Washoe Lifeways, Continuity and Survival: Identifying
Environmental Exposure through Traditional Knowledge
by Julia E. Hammett, Ph.D., Darla Garey-Sage, Ph.D., and Laurie A. Walsh, Ph.D.,
with contributions by Darrel Cruz, Mahlon Machado, Penny Hudson, and Robert Portwood
A Technical Report Providing Ethnographic Data
for the Washoe Tribe Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Submitted to
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California, Gardnerville, NV
by Julia E. Hammett, Principle Investigator
January, 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
by Julia E. Hammett and Laurie A. Walsh
1.1
Figure 1.1 Leviathan Mine Survey Area
by Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California
1.2
Figure 1.2 Leviathan Mine Survey Area - Map of Creeks
by Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California
1.3
Figure 1.3 Leviathan Mine Survey Area - Barney Riley, Aspen
and Mountaineer Creeks
by Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California
1.4
Figure 1.4 Leviathan Mine Survey Area - Carson River and Bryant Creek
by Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California
1.5
ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT
by Darla Garey-Sage and Julia E. Hammett
2.1
ETHNOGRAPHIC CONTEXT
by Laurie A. Walsh
3.1
TRADITIONAL WASHOE SCENARIO CONTEXT
by Laurie A. Walsh, Darla Garey-Sage and Julia E. Hammett
4.1
5.
REFERENCES CITED
5.1
6.
APPENDICES
2.
3.
4.
Appendix A: Blank Interview Forms Used in During Research Study
A.1
Appendix B: Washoe Economic Plant and Animal Resources
by Darla Garey-Sage
B.1
Appendix C: Qualitative Data
C.1
Appendix D: Quantitative Data
D.1
Appendix E: Conversion Table
by Robert Portwood, Julia E. Hammett and Darla Garey-Sage
E.1
1. INTRODUCTION
Julia E. Hammett and Laurie A. Walsh
Abstract: The goal of this project is to understand how an idealized traditional Washoe family
living in the vicinity of the Leviathan and Bryant creeks system could potentially be exposed to
toxins emanating from the Leviathan Mine. As such, this report provides a description of the
physical landscape noting traditional Washoe resources, an overall ethnographic context, and an
idealized lifestyle scenario for a family living in the vicinity of Bryant Creek. The ethnographic
context situates places like Leviathan and Bryant creeks within an overall pattern, but it is based
on models of Washoe life that capture them before contact with Euroamericans restricted their
use of their homeland. With these restrictions come different emphases. Today, areas that can be
freely accessed such as public lands, remain significant social and economic resource areas for
Washoe people. In terms of Bryant and Leviathan creeks, it is important to note that they flow
through tribal lands and so would have been, and still have the potential to be important sources
of water and food to those living in or otherwise utilizing allotments located nearby. Recent
interviews with tribal elders corroborate earlier ethnographic accounts; both sets of data attest
to the significance of this area for fishing, hunting, and gathering, and ceremonial purposes.
In January, 2002, the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California contracted a group of
anthropologists to help tribal members collect information about subsistence strategies and other
traditional activities involving contact with the physical environment, in order to ascertain the
potential risk of exposures due to pollution from Leviathan Mine. Our research aims were
twofold: 1) to collect and quantify data regarding environmental-based cultural activities; and 2)
to record narrative information specifically tied to the historic use of resource habitats
downstream from Leviathan Mine. Prior to the pollution caused by Leviathan Mine, Washoe
people engaged in a number of different traditional activities including hunting, collecting plant
foods and medicines, fishing, and a variety of social and ceremonial activities.
Our study area is the lands downstream from Leviathan Mine, particularly the watersheds
of Leviathan Creek and Bryant Creek, and all the physiographic zones that may have been
exposed to contaminants through water and/or soil pollution from the mine (Figure 1). This study
area is fully within the traditional Washoe territory. Leviathan Creek emanates from the Eastern
Sierra. Where Leviathan Creek is joined by Mountaineer Creek, Bryant Creek is formed and this
flows into the Carson River. The stream system flows through many ecozones including montane
environments in higher elevations, classic pinyon-juniper woodland zones at middle elevations,
and desert sagebrush scrub at lower elevations. The canyon formed by the Bryant Creek is steep
sided with narrow ribbons of riparian zones and pockets of meadowlands all along the creek. As
such the stream flows through an area that is diverse in terms of economically and culturally
important flora and fauna used by Washoe people. Also it provides an important corridor for
travel over the mountains for animals, and in the past, for people as well.
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
At the outset, it should be noted that the environment should be seen not as backdrop, but
as a set of dynamic temporal and spatial contexts to which organisms adapt, and in which
populations evolve. These are complex and diverse relationships and direct impacts to specific
organisms within an environmental context may have direct or indirect consequences on the life
cycles of other organisms. Landscape can be defined as the perceptions of these environmental
contexts, of the spatial manifestation of the relationships between humans and their
environments over time (Crumley and Marquardt 1987:1). Therefore, in order to fully
comprehend traditional Washoe life ways in the study area, it is essential to characterize the
cultural and environmental dynamics of this traditional Washoe landscape.
