainsamongwomenand men.
1. Marriedand divorcedrespondents
differ
in
a numberof ways. The marriedare more
likelyto be White,college graduates,and
DATA AND MEASURES
have higherhouseholdincomes.Withineach
maritalstatus,malesandfemalesdo notdiffer
Sample
appreciably.Marriedmen and womendiffer
mostin employment:
fewerwives are in the
The data for this paper come fromthe laborforcethanhusbands.Divorcedmenand
first-wave
of a two-waveprospectivepanel womendiffermostin householdincomeand
studyofthestressexperiences
of Indianapolis the presenceof childrenin the household:
adults,conductedby Thoits.Structured
inter- morewomenhave lower incomesand chilviews were conducted in 1988 with a dren in the household.The two divorced
stratified
randomsampleof 354 marriedand samplesare highlysimilarwithtwo excep346 divorcedmenand women.Personswere tions (data not shown): courthouserespondrawnusing two samplingprocedures.All dentshave a largernumberof childrenunder
marriedrespondents
and 48 percentof the 18 thanRDD divorcedrespondents
and have
divorcedrespondents
were obtainedthrough beendivorcedfora shorter
periodof time.
randomdigitdialing(RDD). Eligibilitywas
determined
a telephonesurvey.From
through
themarried
couplehouseholds,husbandsand Measures
wives were selected alternately.
A supplementalsampleofdivorcedpersonswas drawn
PsychologicalDistress. Distress,the outfromIndianapoliscourthouserecords.Sys- come variable,was measuredby 28 items
tematicrandomsamplingwas used to select fromthe depression,anxiety,somatization,
JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
28
TABLE 1. SelectedCharacteristicsof the AnalysisPopulationby Marital Status and Gender
Married
Characteristics
Age, Mean Years
Race
White
Black
Other
Education
Less thanhighschool
Highschoolgraduate
Some college
Collegegraduate
Graduatedegree
Householdincome
Under$4,000
$ 4,000- 7,999
$ 8,000-11,999
$12,000-19,999
$20,000-39,999
$40,000-59,999
$60,000 or more
Childrenunder18,
Mean Number
Childrenunder18
residingin thehousehold
Employment
Employed
Employed35+/hrswk
Divorced
Total
(N = 254)
Male
(N= 111)
Female
(N = 143)
Total
(N = 194)
Male
(N = 78)
Female
(N = 116)
36.2
37.3
35.5
36.6
38.0
35.9
90.6%
7.1%
2.4%
91.0%
7.2%
1.8%
90.2%
7.0%
2.8%
83.5%
16.5%
0 %
80.8%
19.2%
0 %
85.3%
14.7%
0 %
5.9%
31.5%
34.3%
18.5%
9.8%
5.4%
30.6%
31.5%
20.7%
11.7%
6.3%
32.2%
36.4%
16.8%
8.4%
6.2%
26.3%
49.0%
11.9%
6.7%
6.4%
29.5%
43.6%
15.4%
5.1%
6.0%
24.1%
52.6%
9.5%
7.8%
.4%
1.6%
1.6%
4.5%
40.5%
32.8%
18.6%
0 %
.9%
.9%
6.5%
42.6%
30.6%
18.5%
.7%
2.2%
2.2%
2.9%
38.8%
34.5%
18.7%
3.6%
3.1%
9.8%
29.0%
44.0%
8.3%
2.1%
1.3%
1.3%
6.5%
15.6%
57.1%
14.3%
3.9%
5.2%
4.3%
12.1%
37.9%
35.3%
4.3%
.9%
2.1
2.1
2.0
1.7
1.7
1.7
96.5%
96.4%
96.5%
68.6%
32.1%
93.1%
84.3%
71.5%
95.5%
94.6%
75.5%
53.5%
87.6%
84.5%
89.7%
88.5%
86.2%
81.7%
and hostility
subscalesof theBriefSymptom Strainfromcombiningparenthood
withemis theweightedsumof responsesto
Inventory(BSI), which is the abridged ployment
SCL-90 (Derogatisand Spencer 1982). Re- fourquestionswhichaskedemployedparents
theywere if theyfeel (1) a conflictbetweentheirwork
spondentsreportedhow distressed
(2) that they
byeach itemduringthepastmonth(O= notat and parentalresponsibilities;
distressing).
