IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
CURRENT DIRECTIONS
The
and
Denise
Park
Harvard
over
into
the
the
studies
However,
about
nition. Behavioral
distinct
Cross-cultural
suggest that different cultures
findings
aspects of information and employ diverse
information-processing
us
to
driven
by
The
strategies.
those
identify
across
persist
as
well
culture-specific
the
changes
experiences.
life
culture;
aging;
of neural
can
be
limit
norms
of cultural
because
that,
that
on
focus
relationships and group function, East Asians develop a bias to
their
more
to context
attention
greater
holistic
encoding
individualistic
society
more
to focal
objects
In the present
learned
from
a
show
how
than Westerners
(such
as a
picture's
of Westerners
to East
a bias
produces
in more
to engage
and
to attend
information
analytic
paper,
about
joint
we
cognitive
examine
neuroscience
and
processes
of culture
exploration
approaches
is known
what
and
human
to this
issue
lifespan
sample
of
adults
permits
an
Reckman
Urbana,
to Denise
Park,
correspondence
The University
of Illinois
Institute,
IL 61801;
e-mail: denisep@uiuc.edu.
405
and what
can
development
can
and we
be
assessment
N.
these
Western
and
structural
integrity,
to young
relative
changes,
If older adults, however,
aging.
as a func
activation
and
circuitry
and East
to these
discussion
one
examines
is one
picture
esses
as
such
Asian
thus we
and
cultures,
cultures.
although
data
behavioral
of decreased
speed,
remains
and
aging
on
and
preserved
cognition
was
cognitive
in basic
memory,
working
knowledge
on
efficiency
Fig. 1). A framework for understanding
proposed
or
the
aging,
proc
cognitive
memory,
long-term
even
grows
(see
the joint impact of cul
and
Nisbett,
by Park,
(1999), taking into account these different cognitive
domains. Park et al. (1999) propose that it is important to con
sider the distinction (discussed by Baltes, 1987) between basic
of
the
Mathews,
at Urbana-Champaign,
Volume 15?Number 3 Copyright ?
The
or mechanics?such
hardware
cognitive
partic
memory, and inhibition?and
or
software
cognitive
as
speed,
pragmatics)
working
(described as
acquired knowledge
in understanding
the
of
impact
culture on cognitive aging. Park et al. (1999) suggest that when
young
Address
patterns
that
in neural
between
our
When
ture
ularly informative. The joint examination of cultural differences
in a
and
changing
Hedden
variables,
aging
continuously
recruitment
represent biological
the
Asians,
former
certain
differences
in
resulting
background)
In contrast
of stimuli.
and
do,
(reviewed by Nisbett & Masuda, 2003).
processing
be
more
environment
the
BEHAVIORALEVIDENCEFOR DIFFERENCES
INCOGNITIVEPROCESSESAS A FUNCTION
OF AGEAND CULTURE
There is compelling evidence for differences in cognitive function
as a result of culture (Nisbett & Masuda, 2003). Behavioral
suggests
almost
contrasts
neuro
cognitive
with
brain,
tion of culture, this is likely because of experience and gives us a
window into the plasticity of the aging neurocognitive system.
or neurally, about
little is known, behaviorally
Relatively
extant
cultural differences in cognitive aging. The
data involves
are
that
in terms
we
science
monitor
Center for
adapting to its diminished efficiency (Reuter-Lorenz & Lustig,
2005). When aged brains show broad similarities across cultures
exhibit
that
changes
adult
brains,
al
of aging
study
neural
age-related
as
cultures
KEYWORDS?cognition;
evidence
A. Martinos
interplay of experience
(through culture) with neurobiology
in
(through aging)
sculpting the neurocognitive system. Neuro
young
into the stability
investigation
of aging provides a window
as
to
well as into the
with
due
age
of changes
neurobiology,
to
that
due
life experiences
impact cog
flexibility
of aging
lows
The Athinoula
imaging data indicate that the aging brain is different from the
been
mostly
doubts
changes.
age-related
of
to the
changes
have
raising
populations,
of
universality
neuroscience
cognitive
and unexpected
exciting
lifespan.
