x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
vii
ABSTRACT
viii
ABSTRAK
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
x
LIST OF TABLES
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxv
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Background of case study
2
1.3
Statement of the problem
2
1.4
Purpose of the study
3
1.5
Objective of the study
4
1.6
Scope of the study
4
1.7
Significance of the study
5
1.8
Organization of the thesis
5
1.9
Research Methodology
6
xi
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
8
2.1
Introduction
8
2.2
Ultrasonic
9
2.3
Ultrasonic system
10
2.3.1
Introduction
10
2.3.2
Ultrasonic transmitter and receiver
2.4
transducer
10
2.3.3
Signal processing
11
2.3.4
Ultrasonic testing principles
12
Mechanical deformation of surfaces
14
2.4.1
Introduction
14
2.4.2
Strain measurement
15
2.4.3
Other mechanical deformation researches
study of surfaces
2.5
2.6
Deformation at pipe surface
18
2.5.1
Introduction
18
2.5.2
Element in pipe
20
2.5.3
Bending deformation
21
2.5.4
Deflection
26
Sound physic
27
2.6.1
Introduction
27
2.6.2
Types of waves
28
2.6.3
Reflection, refraction, diffraction and
attenuation
2.7
2.8
2.9
15
29
Sound Pressure Level
30
2.7.1
Introduction
30
2.7.2
Transducer
31
2.7.3
Decibel
33
Air-couple ultrasonic transducer
33
2.8.1
Introduction
33
2.8.2
Propagation profile
34
2.8.3
Characteristic
35
2.8.4
Factor
36
Ultrasonic as Non-Destructive Test
36
xii
2.10
2.11
3
2.9.1
Introduction
36
2.9.2
Plate quality
37
2.6.3
Ultrasonic measurement of physical strain
38
Ultrasonic probe cone
38
2.10.1 Introduction
38
2.10.2 Huygen’s principle
39
2.10.3 Acoustic Impedance
40
Tip opening
42
2.11.1 Introduction
42
2.11.2 Tip cross-section diameter
42
2.11.3 Physical properties
42
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
44
3.1
Introduction
44
3.2
Pipe bending
44
3.2.1
Pipe dimension
45
3.2.2
Pipe properties
46
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Circuit
46
3.3.1
Transmitter
47
3.3.1.1 Transducer part
48
3.3.1.2 Frequency controlled part
48
3.3.2
Receiver
49
3.3.3
Decibel conversion from voltage signal
54
Ultrasonic direct measurement
56
3.4.1
Introduction
56
3.4.2
Methodology
57
Tip opening
58
3.5.1
Introduction
58
3.5.2
Methodology
58
Ultrasonic controlled-space direct measurement
60
3.6.1
Introduction
60
3.6.2
Controlled range
60
3.6.3
Controlled cross-section diameter
61
3.6.4
Controlled opening
62
xiii
3.7
3.8
Ultrasonic probe cone
63
3.7.1
Dimension
63
3.7.2
Evaluation
64
3.7.3
Angled taper cone
65
3.7.3.1 Introduction
65
3.7.3.2 Methodology
65
Angle determination for ultrasonic to measure
strain
3.9
3.8.1
Introduction
66
3.8.2
Surface strain and angle
66
Experimental procedure
69
3.9.1
Load
70
3.9.2
Deflection measurement
70
Ultrasonic system setting – First Method
71
3.10.1 Location
72
3.10.2 Displacement evaluation
73
Ultrasonic system setting – Second Method
74
3.11.1 Introduction
74
3.11.2 Experiment setting
75
3.11.3 Methodology
77
Strain measurement using a strain gage
78
3.12.1 Introduction
78
3.12.2 Experimental set up
78
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
80
4.1
Introduction
80
4.2
Result for direct measurement
80
4.3
Result for controlled space
84
4.3.1
Variable distance
84
4.3.2
Variable cross-section diameter
84
4.3.3
Variable opening
85
3.10
3.11
3.12
4
66
4.4
Result for angle justification
86
4.5
Result for angled taper cone
89
4.5.1
89
Table and graph
xiv
4.6
4.7
Result for tip size
95
4.6.1
Introduction
95
4.6.2
Table and graph
95
Result for first method experiment
102
4.7.1
Introduction
102
4.7.2
Experiment output using theoretical
Young Modulus
102
4.7.3
Result from deflection
104
4.7.4
Final result
106
4.7.5
Graph strain formation versus load for
Strain gage and experimental Young
Modulus
4.8
Result for second method experiment
Tensile
110
4.8.2
Compression
111
4.9
Result for strain gage calibration
113
4.10
Condition capability test
114
4.11
REFERENCES
Appendices A - H
109
4.8.1
4.10.1 Underwater
5
107
Different transducer
114
114
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
116
5.1
Introduction
116
5.2
Conclusion
117
5.3
Recommendations
118
5.3.1
Clamp
118
5.3.2
Improve reproducibility
118
5.3.3
Design specifically transducer
119
5.3.4
Portable device
119
120
125 – 139
xv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Acoustic Impedance for air, PVC and aluminum