Responses missout on some of thepleasuresof beinga
all, to 4 = extremely
in a rangefrom0 (no parent;(3) thattheirchildrendo not get the
weresummed,resulting
fromthemthattheyneed(1 = never;
highdistress).This attention
distress)to 84 (extremely
measurehas highconstruct
validity(Deroga- 2 = once in a while;3 = fairlyoften;4 = very
tis and Cleary 1977) and high internal often);and (4) worriedabout the effectsof
consistency(alpha= .93). Although these theirjob on theirroleas parent(1 = yes). This
disor- measurehas an internalconsistencyof .77,
scoresare notmeasuresof psychiatric
as withscoresrangingfrom3 to 13.
der per se, they can be interpreted
ParentalIdentity
indicatorsof distress. Persons with high
Salience. Salienceof the
scoresarelikelytobe thosewhosepsycholog- parentalidentitywas assessed by asking
ical stateimpairstheirfunctioning
somewhat. parentsto rate how committed
theyare to
While resultsforthe summarymeasureare being a parent(on a scale rangingfrom
presented,subscaleanalysesyieldconsistent 1 = notat all committed,
to 7 = verycommitresults.
ted). This measureis highlycorrelatedwith
ParentalRole Strains.Two measuresof otherindicatorsof identity
salience (e.g., a
strainaretheindependent
variables,(1) strain seven-point
scale indicating
theimportance
of
in the parentalrole domain,and (2) strain beinga parent).Analysesusingthesealternafrom combiningthe roles of parent and tive measuresof parentalidentitysalience
worker.Parentalstrainis the sum of re- yieldcomparableresults.
sponsesto twoquestionswhichaskedparents Sociodemographic Characteristics. To
whethertheirchildrenhave chronichealth controlforvariation
specificto parentalstatus
problemsand behaviorproblems(1= yes). and to hold other factorsconstant,seven
29
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS
demographiccharacteristics
are includedin differences
holdformarried
anddivorcedpareach regression
analysis:respondents'
age (in ents.Second,menand womendiffer
in their
years), race (1 =non-White), education(8 commitment
to the parentalidentity.
As excategories),householdincome(21 categories pected,commitment
is significantly
higherfor
rangingfromno incometo over $76,000), femalesinthetotalsampleandineach marital
numberof childrenunder 18, employment statussample(althoughonlyat the .10 level
status(1= employed),and whetherat least forthemarried).Theseresultssupport
thefirst
one oftherespondent's
minorchildren
resides hypothesis.
Irrespective
of maritalstatus,the
in the household(1 = yes). Finally,gender parentalidentity
is moresalientin women's
and maritalstatusare coded as dichotomous self-conceptions
thanin men's.
variables(1 = female;1= divorced).
Exposureto ParentalRole Strains
RESULTS
Does greater
exposuretoparental
rolestrains
Table 2 presentsmean levels of distress accountforwomen'shigherlevelsofdistress?
experienced
by menand womenforthetotal This questionwas examinedwitha seriesof
sample and separatelyfor the marriedand regression
analysesforthetotalparentsample
divorced.These data replicatefindingsof and separately
formarriedand divorcedparpreviousresearchthatmothers
exhibitsignif- ents. Distresswas regressedon gender,emicantlyhigherlevels of distressthanfathers ployment,
andparentalstrains,
controlling
for
overall,as well as withineach maritalstatus. maritalstatus,age,race,education,household
The data also confirm
thatdivorcedmothers income.number
ofchildren
under18, andthe
and fathersare more distressedthan their presenceof childrenunder18 in the housemarried
An analysisof variance hold. In addition,distresswas regressedon
counterparts.