This report is divided into three basic sections, beginning with a general description of
environmental contexts within the study area. Next a Washoe ethnographic context is provided
which outlines traditional models of place, territory, social organization, and resource use and
availability. Finally, interview data are utilized, from the viewpoint of the environmental and
ethnographic contexts to develop a traditional Washoe lifestyle scenario. Together this
culturally specific “local knowledge” tied to the study area, provides a characterization of
Washoe traditional life ways, their continuities and survivals, and the potential risk of exposure
to contamination from Leviathan Mine.
METHODS
Our research team was composed of Julia Hammett, Ph.D., Darla Garey-Sage, Ph.D., and
Laurie Walsh, Ph.D., and two Washoe tribal members, Mahlon Machado and Darrel Cruz with
technical support provided by three anthropology student interns from Truckee Meadows
Community College (Penny Hudson, Rob Portwood, and Amanda Wells), and various staff
members of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California. Garey-Sage and Walsh provided most
of the research for the environmental and ethnographic context sections. Garey-Sage, Machado
and Cruz conducted over 100 separate interviews with 20 Washoe tribal elders, each with
specific expertise in one or more resources.
Initially members of the research team visited the study area to evaluate the types of
resources and land use patterns that would have been available to utilize prior to the
contamination from Leviathan Mine. Then, in consultation with tribal staff, our team developed
a series of survey forms for collecting information related to plant food, animal food, plant based
technology, animal based technology, medical technology, and social and ceremonial activities
(Appendix A). Although separate forms were developed for plants and animals, all forms were
designed to make measurements of similar types of environmental exposures comparable.
Forms were used to record specifics regarding how people collected food and/or other resource
material, how long they processed environmental materials, and how much they consumed. The
forms were designed so that both quantitative and qualitative data could be readily recorded on
specific environmental activities which measure the type of environmental exposure, the amount
of time exposed, and the intensity of exposure.
Between July 2002 and January 2003, the team spent more than 200 hours in direct
consultation with over 20 different Washoe tribal cultural experts. Consulting often involved
1.5
multiple interview sessions, altogether numbering over 45 separate interview sessions. Through
this process 100+ specific activity entries were recorded, covering upwards of 30 different
resources. In additional several hundred lines of qualitative narrative text related to these
activities were recorded.
The team’s basic strategy was to contact elders who were known to have traditional
environmental knowledge and would agree to be interviewed. The elders were interviewed at
their convenience, as individuals or in groups, typically in their own homes. In several cases,
siblings or related kin were interviewed together, which allowed the interviewers to obtain a
consensus on quantitative data. In most cases the collection process was extremely time
consuming and exhausting. Therefore, on an average, interview sessions lasted only between
two and three hours, with an average of two separate sessions for a completed consultation of
each cultural expert Cultural experts were compensated $35 for each session.
The results of this research are an extensive set of data, in many ways more detailed and focused
than anthropologists typically are able to collect. The reason for this was obvious to all
participants. Only by recording this information in detail, can Washoe tribal members hope to
regain safe and full access to highly prized resources in what is currently a badly contaminated
part of their traditional territory.
1.6
2. ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Darla Garey-Sage and Julia E. Hammett
INTRODUCTION
The lands of the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California are part of a larger region
commonly known as the Eastern Sierra. Here, two of the great biogeographic regions of the west
meet and meld: the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range and the Great Basin. Washoe lands host a
remarkable diversity of resources, which support a traditional subsistence pattern wherein people
selectively harvest foods, medicines, and items of material culture. The Leviathan mining
operation, the study area of this report, is located deep in the lands of the Washoe people.
This chapter includes a brief ethnobiological overview of the Eastern Sierra and then
presents general ecological information on the various habitats of the Eastern Sierra in general
and Leviathan study area in particular. Information is presented and organized around plant
communities, which are the usual units of ecological study for the area (Storer and Usinger 1963,
Barbour and Major 1977, Holland and Kiel 1995, and Smith 2000). Ethnobotanical information
is also taken from Garey-Sage (2003), which compiles historical information on plants used by
the Washoe and presents contemporary ethnographic information among a group of women
elders.
Plant communities are described by the occurrence of plant dominants. Not all of the
plant dominants listed herein are used by Washoe people—after all, people are only one
component of an integrated ecological community—but the dominants are listed to characterize
fully the plant communities. An ecological overview such as this also vividly demonstrates the
sophisticated and discriminating use of environmental knowledge exercised by the Washoe
people. Just as all dominants are not resources, conversely, many important resource plants used
by Washoe people are not ecological dominants, and these plants are noted when identified by
consultants. Fauna are also listed and include mammals, fish, and birds.