on Western
conducted
process
and
University,
Imaging
aging has revealed
the
Gutchess
at Urbana-Champaign,
ABSTRACT?Research
brain
Culture
and Angela
of Illinois
University
Biom?dical
of
Neuroscience
Cognitive
Aging
SCIENCE
matics,
based
perience
adults
evidence
cultural
in cognitive
differences
the differences will magnify with age, because
on
acquired
with
the
2006 Association for Psychological Science
and
knowledge
culture
than
older
younger
105
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
adults
adults
have
do.
prag
they are
more
Conversely,
ex
Neuroscience
The Cognitive
in basic processes (mechanics) that occur in young
will
be
minimized with age, as age-related decreases in
people
will
operate to limit flexibility in mental operations,
capacity
of Aging
and Culture
differences
American
resulting
tering strategy (Gutchess, Yoon et al., in press).
The relatively modest impact of culture and the strong effects of
age on cognitive mechanics suggest that biological aging prima
in more
across
similarity
with
cultures
on
age. Research
old and young Chinese and Americans have provided some sup
port for this model. For example, Hedden et al. (2002) studied
backward digit span, which assesses participants' ability to
a series
manipulate
the numbers
nally
back
For
presented.
in working
of numbers
reverse
in the
this
people.
the use
In contrast,
of strategies
et al.
Yoon,
Gutchess,
the
for categorical
origi
researchers
than in old
in young people
found larger culture differences
to repeat
were
they
mechanic,
cognitive
and
memory
in which
order
(in press)
examined
in a memory
clustering
cognitive
is much
greater
task
and
and
Americans,
the
impact
of culture.
a large study of young and old
Park et al. (1999) conducted
Chinese
than
collected
measures
multiple
of
speed and working memory. They developed separate structural
models for each of the four groups and found larger differences in
the structural models due to age than due to culture. Similarly, in
a study of source memory, inwhich subjects recalled the identity
of speakers
memory
presenting
were
observed
in a video,
facts
as
a function
functions.
on
to age,
relative
culture
clus
stra
in resource-demanding,
to these
the impact
findings,
structures
knowledge-based
with
reversal,
complete
of a categorical
shows
a much
assuming
of culture,
a
almost
role
larger
than
age. In a recent study, Yoon et al. (2004) provided young and old
Chinese and young and old Americans with the names of 105
categories. Subjects provided five exemplars for each category,
a careful
structure
of category
mapping
as a function
of
age and culture. The results indicated that there were only 13
that were
categories
Category
culturally
were
exemplars
across
equivalent
far more
similar
within a culture. Thus, in the development
tures,
is much
culture
more
than
important
both
across
age
groups.
age
groups
of knowledge
age,
suggesting
struc
that
discriminating between types of cognitive processes is critical to
understanding the impact of culture on cognitive aging. (Complete
norms
been
as well
for categories,
in
used
other
as for
picture
are
studies,
available
naming,
online
which
have
at
http://
agingmind.cns.uiuc.edu/ourresearch_cfdb.html.)
PATTERNSOF NEUROCOGNITIVEAGING
in source
no differences
of culture,
tegic
In contrast
use
greater
differences
age-related
providing
(a strategy largely based on world knowledge) and found larger
culture differences in old people than in young people.
Although cultural differences in cognition do exist, the be
havioral evidence to date suggests that the impact of aging on
mechanics
drives
rily
evidenced
elderly
but
large
age
were
differences
reported (Chua, Chen, & Park, in press).