(not reportedhere) indicatesno significant work-parent
strainsforthetotalsampleofeminteraction
betweengenderand maritalstatus ployedparents,and separatelyforemployed
on distress.In contrast
to somestudies,these married
anddivorcedparents.Severalpatterns
data indicatethatsex differences
in mental can be viewedin Table 4.
healthare less pronouncedamongthe marFirst, as expected, strains experienced
ried.This discrepancy
maybe due to sample withinthe parentalrole increase distress.
differences.While other studies relied on Parentalstraincoefficients
are positiveand
comparisonsof marriedand unmarried
per- significant
forthe totalsampleand foreach
sons (includingnever married,widowed, maritalstatussample. Second, strainfrom
separatedand divorced parentsand non- combiningparenthoodwithemployment
inparents),this studycomparesmarriedand creasesdistress.These coefficients
are posidivorcedparentsof dependent
children.
tive and significant
for the total employed
Table 3 presentsmean levels of parental sample and for the employedmarriedand
strain,work-parent
strain,and parentalcom- divorcedsamples. Note thatwhile employmitment
bygenderforthetotalsampleandfor ment reduces the distressof marriedand
each maritalstatus.Two patterns
are evident. divorcedparents,full-timeemployment
reFirst,men and womenvaryin exposureto ducesthedistressof divorcedparents.Third,
parentalrolestrain.In general,womenreport male-femaledifferences
in distressare resignificantly
greaterstrainin theparentalrole duced substantially
whenthe level of strain
domain.Employedwomenalso reportgreater experiencedin the parentalrole is held
strainfromcombining
parentalandworkroles constant.Gender coefficientsfor distress
thanemployedmen. Withthe exceptionof become smaller and non-significant
after
strainamongthe married,these stressexposure is controlledin the total,
work-parent
TABLE 2. Mean Distressby Genderand GenderWithinMarital Status
Male
Female
Sample
Mean
SD
N
Mean
SD
N
Total
Married
Divorced
17.98
17.39
18.82
15.32
15.08
15.73
185
109
76
22.73
20.76
25.12
16.28
15.41
17.05
255
140
115
Difference
ps.001
ps.05
ps.01
JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
30
by
TABLE 3. Mean Levels of ParentalStrains,Work-ParentStrains,and ParentalCommitment
Genderand GenderWithinMarital Status
Female
Male
Mean
SD
.43
7.31
6.23
.62
2.30
1.72
N
Mean
SD
N
.73
7.78
6.54
.72
2.57
1.38
259
200
259
ps.001
ps.05
ps.01
.66
7.35
6.51
.69
2.64
1.45
143
104
143
ps .001
p=NS
.81
8.24
6.59
.75
2.44
1.28
116
96
116
Difference
Total
Parentalstrains
strains
Work-parent
Parentalcommitment
187
167
189
Married
Parentalstrains
strains
Work-parent
Parentalcommitments
.39
7.25
6.23
.61
2.16
1.72
Parentalstrains
strains
Work-parent
Parentalcommitment
.49
7.39
6.22
.64
2.51
1.73
111
101
111
p.l10
Divorced
76
66
78
ps.00I
pS.Ol
ps.05
married,and divorcedsamples. A similar the impactof parentalrole strainsis greater
patternemergesamong employedparents. on personswho are highlyinvestedin the
thanon thoseless investedin
Once bothstrainvariablesare held constant, parentalidentity
in distressamongemployed theidentity,
sex differences
sincechronicstrainsin a salient
parentsare reducedto insignificance.
roledomainthreaten
a highlyvaluedaspectof
in self. Even though gender differencesin
It thusappearsthatgenderdifferences
in men's distress are explained by differencesin
distressareexplainedby differences
and women's exposure to parental role exposure to parentalrole strains,further
strains.Women's higherlevel of distressis analysesare needed.Next,it is necessaryto
accountedforby the strainstheyexperience determinewhetherparentswho are highly
fromparenting.Employedwomen's higher committed
to the parentalidentityare more
of strainsin the vulnerableto parentalrole strainsthanless
levelof distressis a function
therolesof committed
parentalroleand fromcombining
individuals.
parentand worker.