Ultimately, this ecological context reflects the many environmental sources by which
Washoe tribal members are vulnerable to contamination from the Leviathan Mine. Although the
loss of Washoe aboriginal territory restricts the availability of hunting and gathering activities, it
does not dilute their cultural and economic significance. Areas such as Leviathan and Bryant
Creek drainages have become even more valuable because they are remnant areas of original
resource zones and they continue to be relatively accessible for Washoe tribal members, at a time
when so many of their traditional resource zones have become inaccessible due to historic
encroachment of private property and a marked increase in development throughout much of the
Washoe traditional territory.
2.1
THE EASTERN SIERRA
The Washoe Indian people of Nevada and California have long lived on lands that
include the remarkable region where the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range meets the Great Basin.
Here, on the eastern slope of the Sierra, the rain shadow effect caused by the high mountain crest
leads to significantly lower precipitation, creating a much drier climate than that of the western
slope of the Sierra (Powell and Klieforth 2000:85-86). Often it seems that the Sierra and Great
Basin regions blend together without distinct boundaries: desert, subalpine, riparian, and
montane flora and fauna combine with abrupt changes in elevation, moisture, soil, and
topography to create rich and complex associations that comprise traditional Washoe economic
resources.
This diverse environment supported a traditional subsistence pattern employed by the
Washoe people that depended on the large number and variety of resources, rather than intensive
harvesting of only a few resources, with notable exceptions such as pine nuts and rabbits
(Downs 1966). The ecotonal or transitional nature of the Washoe environment is recognized and
marked by Washoe people through selective and varied seasonal harvests and ritual
celebrations—among other things—and by a series of linguistic devices.
Place names that identify flora and water, in particular, are numerous (d’Azevedo
1968:468). Some place names like c’ó’ya’ wát’a detdé’yi 1 “tule river dwellers” identify specific
locations and individual resources (d’Azevedo 1986:468), whereas others, like the East Fork of
the Carson River known as wát’ashému, “the real river” (Nevers 1976:4), identify highly
significant resource zones that encompasses many individual resources. The East Fork of the
Carson River receives water from Bryant and Leviathan Creeks, both of which flow through the
study area and whose watersheds comprise Washoe resource zones.
Another linguistic pattern that marks biogeographical variation is seen in the convention
of Washoe people to be identified by the particular region of Washoe lands they inhabit. For
example, Washoe people who live in the Truckee Meadows and in regions north to Honey Lake
are known as wélmelt’i’ “northerners.” All of the Washoe people who live south of the Truckee
Meadows were called hángalelt’i’ “southerners” by the northerners. These terms of southerner
and northerner are not rigid, however, as the southerners of Washoe and Eagle Valleys could be
known also as northerners by those to the south of them (d’Azevedo 1986:468-469). Such
relational variation in terms coincides with the diversity of Washoe environments. The
distinction between northern and southern Washoe people follows the biogeographic changes
north and south of Lake Tahoe. Plant communities to the north of Lake Tahoe are much lusher
because the Sierra Mountain crests are lower, allowing more moisture to cross the mountains
from the west (Howald 2000:94). The Leviathan mine is located in the hángalelt’i’ region.
1
The Washoe language has a series of glottalized consonants and glottal stops (Jacobsen 1996).
Glottalized consonants are marked by an apostrophe after the consonant, and glottal stops after a
vowel or at the end of a word are marked by an apostrophe.
2.2
Our study area, the vicinity of Leviathan Canyon watershed and, specifically, the
resource zones flanking Leviathan and Bryant Creeks, comprise classic examples of Eastern
Sierra environments south of Lake Tahoe. A biogeography of Leviathan Canyon proper has not
been undertaken; nevertheless, the Eastern Sierra type of environment found in Leviathan
Canyon is well described. Although some scholars have termed this transition zone the “Sierra
Nevada’s eastern slope,” the “trans-Sierra,” or lumped it under the California transmontane
floristic province or the Great Basin floristic province (Storer and Usinger 1963, Barbour and
Major 1977; Holland and Kiel 1995; Smith 2000;), the term “Eastern Sierra” is the most
appropriate designation for describing the ecological context of Washoe people, who inhabited
this area (d’Azevedo 1986:486).
PLANT COMMUNITIES OF LEVIATHAN CANYON
In the Lifestyle Scenario portion of this report, resource utilization is divided into
categories such as gathering, fishing, hunting, technology/material culture, and stored
foods/medicines. However, that format yields much duplication. Therefore, in this section, the
general ecological context is followed by a brief description of each ecological zone and a listing
(Table 2.1) of economically valuable plants, game, and fish used for food, medicine, and
material culture. A more extensive annotated list of the economic resources is provided in
Appendix B. Plants used by other Great Basin peoples and/or more generally used by Native
Americans are noted only if there is no specific documentation for Washoe use. Lack of
documentation does not indicate that the Washoe did not use the plants; it only indicates that
ethnobotanical documentation for the Washoe is lacking.