Likewise, elderly adults of both cultures recalled similar num
bers of words in a free-recall task and recalled significantly
fewer words than young people of both cultures did, even though
Neuroimaging techniques have added to our understanding of
the aging mind. Consistent with behavioral data showing de
creases in cognitive function (see Fig. 1), structural brain im
aging
medial
that
reveals
the
frontal
cortex
and,
temporal cortex exhibit significant
to a lesser
extent,
the
loss of volume with
-Dig? Symbol
*
Latter Comparison
'
'
Pattern Comparison
Letter Rotation
Une Span
"
Computation Span
"
Reading Span
'Benton
*
Rey
-Cued Recall
- Free Recall
Shipley Vocabulary
20's
30'8
40s
50's
Age Groups
60's
70's
80's
n = 350
Antonym Vocabulary
Synonym Vocabulary
in various measures
of processing
1. The aging mind,
capacity
showing regular decreases
but mainte
and long-term memory measures)
working memory,
(including
speed of processing,
of the world (as measured
of knowledge
nance, or perhaps even augmentation,
tests)
by vocabulary
across the adult life
over the lifespan. Adapted
from "Models of visuospatial
and verbal memory
A. Smith, and P.K. Smith,
N.S. Davidson,
T. Hedden,
span," by D.C. Park, G. Lautenschlager,
2002 by the American
Association.
& Aging, 17, p. 305. Copyright
2002, Psychology
Psychological
Fig.
Adapted
with
permission.
106
Volume 15?Number
This content downloaded from 129.64.63.83 on Fri, 13 Dec 2013 14:44:32 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
3
Park
Denise
In the face
age.
that
expect
activation
neural
the behavioral
paralleling
has
however,
in many
of declines
systematically
the aging
might
neuroimaging,
is a dynamic
brain
system
and that when young and old adults perform the same task, (a)
neural
across
is distributed
activation
more
sites
brain
and
structures
in old adults compared to young adults, (b) older
adults frequently engage the same region in two hemispheres for
in which
tasks
younger
(c) sometimes
adults
older
activate
adults
show
one
only
and
hemisphere,
activation
greater
than
Gutchess
young
cognitive
be
to
utilized
neural
reorganize
circuitry to respond to the challenge of neurobiologie al aging.
Coincident with evidence that the brain responds to the
challenge of neurobiological aging by reorganizing are neuro
that neural structures may develop
imaging findings suggesting
or
events.
petitive
(Draganski
3 months
3 months
of nonjug
that were
2004)?increases
re
of juggling
to the brains
relative
grey matter,
et al.,
or
to stimuli
exposure
For example, merely
increased
training
glers
to sustained
in response
change
behavioral
data
DEVELOPINGA COGNITIVENEUROSCIENCEOF
CULTUREAND AGING
the neural
processing
affects
neural
functions
note
should
as well
as
create
in
differences
and
size
the
more
show
eye
fixa
at scenes
for looking
circuitry
may
that cross-cultural
research
neuroimaging
has
many unique challenges. We are sensitive to the possibility that
we could find cultural differences in neural activation due to
data collection
one
and
ducted
exhaustive
magnets
To
this
address
same
the
we
concern,
con
have
in signals between
studies of differences
scanning
by
(one in the United States
from different magnets
in Singapore).
on
individuals
same
the
in
task
both Singapore and the United States, and we have found com
pelling preliminary evidence for replicability across magnets.
a number
of
individual
in neural
the difference
dimensions,
important
structures
evidence
of
various
we
that
may
This finding
attribute
appropriately
to actual differences
in subjects tested rather
to hardware.
than
neural structures
the same magnet.
tested twice using
clear
provides
leads logically to the notion that differences in cultural values
and customs could affect development of neural activation
patterns,
Asians
in a culturally biased way.
be sculpted
signal differences
that experience
that East
revealing
signal from an individual tested on identical model magnets at
both sites is no greater than the difference in the signal from an
later without additional juggling practice.
