vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACK
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxiii
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Overview
1
1.2
Background to the Research Problem
2
1.3
Problem Formulation
3
1.4
Research Objectives
3
1.5
Scope of the Study
4
1.6
Thesis Contributions
5
1.7
Research Relevance
5
1.8
Thesis Outline
6
LITERATURE REVIEW
7
2.1
Overview
7
2.2
Organization of the Literature Review
8
viii
2.3
2.4
2.5
Road Capacity
8
2.3.1 Significance
11
2.3.2 Passenger Car Equivalence Values
14
2.3.3 HCM Level of Service
14
2.3.4 Factors Influencing Road Capacity
16
Highway Capacity Estimation Methods
17
2.4.1 Observed headways
18
2.4.2 Observed Volume
21
2.4.2.1 Observed Extreme Methods
21
2.4.2.2
Expected Extreme Value Methods
22
2.4.2.3
Asymptotic Method
23
2.4.3 Observed Volume and Speed
25
2.4.4 Observed Volumes, Speeds and Densities
30
Highway Capacity Disturbances
31
2.5.1
Generalised Highway Capacity Disturbances
32
2.5.2
Typical Highway Capacity Disturbances in Malaysia
34
2.5.3
2.6
3
Highway Capacity Loss and Trapezoidal Flow
Contraction.
34
Inclement Weather Conditions
37
2.6.1
Rainfall Intensities
37
2.6.2
Rainfall Measurements
38
2.7
Rainfall and Highway Capacity Relationships
39
2.8
Rainfall Induced Passenger Car Equivalent Values
41
2.9
Rainfall Induced Traffic Shock Waves
43
2.10
Summary
45
HIGHWAYS AND RAINFALL IN MALAYSIA
47
3.1
Overview of Road Development in Nigeria
47
3.2
Highway Design and Construction
50
3.2.1 Arterial Highway
52
3.2.2 Gravel and Earth Roads
53
3.2.3 Roadway Assumptions
54
ix
3.3
4
Highway Maintenance and Rehabilitation
55
3.3.1 Routine Maintenance
55
3.3.2 Recurrent Maintenance
55
3.3.3 Periodic Maintenance
56
3.3.4 Rehabilitation
56
3.4
Survey of Roadway Conditions in Malaysia
57
3.5
Rainfall in Malaysia
58
3.5.1 The Wind Flow
59
3.5.2 Temperature Distribution
59
3.5.3 Relative Humidity
60
3.5.4 Rainfall
61
3.6
Sources for Rainfall Data
61
3.7
Impact of Rainfall on Traffic
63
3.8
Summary
64
DATA COLLECTION
66
4.0
Overview
66
4.1
Research Methodology
67
4.2
Criteria for Selection
69
4.2.1
Rainfall Data
70
4.2.2
Highway Sections
70
4.3
4.4
Assessment of Selected Sites
71
4.3.1
Site FT001-Skudai-Pontian Highway 5 Johor State 71
4.3.2
Site FT002-Pontian-Skudai Highway 5 Johor State 74
4.3.3
Site FT003-Dungun-Terengganu 3
74
4.3.4 Site FT004-Terengganu-Dungun 3
74
Survey Methods Used in the Study
75
4.4.1
Sampling
75
4.4.2
Survey Site Coding
76
4.4.3
Survey Team and Equipment
77
4.4.3.1 Installation of the Tubes
78
4.4.3.2 Status of the Automatic Traffic Counter
80
4.4.3.3 Automatic Traffic Counter set up
80
x
4.4.3.4 Downloading Data from the Detector
81
4.4.3.5 Problems Encountered in Setup and Data
82
Collections
4.4.4 Layout of Typical Survey Site
85
4.4.5 Traffic Volume Surveys
85
4.4.6
Vehicles Speed Survey
85
4.4.7
Headway and Vehicle Gap Surveys
86
4.4.8 Rainfall Surveys
87
4.4.8.1 Rainfall Categories Used in the study
4.5
Appraisal of Sample Data and Analytical Methods
87
87
4.5.1 Appraisal of Sample Data for Pilot Test Site FT005 89
4.6
5
89
Summary
99
EMPIRICAL RESULTS
100
5.1
Overview
100
5.2
Empirical Results from Surveyed Sites
101
5.2.1 Site I: Skudai-Pontian
102
5.2.2 Site II: Pontian-Skudai
106
5.2.3 Site III: Dungun-Terengganu
110
5.2.4 Site IV: Terengganu-Dungun
113
Summary
117
5.3
6
4.5.2 Analytical Methods
HIGHWAY
CAPACITY
ANALYSIS
USING
ARAHAN
TEKNIK (77/86)
118
6.1
Overview
118
6.2
Establishing the Capacity for the Roadway Sections.