A thorough, systematic study of Washoe ethnobotany has yet to be published and much
documentation of aboriginal use may already be lost. Often, elders know of a plant by a
description of its use—not by its botanical identification or even by its presence in the field. For
many Washoe people, their grandparents would show them the medicines in a processed state
and how to use the medicines, but young Washoe people were excluded from learning the field
portion of their own traditional lifestyle by demands of compulsory education and parents
engaged in wage labor. Despite this generational loss, many contemporary Indian people are
actively reclaiming their traditional foods and medicines, using other Native Americans and even
anthropologists as resources in their cultural struggle. Therefore, uses of plants by other Great
Basin groups and Native North Americans are included where appropriate, especially for species
known to occur in these zones.
Plant communities within the study area are based on several key sources: Storer and
Usinger (1963), Barbour and Major (1977), Holland and Kiel (1995), and Smith (2000). Plant
ecologists distinguish plant communities according to their physical structure, habitat, and
distribution of their associated plants. Three major subgroups of plant communities are based on
structural composition: 1) Tree-dominated; 2) Shrub-dominated; and 3) Herb-dominated. More
moisture rich zones existing within these community types are discussed, where relevant, below.
2.3
TABLE 2.1. WASHOE TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC RESOURCES, pg. 1 of 3
Wildlife
Fire-
Food Cond- Medi- Cere-
Habitat wood
iment
Tool/
Fiber Shel-
cine monial Utensils
NOTED IN
ter INTERVIEWS
PLANTS
Abies spp.
A. concolor
White Fir
X
A. magnifica
Red Fir
X
X
Acer macrophyllum
Big Leaf Maple
Achillea lanulosa
Western Yarrow
Achnatherum spp. (Stipa)
Needlegrass
X
A. (Oryzopsis) hymenoides
X
X
Indian Rice Grass
X
Allium spp
Wild Onions / Garlic
X
Alnus spp.
Alder
X
X
A. rhombifolia
White Alder
X
A. incana ssp. tenuifolia
Mountain Alder
X
Amelanchier alnifolia
Western Serviceberry
X
Angelica brewerii
Angelica
Apocynum cannabinum
Indian Hemp
Arabis platysperma
Rock Cress
Aralia californica
Elk Clover
Arctostaphylous spp.
Manzanita
X
Artemisia tridentata
Great Basin Sagebrush
X
Artemisia ludoviciana
Western Mugwort
X
Asarum hartwegii
Wild Ginger
X
Balsamorrhiza sagittata
Arrowleaf Balsamroot
X
Barbarea orthoceras
Wintercress
X
Bromus carinatus
California Brome
Calocedrus decurrens
Incense Cedar
Calochortus nuttalli
Sego Lily
X
Camassia quamash
Camas
X
Carex festivella
Sedge
Ceanothus spp.
California Lilac
Cercocarpus ledifolius.
Mountain Mahogany
Chrysothyamnus spp.
Rabbitbrush
Cirsium scariosum
Elk Thistle
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Clematis ligusticifolia
Virgin's Bower
X
Cornus sericea [C. stolonifera]
Dogwood
X
Cyperus spp.
Nutsedge
Descurainia spp.
Tansy Mustard
X
Dodecatheon spp.
Shooting Stars
X
Elymus spp.
X
X
Wild Rye
X
E. (Leymus) cinereus.
Great Basin Wild Rye
X
E. glaucus
Blue Wild Rye
X
X
X
Ephedra viridis
Ephedra; Indian Tea
X
Epilobium spp.
Fireweed; Willow Herb
X
Equisetum spp.
Horsetail
Eriogonum nudum.
Wild Buckwheat
Fragaria californica (vesca)
Wood Strawberry
Heracleum lanatum
Cow Parsnip
X
X
X
X
2.4
X
TABLE 2.1. WASHOE TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC RESOURCES, pg. 2 of 3
Wildlife
Fire-
Food Cond- Medi- Cere-
Habitat wood
iment
Tool/
Fiber Shel-
cine monial Utensils
NOTED IN
ter INTERVIEWS
PLANTS, continued
Hordeum brachyantheum
Barley
Iris spp.
Iris
Iris missouriensis
Western Blue Flag
Juniperus spp.
Juniper
X
X
X
J. occidentalis var. occidentalis
X
J. occidentalis var. australis
Mountain Juniper
J. osteosperma
Utah Juniper
X
X
Bitter Root
X
Lilium spp.
Lily
X
Lomatium dissectum
Lomatium
Mentzelia congesta
Sandseed
Montia perfoliata
Miner's Lettuce
Jeffrey Pine
P. lambertiana
Sugar Pine
P. monophylla
Single-leaf Pinyon Pine
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Potentilla gracilis
Graceful Cinquefoil
Populus spp.