The following
analysesexaminetheimpact
thisand subse- ofparentalrolestrainson men'sandwomen's
underlying
An assumption
quent analysesis thatongoingrole strains distressundertheconditionof low and high
predictdistress.However,it is plausiblethat parentalcommitment.
The total sample, as
personsreportgreaterexpo- well as male and femalesubsamples,were
highlydistressed
strains.Becausethesedata subdividedinto low and high identitysubsureto role-related
it is not possibleto rule groups.Individualswere placed in the low
are cross-sectional,
thatpre-existing identitysubgroupif theirscore on parental
hypothesis
outthealternative
distressresultsin higherlevels of strains.In commitmentwas below or at the mean
analyses (not reportedhere), the strain (X =6) and in the highidentity
subgroupif
variableswere regressedon a dichotomous theirscorewas abovethemean(a scoreof7).
treatment,At each level of commitment,
variableforpreviouspsychological
distresswas
a proxy for prior emotionalfunctioning.3regressedon gender,maritalstatus,other
distressdoes background
Resultssuggestthatpre-existing
variables,andparentalstrains.In
higherlevelsof role addition,distresswas regressedon worknotresultin significantly
strains. A direct test of the alternative parentstrainsamong employedparents.In
can be madeonlywhenthesecond essence, theseanalysesrepeatthe equations
hypothesis
wave of data is available.
in Table 4. However,by subdividpresented
ingthesampleintolow andhighcommitment
in the
subgroups,and examiningdifferences
ParentalIdentity
Salienceand Vulnerability impact-of strainson distressacross these
to ParentalRole Strains
subgroups(in the totalsampleand foreach
whether
gender),it is possibleto determine
The centralhypothesis
of thispaperis that individualswho highlyvalue the parental
TABLE
4. The Effects of Exposure to Parental Role Strains on Distress
Distress
Total
( 1)
Female
(1.56)
Employed
Parentalstrains
R2 (adjusted)
N
(3)
( 1)
(2)
1.88
2.95
2.41
1.00
(1.69)
-4.39*
(2.24)
(1.67)
-3.76
(2.17)
(1.98)
(2.10)
-2.73
(2.86)
(2.10)
-2.22
(2.81)
.07
(I.1I1)
.13
.02
(1.53)
.06
(2)
4.47**
.02
Married
3.89*
5.99***
430
.01
(1)
(2)a
4.87**
(1.64)
5.57**
(1.86)
2.09
(2.83)
Employed full-time
Parental strains
N
pS
p
O; * pS.O5;
EmployedMarried
(3)a
2.46
(1.77)
-.62
(2.64)
5. 16***
(1)
(2)b
4.45*
5.58*
(2.13)
(2.33)
4.77
(3.18)
(1.15)
1.91***
Work-parent
strains
R2 (adjusted)
.02
.06
355
** ps.O1;
4.97**
242
Employed
Female
(3)
*
ps.001.
(.32)
.20
(3)b
3.07
(2.29)
2.68
(3.07)
5.54***
(1.57)
1.33**
.02
197
.05
(.43)
.14
Note:Unstandardized
coefficients
errorsin parentheses)
are reported.
(standard
a
formaritalstatus,age, race,education,householdincome,numberof childrenunder18, and thepresenceof chi
Controlling
b
forage, race,education,householdincome,numberof childrenunder18, and thepresenceof childrenunder18
Controlling
c Controlling
forage, race,education,householdincome,numberof childrenunder18, thepresenceof childrenunder18 in t
RDD or courthouse
records.
through
JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
32
byparentalstrainsthanless
identityare more affectedby parentalrole aremoreaffected
parents.Upon examiningcoeffistrains.Moreover,by comparingthe impact committed
of strainson men's and women's distress cientsforparentalstrainsundertheconditions
(columns1 and
underthe same conditionsof parentalcom- of low and highcommitment
mitment,sex differencesin response to 2 forthetotalsample),it is clearthatstrains
effect
parentalrole strainsat each level of commit- in the parentalrole have a significant
parents.