119
6.2.1 Site I: Peak Traffic
126
6.2.2 Site II: Pontian-Skudai
128
6.2.2.1 Off-peak Traffic
128
6.2.2.2 Peak Traffic
129
6.2.3 Site III: Dungun-Terengganu
6.2.3.1 Off-peak Traffic
131
131
xi
6.2.3.2 Peak Traffic
131
6.2.4 Site IV: Terengganu-Dungun
7
134
6.2.4.1 Off-peak Traffic
134
6.2.4.2 Peak Traffic
134
6.3
Model Coefficients
137
6.4
Road Capacity Loss Results
139
6.5
Summary
142
ESTIMATION OF MODIFIED PCE VALUES
144
7.1
Overview
144
7.2
Evaluation of Modified PCE Values Using Empirical Data
145
7.3
7.2.1 PCE Analysis for Dry Weather Conditions
146
7.2.2 PCE Analysis for Light Rain Condition
148
7.2.3 PCE Analysis for Moderate Rain Condition
150
7.2.4 PCE Analysis for Heavy Rain Condition
151
Comparison between the Modified PCE values, The Arahan
Teknik and the Malaysian Highway Capacity Manual PCE
7.4
8
values.
152
Summary
155
APPLICATION OF MODIFIED PCE VALUES
157
8.1
Overview
157
8.2
Highway Capacities Using Modified PCEs’
158
8.2.1 Site I: Modified PCE off-peak Traffic
159
8.2.2 Site II: Modified PCE off-peak Traffic
165
8.2.3 Site III: Modified PCE off-peak Traffic
166
8.2.4 Site IV: Modified PCE off-peak Traffic
167
8.3
Model Coefficients
168
8.4
Effect of Modified PCE on Highway Capacity
169
8.5
Implication for Traffic Shockwave Propagation
171
8.5.1 Shock wave Evaluation for Site I
173
8.5.2 Shock wave Evaluation for Site II
175
xii
9
8.5.3 Shock wave Evaluation for Site III
176
8.5.4 Shock wave Evaluation for Site IV
178
8.6
Shock Wave Implication under Rainfall
179
8.7
Summary
180
CONCLUSIONS
181
9.1
Overview
181
9.2
Summary of Findings based on Rainfall Conditions
182
9.3
Summary of Findings based on Road Capacity Loss Analy184
9.4
Synthesis of Evidences Obtained from Roadway Capacity
9.5
Loss and Rainfall Relationship
185
The Way Forward
186
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
189
A-- D
195-210
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Computed Capacity Probability using Product Limit Method
29
2.2
Rainfall Intensity Categorization
39
2.3
Standard Malaysian PCE Values in Arahan Teknik
45
3.1
Distribution of Federal Roads in Malaysia
48
3.2
Distribution of State Roads in Malaysia
49
3.3
Rain Gauge Stations under the Department of Irrigation
and Drainage
62
3.4
Weather Radar Stations in Malaysia
63
4.1
Survey Summary Sheets
71
4.2
Survey Sites Summary Sheets
72
4.3
Vehicle Logging Information
82
4.4
Pilot Test Data for Site PT005
93
4.5
Summary of Critical Densities and Capacities
98
5.1
Summary of Features for the Survey Sites
101
5.2
Site I Traffic Volume and Speed per period (Off-Peak)
104
5.3
Site I Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Off-Peak)
104
5.4
Site I Traffic Volume and Speed per Period (Peak)
105
5.5
Site I Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Peak)
105
5.6
Traffic Composition at Site I
106
5.7
Site II Traffic Volume and Speed per period (Off-Peak)
107
5.8
Site II Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Off-Peak)
108
5.9
Site II Traffic Volume and Speed per Period (Peak)
108
5.10
Site II Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Peak)
109
5.11
Traffic Composition at Site II
109
xiii
5.12
Site III Traffic Volume and Speed per period (Off-Peak)
111
5.13
Site III Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Off-Peak)
111
5.14
Site III Traffic Volume and Speed per Period (Peak)
112
5.15
Site III Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Peak)
112
5.16
Traffic Composition at Site II I
113
5.17
Site IV Traffic Volume and Speed per period (Off-Peak)
114
5.18
Site IV Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Off-Peak)
115
5.19