41
3.1
Pre-amplifier gain
50
3.2
Amplifier gain
51
3.3
Low and high pass filter calculation
52
3.4
Ultrasonic transducer calculation for distance equal 0.5 meter 55
3.5
Calculation for ultrasonic receiver transducer
56
3.6
Calculation for best angle between 20⁰ and 70⁰
68
3.7
Strain gage properties FLA-5-8
78
4.1
Voltage data for direct measurement at 90⁰
82
4.2
Voltage data for direct measurement in angles
83
4.3
Result for controlled space with variable distance
84
4.4
Result for controlled space with variable cross section
diameter
85
4.5
Voltage data for ultrasonic transducer: angle against voltage
87
4.6
Voltage data for angled taper cone 60⁰
89
4.7
Voltage data for angled taper cone 50⁰
90
4.8
Voltage data for angled taper cone 40⁰
91
4.9
Voltage data for angled taper cone 30⁰
92
4.10
Voltage data for angled taper cone 20⁰
93
4.11
Voltage data for 4 mm diameter tip hole
95
4.12
Voltage data for 3 mm diameter tip hole
96
4.13
Voltage data for 2.5 mm diameter tip hole
97
4.14
Voltage data for 1.5 mm diameter tip hole
98
4.15
Voltage data for 1 mm diameter tip hole
99
4.16
Voltage data for 0.5 mm diameter tip hole
100
xvi
4.17
Voltage data for graph voltage versus strain using theoretical
Young Modulus value
103
4.18
Deflection data for graph deflection versus PL3/3I
105
4.19
Voltage data for graph voltage versus strain using experiment
Young Modulus
4.20
106
Data for graph strain versus load from strain gage and
calculation
108
4.21
Voltage data for voltage versus strain for tensile strain
110
4.22
Voltage data for voltage versus strain for compression strain
112
4.23
Voltage data for different transmitter against constant
ultrasonic receiver
115
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Research methodology flow chart
7
2.1
The sound categories
8
2.2
Ultrasonic Ceramic Transducer type 400ST/R160
11
2.3
(a) The pulse echo technique and (b) received signal
12
2.4
Pulse resonance to examine blood vessel condition
13
2.5
Heated body volume undergoes expansion
14
2.6
Deformation of body due to force
15
2.7
Pipeline in industry and fix force act on the pipe from
support structure
19
2.8
Element of the pipe before weigh is loaded
20
2.9
Element at pipe after weight is loaded
20
2.10
Simple bending on a beam, a support and force at the end
of extrude beam
21
2.11
Deformation after load is applied
22
2.12
The bending beam shows curve from circular part
22
2.13
An element taken from a beam (a) before and
(b) after bending deformation
23
2.14
Strain distributions at x element
24
2.15
Pipe cross-section
25
2.16
Slope and deflection of beam
26
2.17
Stress divisions at cross section pipe beam
27
2.18
Types of wave
28
2.19
Sound wave reflections
29
xviii
2.20
Sound diffraction reaches point A after passing a barrier
from a source
30
2.21
Speaker component
32
2.22
Flow diagram of sound from transmitter to receiver
32
2.23
Air ceramic ultrasonic transducer cross-section
33
2.24
The near field and far field from a transmitting transducer 35
2.25
The combination of diffraction and Huygens’s Principle
when sound passed through the slit
2.26
The reflection and refraction of ultrasonic when it hits
the different medium
2.27
39
40
The possible situation from ultrasonic wave from
probe cone
43
3.1
Dimension of the pipe used in the experiment
45
3.2
Pipe cross-section
46
3.3
Transmitter circuit for the ultrasonic system
47
3.4
Boolean Logic table for ultrasonic transmitter part
48
3.5
Frequency Control Part
49
3.6
Pre amplifier
49
3.7
Amplifier
50
3.8
Band pass filter
52
3.9
Rectifier
53
3.10
Buffer
53
3.11
The complete receiver circuit for ultrasonic receiver
54
3.12
Absorption coefficients versus frequency for air
55
3.13
Top view of experiment set up
57
3.14
Front view of experiment setting
57
3.15
The actual experiment setting
57
xix
3.16
Acrylic plate with hole diameter starting from left
0.5 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.5 mm, 3 mm, and 4 mm
59
3.17
The experiment set up for tip opening experiment
59
3.18
Experiment setting for variable range
60
3.19
The actual modified tube with three ranges
60
3.20
The experiment setting for variable tube diameter
61
3.21
The actual tube with different diameter
61
3.22
The experiment setting for variable controlled opening
62
3.23
The set of housing with different opening diameter
