xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
THESIS TITLE
v
DECLARATION
vi
DEDICATION
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
viii
ABSTRACT
ix
ABSTRAK
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
xi
LIST OF TABLES
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Statement of the Problem
3
1.3
Hypothesis
4
1.4
Aim
5
1.5
Objectives of the Study
5
1.6
Research Questions
5
1.7
Scope and Limitations
6
1.8
Research Gap
7
1.9
Thesis Organization
8
xii
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
10
2.1
Introduction
10
2.2
The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon
11
2.2.1
Causes of UHI
12
2.2.1.1 Lower Latent Heat Transfer
12
2.2.1.2 Lower Albedo of Cities
13
2.2.1.3 Anthropogenic Heat
14
Urban Heat Island Mitigation strategies
14
2.2.2.1 Increase Green Areas
14
2.2.2.2 Manipulate Urban Geometry
15
2.2.2
2.2.2.3 Careful Evaluation and Choice of
Materials Used In Urban Surfacing
2.2.3
2.3
Tropical Urban Heat Island
15
16
The Urban Fabric
18
2.3.1
Pavements
20
2.3.1.1 Cool Pavements
22
2.3.1.2 Thermal Performance
of Pavements
2.3.2
2. 4
23
Roofs
25
2.3.2.1 Cool Roofs
28
2.3.2.2 Green Roofs
29
2.3.2.3 Thermal Performance of Roofs
30
Surface Temperature of Roofs
35
2. 4.1 Factors Affecting Surface
Temperature of Roof Surfaces
38
2.4.1.1 Roof Surface Color
and Texture
38
2.4.1.2 Roof Insulation
40
2.4.1.3 Thermal Emittance
41
2.4.1.4 Roof Surface Mass
42
2.4.1.5 Solar Intensity
44
2.4.1.6 Sky Conditions
45
xiii
2.5
2.6
Effect of Roof Surface Temperature on
Ambient Air Temperature
46
Roofing Tiles; Clay and Concrete
48
2.6.1
Effects of Tile Color on
Surface Temperatures
2.6.2
Effects of Exposure on
Tiles Thermal Properties.
2.6.3
3
53
Measurement of Tile
Surface Temperatures
2.7
51
Summary
54
56
METHODOLOGY
57
3.1
Introduction
57
3.1.1
58
Research design
3.2
Need for Experiment
3.3
Methods of Studying
3.4.
Thermal Performance of Roofs
60
3.3.1
Computer Simulation
61
3.3.2
Field Experiment
63
Apparatus for Field Experiments
65
3.4.1
Samples for field experiment
65
3.4 2
Description of Test Site
67
3.4.2.1
3.5
59
Building Description
3.4.3
Variables for Testing
72
3.4.4
Placement of Instruments
73
Procedures for Field Experiment
76
3.5.1
Monitoring, Configuration and
Instrumentation
3.6
3.7
69
77
Data Analysis
81
3.6.1
83
Data Analysis Criteria
Summary
85
xiv
4
DATA ANALYSIS
86
4.1
Introduction
86
4.2
Thermal Performance Analysis
86
4.3
Tile Surface Temperatures
87
4.3.1
Meteorological Conditions of
the Study Area
4.3.2
88
Surface Temperature of Four Stages
of Exposed Concrete Tiles
89
4.3.2.1 Surface Temperature above
Atmospheric Temperature
4.3.3
Ambient Temperatures of Four Stages
of Exposed Concrete Tiles
95
4.3.4
Surface Temperature of Clay Tiles
100
4.3.5
Comparison of Surface Temperature
and Atmospheric Temperature
4.4
104
Effects of Exposure on Performance of
Clay and Concrete Tiles
106
Summary
107
CONCLUSION
109
5.1
Introduction
109
5.2
Objectives of the study in review
109
5.3
Thermal performance of roofing tiles
110
4.6
5
103
Day And Night Time Behavior of
Tile Samples
4.5
93
5.3.1
The Effects of Exposure on Tile
Surface Temperature
5.3.2
Influence of Surface Temperature on
Ambient Air Temperature
5.3.3
111
112
Comparison of Long Term Exposure
Effects on Tile Samples
114
5.4
Application of the Study to Architecture
115
5.5
Further Research Suggestions
116
xv
REFERENCES
118
Appendices
131
A–C
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Average Land Cover In U.S. Cities
19
2.2
Growing Trend In Built- Up Area for Johor Bahru
19
2.3
Mean Years of Durability under Various
Thermal Loadings
2.4
Reflectance and Emittance Properties of
Low- Slope Roof Materials
2.5
33
General Solar Reflecting Characteristics of
Roofing Membranes
2.7
31
Reflectance and Emittance Properties of
Steep- Slope Roof Materials
2.6
27
36
Properties of Popularly Used Steep Slope
Roofing Materials
50
2.8
Solar Reflectance Characteristics of Roofing Tile
52
3.1
Classification of Buildings According To
Year of Construction
3.2
67
Calibration of the Instruments Used To
Carry Out Experiment
75
3.3
Data Analysis Criteria
84
4.1
T- test for thermal perfomance of
concrete tile samples
4.2
4.3
94
T-test for influence of roofs on Ambient
Temperature
99
T-test for thermal perfomance of clay tile samples
104
xvii
TABLE NO.