Site IV Traffic Volume and Speed per Period (Peak)
115
5.20
Site IV Hourly Traffic Volume and Speed (Peak)
116
5.21
Traffic Composition at Site II I
116
6.1
Computed Flows and Densities (Dry and Off-Peak) for Site I
120
6.2
Computed Flows and Densities (Light and Off-Peak) for Site I
121
6.3
Computed Flows and Densities (Mod and Off-Peak) for Site I
121
6.4
Computed Flows and Densities (Heavy and Off-Peak) for Site I
122
6.5
Site I Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Off-Peak
127
6.6
Site I Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Peak
127
6.7
Site II Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Off-Peak
129
6.8
Site II Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Peak
130
6.9
Site III Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Off-Peak
132
6.10
Site III Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Peak
133
6.11
Site IV Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Off-Peak
135
6.12
Site IV Summary of Existing and Predicted States for Peak
135
6.13
Summary of Model Coefficients for Off-Peak Traffic
136
6.14
Summary of Model Coefficients for Peak Traffic
137
6.15
Off-Peak Results Summary for all Sites
140
7.1
PCE Evaluation for Dry Weather Condition
146
7.2
PCE Evaluation for Light Rain Condition
149
7.3
PCE Evaluation for Moderate Rain Condition
150
7.4
PCE Evaluation for Heavy Rain Condition
151
7.5
PCE Values for Study, Arahan Teknik and Malaysian Highway
7.6
Capacity Manual
152
Percent Differences between Study values and Arahan Teknik
152
xiv
7.7
Percent Differences between Study values and Malaysian Highway Capacity
Manual
153
8.1
Modified Flows and Densities (Dry & Off-Peak) for Site 1
160
8.2
Modified Flows and Densities (Light Rain & Off-Peak) for Site I
161
8.3
Modified Flows and Densities (Mod. Rain & Off-Peak) for Site I
161
8.4
Modified Flows and Densities (Heavy Rain & Off-Peak) for Site I
162
8.5
Site I Highway Capacities Using Modified PCE Values for Off-Peak
165
8.6
Site II Highway Capacities Using Modified PCE Values for Off-Peak
167
8.7
Site III Highway Capacities Using Modified PCE Values for Off-Peak
168
8.8
Site IV Highway Capacities Using Modified PCE Values for Off-Peak
169
8.9
Summary of Model Coefficients for off-Peak Traffic (Modified PCE)
170
8.10
Summary of Road Capacity using Arahan Teknik and Modified PCE
171
8.11
Traffic States for Site I (Skudai-Pontian)
175
8.12
Traffic Shock Wave Propagation for Site I (Skudai-Pontian)
175
8.13
Traffic States for Site II (Pontian-Skudai)
176
8.14
Traffic Shock Wave Propagation for Site II (Pontian-Skudai)
177
8.15
Traffic States for Site III (Dungun-Terengganu)
178
8.16
Traffic Shock Wave Propagation for Site III (Dungun-Terengganu)
178
8.17
Traffic States for Site IV (Terengganu-Dungun)
179
8.18
Traffic Shock Wave Propagation for Site IV (Terengganu-Dungun)
179
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Speed-Density Relationship of Fundamental Diagram
13
2.2
Flow-Density Relationship of Fundamental Diagram
13
2.3
Speed-Flow Relationship of Fundamental Diagram
14
2.4
Capacity and Weather Condition
18
2.5
Classification of Roadway Capacity Estimation Methods
20
2.6
Cumulative Distributions from Product Limit Method
30
2.7
Fundamental Diagram of Traffic for Normal and Rain Conditions 37
2.8
A Rain Gauge Station
40
2.9
Traffic Flow Shock wave
46
4.1
Flow Chart Showing the Logic of the Analytical Procedure
68
4.2
Skudai-Pontian Highway 5 Johor State
73
4.3
Dungun-Terengganu Highway 3 Terengganu State
73
4.4
Schematic Diagram of Survey Sites Along Federal Routes 3 and 5 76
4.5
Single Sensor Configuration
79
4.6
Two Sensor Configuration