62
3.24
The dimension of the ultrasonic probe cone
63
3.25
The operation in the probe cone
64
3.26
A set of cone with 20⁰, 30⁰, 40⁰, 50⁰ and 60⁰ angles
65
3.27
The experiment setting for angled taper cone
66
3.28
Possible angle positions to put the ultrasonic probe cone
67
3.29
Each perpendicular triangle with 70º and 20º
67
3.30
The same triangle at Figure 3.30 is extend 1 mm to right
68
3.31
The experimental set up to measure deflection
70
3.32
The pipe bend and deflection
71
3.33
The ultrasonic transducer arrangement
71
3.34
The actual setting for the ultrasonic transducer on the pipe 72
3.35
Experimental set up to find the strain and deflection
72
3.36
Distance evaluation for ultrasonic after deformation
73
3.37
Displacement change due to strain formation
74
3.38
The experiment setting for second method
75
3.39
The actual second experiment setting
76
3.40
Second experiment method with labels
76
3.41
A strain gage patched on the pipe
79
xx
4.1
Half of transducer front area
81
4.2
New graph rearrange from Figure 4.1
81
4.3
Graph the average voltage versus distance for 90⁰
direct measurements
82
4.4
Graph of voltages versus distance for direct measurement 83
4.5
Graph of voltages versus distance in controlled space
4.6
Graph of voltages versus cross-section diameter in
controlled space
4.7
84
85
Distance travelled from transmitter to receiver at every
angles
86
4.8
Graph of voltage versus angle
87
4.9
The condition at the tip of probe cone 20º after being
enlarged
4.10
88
The condition at the tip of probe cone 70º after being
enlarged
88
4.11
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for 60⁰
90
4.12
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for 50⁰
91
4.13
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for 40⁰
92
4.14
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for 30⁰
93
4.15
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for 20⁰
94
4.16
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
4 mm diameter
4.17
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
3 mm diameter
4.18
98
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
1.5 mm diameter
4.20
97
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
2.5 mm diameter
4.19
96
99
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
1 mm diameter
100
xxi
4.21
Graph of voltage versus distance with angle for
0.5 mm diameter
4.22
101
Graph of voltage change (mV) versus strain formation
(µm/m) using Young Modulus Taken from ASTM D638
103
4.23
Graph of deflections (m) versus PL3/3I
105
4.24
Graph of voltage change (mV) vs strain formation
(µm/m) for experimental Young Modulus
4.25
107
Graph of strain formation (µm/m) versus load (N) for strain
gage and experimental Young Modulus value
108
4.26
Graph of voltage versus strain formation for tensile strain
110
4.27
Graph of voltage versus strain formation for
compression strain
112
4.28
Graph of strain formation versus load using strain gage
113
4.29
Transmitter and receiver assembly
114
xxii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASTM
-
American Standard Testing & Material
CT
-
Computed Tomography
DAS
-
Data Acquisition System
DC
-
Direct current
ECG
-
Electrocardiogram
ESPI
-
Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry
HMA
-
Hot Melt Adhesive
Hz
-
Hertz
IC
-
Integrated Circuit
LRS
-
Laser Range Scan
NDT
-
Non Destructive Test
POBF
-
Pulsatile Orbital Blood Flow
PVC
-
Polyvinyl Chloride
3D
-
3 Dimension
xxiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
P
-
Force
ϵ
-
Strain
ρ
-
Radian
θ
-
Angle
dx
-
Element on pipe
σ
-
Stress
E
-
Young Modulus
y
-
Distance from neutral axis
c
-
Distance from neutral axis to pipe surface
I
-
Moment of Inertia
ri
-
Internal radian of pipe
ro
-
Outside radian of pipe
L
-
Beam length
v
-
Deflection from beam
v
-
Wave velocity
f
-
Wave frequency
λ
-
Wavelength
Z
-
Acoustic Impedance
xxiv
ρ
-
Material density
R
-
Reflection coefficient
M
-
Moment
V
-
Voltage
xxv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Air Ultrasonic Ceramic Transducer Datasheet
125
B
Moment of Inertia taken from R.C Hibbeler (2005)
127
C
PVC Pipe Specification
128
D
Cantilvered Beam Slopes and Deflection from
R.C Hibbeler (2005)
129
E
Strain Gage Information
130
F
Strain Gage Data
137
G
Material Properties from R.C Hibbler (2005)
138
H
Publications – Conference, Book Chapter
139