5.1
TITLE
Percentage Change in Atmospheric Temperature
on Ambient Air Temperature around Roofs
5.2
PAGE
113
Summary of Long Term Effects of Exposure on
Concrete and Clay Roofing Tiles
114
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Urban Geometry; Street Width to Height of Building Ratio
15
2.2
Non- Residential Land Coverage percentages
21
2.3
Heat Transfer Exchanges between
Pavement and Its Surroundings
2.4
Effect of Emissivity on Pavement Maximum and
Minimum Surface Temperature
2.5
25
Comparison of Surface Temperatures of
Light and Dark Surfaces
2.6
24
39
Effect of Increasing R- Value on
Surface Temperature of Roofs
41
2.7
Damping and Lag Effect of Mass
43
2.8
Roof Tile Classifications
49
2.9
Surface Temperatures of Conventional (Bottom Row)
and NIR Reflective Coatings on Tiles
51
2.10
1:10 Scale Models Tested With Concrete Tile Roofs
55
3.1
The Research Design
58
3.2
Basic Principle of Testing How "Cool" A Material Is
61
3.3
The Role of Materials in Cooling Urban Spaces
64
3.4
Roof Surface Temperature Thermocouple
Placed On Roof Surface
3.5
3.6
65
Site Map and Location of Building Used
for the Experiment
68
Section showing approach view of block B06
69
xix
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
3.7
Approach view of block D07
70
3.8
Sectional view of block B11
70
3.9
Approach view of block M50
71
3.10
Data Logger Sensor Held in- Place by
Adhesive Tape
73
3.11
Hobo U12 4-channel data logger and sensor cable
74
3.12
Weather Station and Environ Data
75
3.13
Placement of instrument to ensure protection of
data logger from rain and solar radiation
3.14
78
Instrumentation set up of surface and ambient
temperature sensors on concrete roofs
79
3.15
Sample Tile arrangement for Testing
81
3.16
Data analysis chart highlighting the two
methodologies employed and method of data analysis
4.1
82
Meteorological conditions of the study
Area between April and July 2011
88
4.2
Surface Temperatures of Concrete Tile Samples
90
4.3
Day Time Surface Temperature for Concrete Samples
for 12th and 13th April, 2011
4.4
Night time Surface Temperature for Concrete Samples
for 12th and 13th April, 2011
4.5
4.10
96
Day time Ambient Air Temperature for Concrete Samples
for 12th and 13th April, 2011
4.9
95
Comparison of Surface and Ambient Air
Temperature Means
4.8
93
Ambient Air Temperature for Concrete Samples
for 12th, 13th and 19th April, 2011
4.7
92
Mean Surface Temperature above
Atmospheric Temperature
4.6
91
97
Night time Ambient Air Temperature for Concrete Samples
for 12th and 13th April, 2011
98
Surface Temperatures of Clay Tile Samples
98
xx
FIGURE NO.
4.11
TITLE
Day time Surface Temperature for Clay Samples
for 3rd- 5th July, 2011
4.12
101
Mean Surface Temperature above
Atmospheric Temperature
4.14
100
Night time Surface Temperature for Clay Samples
for 3rd- 5th July, 2011
4.13
PAGE
102
Ranges of Surface and Ambient Temperatures of
Concrete Samples
103
4.15
Surface Temperature Range of Clay Tile Samples
104
4.16
Surface Temperature Range of Clay Tile Samples
105
xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASHRAE
-
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
Air Conditioning Engineers
ASTM
-
American Society for Testing and Materials
BUR
-
Built up Roof
CFD
-
Computational Fluid Dynamic
CRRC
-
Cool Roof Rating Council
EPDM
-
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
EPS
-
Expanded Polystyrene
FSEC
-
Florida Solar Energy Centre
GIS
Geographic Information Systems
HTB
-
Heat Transfer through Buildings
LBNL
-
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
NIR
-
Near Infrared Reflectance
NPS
-
National Park Service
NRCA
-
National Roofing Contractors’Association
ORNL
-
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
PVC
-
Poly Vinyl Chloride
SBS
-
Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene
SJER CDP
-
Southern Johor Economic Region
Comprehensive Development Plan
SPF
-
Spray polyurethane foam-based
SR
-
Solar Reflectance
SRI
-
Solar Reflective Index
TPO
-
Thermoplastic Olefin
UHI
-
Urban Heat Island
xxii
UHIPP
-
Urban Heat Island Pilot Project
U.S
-
United States
US EPA
-
United States Environmental Protection
Agency
UTM
-
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
UV
-
Ultra Violet
VIS
-
Visible Infrared Solar reflectance
WSRCA
-
Western States Roofing Contractors
Association
XPS
-
Extruded Polystyrene
xxiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
As
-
albedo
α
-
solar-reflectivity or albedo of the surface
a
-
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6685 × 10-8 Wm2
K-4
ℰ
hemispherical emittance of surface
hc
-
-
convection coefficient, W m-2 K-1
ha
-
coefficient of heat transfer by 1ong wave
radiation and convection at the outer surface
It
-
total solar radiation incident on the surface
W/m 2
I
-
total solar radiation incident on the surface
W/m 2
k
-
thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
Qc
-
convective heat transfer (W)
R
-
thermal resistance (m2.K/W)
𝛿𝛿R
-
difference between thermal radiation incident
on the surface and surroundings and that
emitted by a blackbody at the outdoor air
temperature, W/m 2
To
-
outdoor air temperature, °C
ta
-
air temperature (°C)
ts
-
surface temperature (°C)
Ts
-
equilibrium surface temperature, K
Tsky
-
the effective radiant sky temperature
Ta
-
air temperature, K
x
-
thickness (m)
xxiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A
TITLE
PAGE
Data presentation for all variables measured
during the experiment;
B
C
i. Variables measured on Concrete on
12/04/11- 19/04/11
130
ii. Variables measured on Concrete on
01/07/11- 08/07/11
134
Conference Paper Publication –
Thermal Performance of a New Concrete
Tile Roof in the Tropics Green Innovative
Research Group (GIRG) One day Seminar
137
Site Plan of Blocks
i. Block B06
ii. Block B11
142
142