Cottonwood/Aspen
Prunus spp.
Peach/Cherry
X
P. andersonii
Desert Peach
X
P. emarginata
Bitter Cherry
X
P. subcordata
Sierra Plum
X
P. virginiana var. demissa
Western Chokecherry
X
Pseudoroegneria spicata
Bluebunch Wheatgrass
X
Purshia tridentata
Antelope Brush
X
Quercus spp.
Oak
X
Q. kelloggii
X
X
Lewisia redivia
P. jeffreyi
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
California Black Oak
X
X
Ribes spp.
Currant;Gooseberry
X
X
Rorippa nasturium-aquaticum
Watercress
X
X
Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana Interior Wild Rose
X
X
Rubus parviflorus
Thimbleberry
Salix ssp.
Willow
Sambucus ssp.
Elderberry
X
Sarcobatus vermiculatus
Greasewood
X
Symphoricarpos parishii
Waxberry; Snowberry
X
Veratrum californicum
Corn Lily
Viola purpurea. Violet
Violet
Wyethia spp.
Mules Ears
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2.5
X
X
X
X
TABLE 2.1. WASHOE TRADITIONAL ECONOMIC RESOURCES, pg. 3 of 3
Wildlife
Fire-
Food Cond- Medi- Cere-
Habitat wood
iment
Tool/
Fiber Shel-
cine monial Utensils
NOTED IN
ter INTERVIEWS
ANIMALS
Antilocapra americana
Pronghorn Antelope
Castor canadensis
Beaver
X
X
(Ammo)Spermophilus spp.
Ground Squirrel
X
Dendragapus obscurus
Dusky or Blue Grouse
X
Erethizon dorsatum
Porcupine
X
Eutamias spp.
Chipmunks
X
Lepus spp. Jackrabbits
Jackrabbits
X
L. townsendii
White-tailed Jackrabbit
X
L. californicus
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
X
Marmota flaviventri
Yellow-bellied Marmot
X
Odocoileus hemionus
Mule Deer
X
Oreortyx picta
Mountain Quail
X
Ovis canadensis
Mountain Sheep
X
Sylvilagus audubonii or nuttallii
Cottontail
X
FISH
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
SALMONIDAE (SALMON FAMILY)
Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi
Lahontan Cutthroat Trout
X
Orcorhynchus clarkiseleniris
Paiute Cutthroat Trout
X
Orcorhynchus mykissiridens
Eagle Lake Trout
X
Prosopium williamsoni
Mountain Whitefish
X
CYPRINIDAE (MINNOW FAMILY)
Rhinichthys osculus robustus
Lahontan Speckled Dace
X
Richardsonius egregius
Lahontan Redside
X
Gila spp.
Lahontan Tui Chub
X
CATOSTOMIDAE (SUCKER FAMILY)
Catostomus tahoensis
Tahoe Sucker
X
2.6
X
Tree-Dominated Communities include forests, woodlands and savannas. Differences in
canopy and size of trees distinguish the three. Forests have denser canopies, possible
subcanopies, and possible shrub and herb understories. Woodlands have a mix of open and
closed canopies with smaller trees and varying shrub and herb understory depending on habitat
conditions. Savannas have even less continuous canopy and understory is dominated by grasses
and forbs (Holland and Kiel 1995:84-85). Tree-dominant communities of importance to the
study zone include montane forests and desert woodlands. Meadows and riparian zones also
exist as localized habitats within these plant communities.
Scrub or shrubland communities are differentiated by the plants that dominate these
associations (i.e., sagebrush scrub) or their geographic situation (i.e., coastal dune scrub).
Shrubland canopies vary from continuous (in dense stands) to open with an understory of herbs
and grasses. These communities may also vary in available moisture. For example, swamps
exist within shrubland and woodland communities where there are permanently wet soils with
standing water (Holland and Kiel 1995:88).
Herb-Dominated Communities include grasslands and meadows. Grasslands (also called
prairies and steppes), are dominated by a variety of grass species. Forbs (non-grassy herbs) and
scattered small shrubs may also be present in grasslands. Woodlands or savannas frequently
blend with grasslands, and grasses may be a major component of woodland or savanna
understories (Holland and Kiel 1995).
Meadows are open grassy areas within tree-dominated communities or may exist above
tree-dominated communities in higher elevations (Holland and Kiel 1995:88). Dominant
meadow plants include grasses, sedges, and associated herbaceous species. Meadow soils are
moist seasonally and usually contain fine-grained sediments.
Marshes, which can be wet permanently or seasonally, are characterized by sedges,
rushes, cattails and other water plants (Holland and Kiel 1995:89). Marshes are distinguished
from swamps by the lack of trees in the community area.