Evidence
en
similar
relatively
tions on backgrounds than on objects (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett,
2005), suggest that after a lifetime of culturally biased infor
On
maintained
showed
did, suggesting that cultural differences in neural
response magnified over the lifespan. These data, combined with
We
can
Americans
results suggest that young
Americans
for views suggesting that the aging brain has residual plasticity,
that
and
structures
of object-processing
did. Preliminary
gagement of all of these specialized structures, but old Singa
deficit than old
poreans showed a larger object-processing
mation
reserve
activation
less
Singaporeans
adults in the identical neural regions (Reuter-Lorenz & Lustig,
2005). Advances in neuroimaging have been largely responsible
or
showed
aporeans
than old Americans
decrease,
changes. Functional
that
revealed
would
one
systems,
cognitive
and Angela
We
also
that
recognize
is more
culture
remote
from
the
indi
vidual than most other variables psychologists study. This distal
nature of culture, combined with possible genetic differences
(Park & Gutchess, 2002). In the first explo
ration of cultural differences in neural function, we hypothesized
that East Asians and Westerners would differentially engage
between
neural hardware in the ventral visual cortex that is specialized
for processing different elements of a scene. Using functional
beliefs and practices. These problems can be minimized when
cultural brain research is guided by specific behavioral hy
resonance
magnetic
more
showed
imaging (fMRI), we found that Americans
of
engagement
object-processing
ventral visual cortex than did Chinese
uroglu,
vioral
in press).
& Park,
evidence
information
This
East
is consistent
a bias
show
Asians
study,
complex
areas
cialized
young
presented
with
descent
and
scenes
pictorial
the ventral
within
tition of different elements
old
visual
with
to process
process
preferentially
ground information (Nisbett & Masuda,
we
in
(Gutchess, Welsh,
pattern
that Westerners
whereas
areas
2003).
cortex
adapted
how
(the parahippocampus)
mine
a
matching
whether,
Volume 15?Number
as our
cultural
and
theories
old Americans
would
predict,
show
activation
less
is confirmatory
research
rather
of object
than
explora
isolated
sion
of cultural
spe
then
to deter
old
the
Asians
been
to repe
(Chee et al., 2006). We
of young
areas),
East
to cultural
due
back
of the scene. We found that the old
equally
group
that
(e.g.,
so that
are
activation
and
argue that
object
Singaporean adults showed less activation than young adults did
areas (the lateral occipital complex), but
in object-processing
old and young adults engaged background processing structures
tested
potheses
diet,
to definitively
it difficult
in neural
observed
in education,
beha
of Chinese
examined
can make
other variables,
differences
as differences
tory.We have also found that working in an area of the brain (the
ventral visual cortex) in which highly specific functions have
Bod
In a later fMRI
Singaporeans
and
the
as well
samples,
Sing
in young
adults
area
interpretation
on activations
in the frontal
focused
jects
the brain,
in activation
potential
rience
and
Cross
cortex
will
as this is a highly flexible and
with
more
between
variability
sub
patterns.
these
Despite
great
of
the preci
enhanced
of findings.
prove to be more challenging,
strategic
has
and
hypotheses
research
cultural
Western
the cultural
concerns,
for
biology
separating
the
to the process
neuroscience
relative
of aging.
of aging
contributions
Cultural
has
of expe
neuroscience
work may hold the key to the "use it or lose it" hypothesis of
cognitive aging?that is, that neurocognitive health ismaintained
by sustained intellectual engagement across the lifespan. If we
can find
some
structures
that are
systematically
3 107
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
engaged
more
by
The Cognitive
Asians
will
maintain
in the
better
we
to Westerners,
compared
structures
volume
culture
uses
that
and
function
them
more.
that
expect
might
Neuroscience
across
the
Similarly,
these
the
frontal
cortex)
we
cultures,
can
be
a result
are
terns
are
to be
shown
lifespan
Aging
article.
certain
relatively
of biological
such
that
than
rather
aging
(Grant ROI AG015047)
age
recruitment
pat
P.B.
(1987).
Through both behavioral and neuroimaging cross-cultural stud
ies, we can leam much about the interplay between biology and
cognitive
Our
aging.
cognitive aging (and even about cognition
entirely
that many
suggests
cultures,
time,
to Western
limited
samples.
it appears
however,
that
processing
The
not
in old adults
of culture,
study
about
only
and
cognition,
Western
can
aging
circuitry
such
underlying
differences
the
Another
critically
hardwired
automatically
(e.g.,
engaged)
structural
or
ated with strategy differences
with
individuals
appropriate
of a cultural
emergence
logical
imperatives
instructions.
of aging
psychology
changed
by any
associated
cultural
neural
and
system,
with
Most
inform
us
(2002).
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T., Jing, Q.,
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