79
4.7
Automatic Traffic Classifier
79
4.8
Accessories for ATC
79
4.9
Pneumatic Tube
79
4.10
Layout of Typical Survey Sites
85
4.11
Flow-Density for Pilot Test Data
90
4.12
Sample Worksheet for Data Processing in the Excel platform
92
4.13
Flow-Density Curve for Dry and Rainy Conditions
95
5.1
Site I Traffic Flow Profile
102
5.2
Site I Volume-Density Plot
103
5.3
Site II Traffic Flow Profile
106
xiii
5.4
Site II Volume-Density Plot
107
5.5
Site III Traffic Flow Profile
110
5.6
Site III Volume-Density Plot
110
5.7
Site IV Traffic Flow Profile
113
5.8
Site IV Volume-Density Plot
114
6.1
Schematic Evaluation Criteria
119
6.2
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and light Rain (Site I)
123
6.3
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Moderate Rain (Site I)
123
6.4
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Heavy Rain
For Off- Peak Traffic (Site I)
6.5
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Rainy Conditions for Peak
Traffic (Site I)
6.6
132
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for OffPeak Traffic (Site IV)
6.11
131
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for Peak
Traffic (Site III)
6.10
129
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for OffPeak Traffic (Site III)
6.9
128
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for Peak
Traffic (Site II)
6.8
126
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for OffPeak Traffic (Site II)
6.7
124
134
Flow-Density Relation between Dry and Rainy Conditions for Peak
Traffic (Site IV)
135
6.12
Typical Roadway Capacity Loss
140
8.1
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Light Rain Using
Modified PCE Values
8.2
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Moderate Rain Condition
Using Modified PCE Values.
8.3
161
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Heavy Rain Condition
Using Modified PCE Values
8.4
160
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Rainy Conditions
161
xiv
Using Modified PCE Values.
8.5
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Rainy Conditions Using
Modified PCE Values.
8.6
164
165
Flow-Density Plots between Dry and Rainy Conditions Using
Modified PCE Values.
167
8.7
Shock Wave Representation under Rainfall
170
8.8
Location of Existing Traffic State on Flow Diagram
171
8.8
Traffic Shock Wave Triangle
172
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADT
-
Annual Daily Traffic
ATC
-
Automatic Traffic Counter
FD
-
Fundamental Diagram
FHWA
-
Federal Highway Administration
GQM
-
Generalised Queuing Model
HCM
-
Highway Capacity Manual
HGV
-
Heavy Goods Vehicle
JKR
-
Jabatan Kerja Raya
LGV
-
Light Goods Vehicle
LOS
-
Level of Service
MHA
-
Malaysian Highway Authority
MMD
-
Malaysian Meteorological Department
PC
-
Passenger Car
PCE
-
Passenger Car Equivalent
pdf
-
Probability Density Function
SMS
-
Space Mean Speed
SPM
-
Semi-Poisson Model
SSD
-
Stopping Sight Distance
TRB
-
Transportation Research Board
TMS
-
Time Mean Speed
UAP
-
Urban All-Purpose Road
WMO
-
World Meteorological Organization
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
hm
-
Mean Traffic Stream Headway
Hij
-
Headway of Vehicle Class i under condition j
q
-
Flow or Volume
k
-
Traffic Density
v
-
Traffic Speed
qc
-
Traffic Capacity
F(x)
-
Cumulative Distribution Function
f(x)
-
Probability Density Function
R(t)
-
Reliability Function
PCEi
-
Passenger Car Equivalent of vehicle Class i
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Site I
Macroscopic Traffic Data
195
B
Site II
Macroscopic Traffic Data
200
C
Site III Macroscopic Traffic Data
205
D
Site IV Macroscopic Traffic Data
210