Riparian communities border streams, lakes, and springs, and usually consist of one or
more species of deciduous trees plus an assortment of shrubs and herbs (Holland and Kiel
1995:413). In the Eastern Sierra, riparian communities are found all along stream banks but
depending upon elevation, exposure and soils, they may vary in specific plant communities and
associations (Howald 2000:152).
Montane Evergreen Forests
The Montane Forest communities occur within the Sierra floristic province, as do the
Pinyon and Juniper Woodlands, although the latter are more frequently discussed within the
Great Basin rather than Sierra zone (Barbour and Major 1977). Rundel et al. (1977) break the
Montane and Subalpine forests into the lower montane forest, upper montane forest, and
deciduous forest.
2.7
Larger game animals deer and big horn sheep frequent the montane zones, as do the more
elusive big horn sheep. Other mammals hunted in the montane forests include the yellow-bellied
marmot (found in montane meadows), porcupine, white-tailed jackrabbit, ground squirrels,
dusky blue grouse, chipmunks, and mountain quail (Downs 1966, d’Azevedo 1986, and Jack
1978). The riparian zones host the beaver, which is also hunted by Washoe (Nevers 1976 and
d’Azevedo 1986).
Lower Montane Forests
Pinus ponderosa (Ponderosa pine) dominates the more xeric sites of the lower montane
forest ranging from 1200 to 2100 m (3900 to 6800 ft) in elevation south of Lake Tahoe. Summer
soil moisture and fire history are the major factors determining structure and characteristics of
the ponderosa pine forest. It thrives where fire is regular and light, as seedlings are intolerant of
shade. Seedlings of Abies concolor (white fir) and Calocedrus decurrens (incense cedar) are less
fire-tolerant and thus have increased where fire is suppressed (Rundel et al. 1977:563-564).
Ponderosa pine is a dominant tree across much of western North America and is a
valuable timber tree. At middle and higher elevations on more mesic sites, ponderosa pine forest
is replaced by white fir forests. Above 1800 m (5900 ft) (south of Plumas County), ponderosa
pine is replaced by P. jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine) (Holland and Kiel 1995:300; Rundel et al.
1977:561). At lower elevations in chaparral, ponderosa pine can be found interspersed with
Quercus kelloggii (California black oak) and incense cedar.
Montane Chaparral. The term ‘chaparral’ comes from the Spanish word chaparro,
meaning a “thicket of shrubby evergreen oaks” (Hanes 1977:419). Today, the term refers to
several types of shrubby plant communities with “small, thick, stiff, and evergreen” leaves,
referred to as sclerophyllous (Hanes 1977:419 and Holland and Kiel 1995:175). Distribution of
chaparral in the Sierra Nevada occurs on steep, dry slopes, and chaparral is known to help
stabilize rocky slopes (Holland and Kiel 1995:173 and Hanes 1977:419). Further, chaparral has
been found to be “an extremely efficient watershed cover, but … it also consumes most of the
soil moisture” (Hanes 1977:455).
There are numerous types of chaparral, but the type in Leviathan Canyon is the Montane
Chaparral, which occurs in association with other montane forest species requiring similar
conditions of cool to cold temperatures and heavy snow precipitation (Hanes 1977:427).
Montane chaparral are found on exposed sites of steep, rocky, south-facing slopes with shallow
soils; where forest cover has been decimated by fire, logging, landslides, etc.; or will occur as
understory in montane forests with open canopies (Holland and Kiel 1995:191).
Dominant shrubs include multiple species of the genera Ceanothus, Arctostaphylos,
Ribes, and Prunus; frequent species include Chrysolepsis sempervirens [Castanopsis s.] (bush
chinquapin), Quercus vaccinifolia (huckleberry oak), Symphoricarpos parishii (snowberry) and
2.8
Amelanchier alnifolia (Western serviceberry) (Holland and Kiel 1995:192; Storer and Usinger
1963:115).
In addition to economically significant berries found in the chaparral, numerous rodents
and mule deer are found (Hanes 1977:433). Other mammal species hunted by Washoe that
frequent chaparral include the black-tailed jackrabbit, cottontail rabbit, and ground squirrels
(Storer and Usinger 1963 and Jack 1978). The dove also prefers open woodland, chaparral or
grassland environments, and is hunted by Washoe (Storer and Usinger 1963 and Jack 1978).
White fir-Mixed Conifer Forest. Forests of white fir are dominant on mesic sites of
lower montane forests, commonly occurring from 1250 to 2200 m (4100 to 7200 ft). Although
white fir is the dominant species, others are also present, particularly, Pinus lambertiana (sugar
pine) and incense cedar. Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) is also a common associate
on mesic, unglaciated flats in the central and southern Sierra Nevada; ponderosa pine at lower
elevations and Jeffrey pine at higher elevations are common associates on more xeric sites
(Holland and Kiel 1995:314). At its uppermost elevational range, white fir forms a distinct zone
below Abies magnifica (red fir) forests and accounts for 80 percent or greater of the overstory;
this zone is second only to the red fir forests in its precipitation of 1000 to 1500 mm per year,
half of which comes from snow (Holland and Kiel 1995:312). In general, white fir forests are
not found in the high altitude zones in desert ranges (Holland and Kiel 1995:314).