onlythe on distressonlyforhighcommitment
mentcan be assessed.For simplicity,
applies
vulnerability
forparentalstrainsand thestrain This patternof identity
coefficients
of combiningparenthoodwith employment to bothfathersand mothers(see columns1
and 2 formales and females).Supplemental
are shownin Table 5.
effects(not reported
For these analyses, the marital status analysesof interaction
betweencoeffisamples were pooled in order to retaina here)indicatethatdifferences
parentsare
sufficientnumberof cases. (Analyses of cientsforlow and highidentity
at the.05 levelforthetotalsample
effects,not shownhere,indicate significant
interaction
thestrain
Interestingly,
in and male subsample.4
maritalstatusdifferences
no significant
responseto parentalrole strains.)The analy- of combiningtherolesof parentand worker
ses in Table 5 are equivalentto adding has a largerimpacton employedparents'
termsto the Table 4 equations, distressundertheconditionsof low parental
interaction
thatthe workidensuggesting
termsfor parentalstrainsand work-parentcommitment,
in low commitment
parents'
strainsmultipliedby parentalcommitment.tityis implicated
Each coefficientrepresentsthe differentialgreaterresponse to this source of stress.
that
analysesconfirm
impact of parental role strains on the Additionalinteractional
for low
betweencoefficients
well-beingof low comparedto highcommit- the difference
parentsis significant
mentwomen and men. Three observations and high commitment
forthetotalsampleat the .10 level. Overall,
can be made.
First,mostwomen(84%) and men(73%) theseresultssupportthe second hypothesis.
to theparentalidentity. Parentswhoinvesta greatdeal in theparental
are highlycommitted
are morevulnerable
males.and role forself-conception
forlow commitment
Coefficients
cautiouslydue to strainsin thisrole domain,whileparents
femalesshouldbe interpreted
bythestrain
to the small number of cases in these whoinvestless aremoreaffected
theroleof parentand worker.
parents of combining
equations.Second,highlycommitted
TABLE 5. The EffectsofParentalRole Strainson DistressUndertheConditionsofLow and High
Total, Female, and Male Samplea
ParentalCommitment,
Distress
Males
Females
Total
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
CommitmentCommitmentCommitmentCommitmentCommitmentCommitment
Totalb
Parentalstrains
R2
N
Employedc
Parentalstrains
3.28
(3.04)
.10
87
6.73***
(1.18)
.20
343
.70
(5.04)
.21
39
5.89***
(1.51)
.16
212
4.89
(3.51)
.37
48
8.74***
(1.96)
.27
131
7.43***
4.60
4.95**
3.16
5.68***
4.26
(2.16)
(3.59)
(1.58)
(5.76)
(1.24)
(3.09)
2.27*
99t
2.14
1.92***
1.56***
2.42**
strains
Work-parent
(.57)
(1.06)
(.47)
(1.37)
(.35)
(.81)
.26
.41
.23
.40
.25
.26
R2
117
44
162
32
76
279
N
t p. 10; * p?.O5; ** p<.O1; *** p?.001.
are presented.
coefficients
(standarderrorsin parentheses)
Note: Unstandardized
a Each equationcontrols
formaritalstatus,age, race,education,householdincome,numberof childrenunder18
years,and thepresenceof childrenunder18 in thehousehold,and, forthetotalsample,gender.
b
Equationsforthetotal,female,and male sampleseach controlforemployment.
employment.
c Equationsfortheemployedsampleseach controlforfull-time
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS
33
to ongoingparentalrole
Third, the most unexpectedfindingin theirvulnerability
Table 5 is that at both levels of parental strains.
womenare not more affected This researchdocumentedgenderdiffercommitment,
than men by parentalstrains.In fact, the ences in distress,exposureto parentalrole
males and strains,and the salience of the parental
forlow commitment
coefficients
that
Regressionanalysesconfirmed
females(columns 1) and high commitmentidentity.