Understory vegetation includes hardwood deciduous trees as well as shrubs, although
herbaceous covering is very sparse unless a moist, open area allows much sun and a meadow
develops (Holland and Kiel 1995:315). At lower elevations or on rocky sites, Acer macrophyllus
(big leaf maple), California black oak, Quercus chrysolepsis (canyon live oak), Arctostaphylos
patula (greenleaf manzanita), Chamaebatia foliolosa (mountain misery), Ceanothus integerrimus
(deerbrush), C. cordulatus (mountain white thorn snowbush), and C. parvifolius ( ceanothus)
thrive, especially where fire is frequent. Salix scouleriana (willow), Chysolepsis chrysophylla
[Castanopsis chrysophyllas] (giant chinquapin), Prunus emarginata (bitter cherry), Sambucus
spp. (elderberry) and Ribes spp. (currants and gooseberries) are also present (Rundel et al.
1977:565; Holland and Kiel 1995:315).
Herbaceous understories are limited to very wet areas, such as drainage bottoms, and
diversity is high. At lower elevations (below 1800 m [5900 ft]), Clintonia uniflora, Fragaria
californica (California strawberry), Goodyera oblongifolia (rattlesnake plantain), Asarum
hartwegii (wild ginger), and Iris hartwegii (iris) blend into the red fir zone (Rundell et al.
1977:569).
The riparian zone (see later discussion of montane riparian zones) within the White FirMixed Conifer forest includes Alnus rhombifolia (white alder), A. incana ssp. tenuifolia
(mountain alder), big leaf maple, Cornus sericea (creek dogwood), Rhododendrom occidentale
(western azalea), Ribes nevadense (mountain pink currant), Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry),
Fraxinus latifolia (Oregon ash), Physocarpus capitatus (ninebark), and Populus balsamifera ssp.
2.9
trichocarpa (black cottonwood), P. tremuloides (quaking aspen), Betula occidentalis (water
birch), and species of willow (Rundel et al. 1977:567 and Holland and Kiel 1995:305), as well as
wild rose bushes. The berries, willow, incense cedar, and sugar from the sugar pine are all
marked resources for the Washoe people (see appendix B).
Upper Montane forest
Red Fir. Red fir occurs at elevations of 1800 to 2759 m (5900 to 9000 ft), with annual
precipitation of 1000 to 1300 mm. South of Lake Tahoe, red fir is less common and occurs on
sheltered, gently sloping uplands; this tree requires the most precipitation of any of the montane
forest conifers. Where it does occur, red fir often occurs in pure, dense stands with an
overwhelming canopy that discourages other conifers. Red fir prefers well-developed soils of
optimum moisture; too much water produces stands of P. contorta ssp. murrayana (lodgepole
pine) and quaking aspen; too little water in rocky, poorly developed soils produces Jeffrey pine,
Pinus montifolia (western white pine), and Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) (Holland and
Kiel 1995:316-317).
Understory brushes, common after a fire has opened up the canopy, include Ceanothus
spp., greenleaf manzanita, Ribes roezlii, mountain chinquapin, bitter cherry, and Salix
scouleriana (willow), with occasional presence of California black oak. Herbaceous cover is
very slight because of the heavy canopy, but on gravelly soils in open areas, Arabis platysperma
(rock cress), Viola purpurea (violet), Eriogonum nudum (nude buckwheat), Gayophytum nuttalli,
Monardella odoratissima, Calyptridium umbellatum (pussypaws), Sitaion hystrix (squirrel tail),
and Wyethia mollis (mule ears), are found (Rundel et al. 1977:574).
Berries and mules ear provide food, while willow, manzanita, mules ears, and squirrel
tails are all utilized for items of material culture (see Appendix B).
Jeffrey Pine. The Jeffrey Pine Forest is characterized by almost pure stands of Jeffrey
pine, a close relative of the ponderosa pine, but much more forgiving of drought (annual
precipitation of 60 to 100 mm), cold weather and deep snow. In the Eastern Sierra, south of
Lake Tahoe, Jeffrey pine “usually dominates forests below 2450 m [8000 ft] and often occurs in
pure stands. In these areas, Jeffrey pine forests often form a distinct zone between red fir forests
at higher elevations and pinyon pine-juniper woodlands or Great Basin sagebrush scrub at lower
elevations” (Holland and Kiel 1995:301).