strains,
to
ongoing
exposure
greater
women's
that
2)
suggest
(columns
females
and
males
the impactof parentalstrainson distressis both in the parentalrole domainand from
therolesofparentandworker,is a
actuallylarger for men than for women. combining
of
of differ- majorsourceof mentalhealthdisadvantage
However,testsforthesignificance
ences betweenmen's and women'sresponse mothers.Having foundthat genderdifferto parentalstrains(at each level of parental ences in distressare explainedby differences
and in general)revealno signif- in exposureto parentalrole strains,I next
commitment
to examinedwhetherparentswho highlyvalue
in vulnerability
icant genderdifferences
are
strainsin theparentalrole.5Withrespectto the parentalidentityfor self-conception
in responseto thestrainof morevulnerableto parentalrole strainsthan
genderdifferences
is
combiningthe roles of parentand worker individualsforwhomtheparentalidentity
salient.
less
appear
women
parents,
employed
among
thatparents
Subsequentanalysesconfirmed
moreresponsivethanmen to this sourceof
to the parental
strainunderthe conditionsof highparental who are highlycommitted;
are morevulnerableto strainsin the
interac- identity
However,supplemental
commitment.
tional analyses indicate that this gender parental role, providingsupport for the
of thispaper.In contrast,
guidinghypothesis
is notsignificant.
difference
therolesofparentand
Thus, contraryto researchwhich shows thestrainofcombining
was foundto havea greaterimpacton
thatfemalesare more vulnerableto family worker
role strains,these findingsindicatethatin employedparents'distressunderconditions
that
suggesting
more of low parentalcommitment,
general,mothersare not significantly
by eitherparentalstrains the work identitymay be involvedin low
thanfathers
affected
to
parents'greatervulnerability
or the strainof combiningparenthoodwith commitment
employment.Nor are women significantlythissourceof stress.AlthoughI began with
by eithersourceof strainunder the expectationthat the salience of the
moreaffected
in women'sself-conceptions
the conditionsof low of' high parental parentalidentity
to
theresultsof these would contributeto their vulnerability
If anything,
commitment.
analysesrevealed
analysesindicatethatongoingstrainsin the parentalrolestrains,further
parentalrole tendto have a somewhatmore thatthe impactof parentalrole strainson
effecton thementalhealthof men men's and women's distressdoes not differ
deleterious
In fact, the most unforeseen
thanon the mentalhealthof women,even significantly.
is less salientto findingis thatongoingstrainsin theparental
thoughtheparentalidentity
roledomainactuallyhavea somewhatgreater
menthanto women.
greater)impacton
(althoughnotsignificantly
of menthanon
functioning
thepsychological
of women.
functioning
thepsychological
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
thatsalience of
This paper demonstrated
to men'sand
contributes
theparentalidentity
to parentalrolestrains.
Previous theoreticaland empiricalwork women'svulnerability
of identity
theutility
highlight
indicated that women's higher rates of Thesefindings
in
distressresultfromtheirgreaterexposureto theoryfor explaininggenderdifferences
familyrole stress. Stress researchershave distressand point to directionsfor further
the identity
emphasized that women's mental health work. To assess its generality,
needs to be extendedto
also is explainedbytheirgreater saliencehypothesis
disadvantage
stress.This paper otherrole domains such as marriageand
to role-related
vulnerability
of employment.
Also, to ruleoutthealternative
theoryto thephenomenon
appliedidentity
data are crucialfor
longitudinal
in distressamongparents. hypothesis,
genderdifferences
scope of this
I proposedthat futureresearch.The restricted
perspective,
Froman identity
precluderesolution
the salience of the parental identityin paperand datalimitations
to of theseconcerns.
mightcontribute
women'sself-conceptions
34
JOURNALOF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
theTable 5 equationsforthetotalsampleand
The tendencyfor fathers to have a
forthelow and highidentity
subgroups.
marginally
greaterresponseto strainsin the
parentalrole domainthan mothers,despite
the lesser salienceof thisidentityin men's
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