The understory of the Jeffrey Pine Forest depends on habitat factors (moisture, sun, soil,
etc.), but commonly, Great Basin shrubs dominate because of low moisture. The most important
understory shrubs are Artemisia tridentata (Great Basin sagebrush), Cercocorpus ledifolius
(curly leaf mountain mahogany), Leptodactylon pungens (phlox), Purshia tridentata (antelope or
bitterbrush), and Chrysothamnus parryi (Parry’s rabbitbrush) (Rundel et al. 1977:577).
Herbaceous understory includes squirrel tail, Elymus glaucus (blue wild rye),
Deschampia elongata (slender hair grass), Stipa occidentalis (needle grass), mule ears, and
2.10
Monardella odoratissima; at relatively mesic sites, Hordeum brachyantheum (barley), Bromus
orcuttiana (brome), Pyrola picta (white-veined wintergreen), and Wyethia angustifolia (another
species of mule ears) are also present (Rundel et al. 1977:577).
The plants provide medicine (big sagebrush), material culture (mountain mahogany,
squirrel tail, and mules ears), and food (blue wild rye and other seed grasses) (See Appendix B).
Lodgepole Pine. These forests occur above the red fir zone at elevations of 2440 to 3350
m (8000 to 11,000 ft) with annual precipitation of 750 to 1500 mm, most of which is winter
snow. Trees in this zone are typically shorter and the canopy is more open, but many very big
and tall trees are still seen. Lodgepole pine will also appear at lower elevations in more mesic
sites. “Lodgepole pine is one of the only trees that can tolerate the waterlogged soils of bogs,
meadows and lakes” (Holland and Kiel 1995:321). At its lower elevations, lodgepole pine mixes
with red fir, while at its upper range it mixes with subalpine forests. Understory shrubs are not
significant but may include Arctostaphylus nevadensis (manzanita), mountain white thorn
snowbush, curly leaf mountain mahogany, mountain chinquapin, Phyllodoce breweri (mountain
heather), and Ribes montigenum (mountain gooseberry) (Holland and Kiel 1995:325).
The herbaceous understory depends on moisture content; at the edge of bogs and
meadows, understory is lush and has meadow-type species; on dryer soils, understory is sparse
and similar to the red fir forest type (Holland and Kiel 1995:325).
The lodgepole pine is important to Washoe material culture, as it used for the important
pine nut pole, as are the manzanita and mountain mahogany shrubs. Mountain gooseberries and
other meadow plants provide food (See Appendix B).
Non-Evergreen Vegetation
Deciduous Forest/Montane Riparian Zone
Higher elevations of the Sierra also support populations of non-evergreen trees (e.g.,
water birch and quaking aspen) that are dependent upon sites with adequate water. These
communities are part of the Montane Riparian Zone (Holland and Kiel 1995:423). A frequent
associate is lodgepole pine.
Understory shrubs are commonly species of willow, currants and gooseberries. On some
eastern slopes, quaking aspen is bordered by sparse forests of Great Basin scrub (Holland and
Kiel 1995:426). Other shrubs associated with montane riparian communities include creek
dogwood, western azalea, thimbleberry, ninebark, Calycanthus occidentalis (sweet shrub), Rosa
woodsii var. ultramontana (interior wild rose), and species of willow, elderberry and snowberry
(Holland and Kiel 1995:424; Howald 2000:160). Montane and foothill riparian communities
also host a multitude of herbaceous plants, including Aralia californica (elk clover), Artemisia
douglasiana (mugwort), Carex spp. (sedge), Cyperus spp. (nutsedge), Epilobium spp. (fireweed
2.11
or willow herb), Equisetum spp. (horsetail), and Rorippa nasturium-aquaticum (watercress)
(Holland and Kiel 1995:422).
Water Birch. The water birch has an elevational distribution of 1500 to 2750 m (4900 to
9000 ft) in the southern part of the Sierra and is completely absent in the central and northern
regions. Commonly associated with water birch are black cottonwood, quaking aspen, and
species of willow (Rundel et al. 1977:583).
Quaking Aspen. Quaking aspen have the widest distribution of any tree in North
America and extend throughout the Sierra, but especially prefer the elevational zone of 1800 to
3000 m (5900 to 9800 ft). In locations adjacent to meadows or in rock piles at bases of cliffs
with adequate ground water, quaking aspen will form pure stands, with an open canopy that
invites “lush growth of grass and herbs” (Rundel et al. 1977:583). Quaking aspen prefer
seasonally wet sites, and those sites that are permanently wet find various species of willow
replacing quaking aspen.
These zones provide foods (berries, watercress, sedge, and nutsedge), medicines
(mugwort, and wild rose), and material culture (dogwood, wild rose, willow, and horsetail) (See
Appendix B).
Water. Montane and foothill riparian zones also host water resources, in the form of
creeks, rivers, and lakes. These bodies of water meet essential needs as well as providing fish, a
highly ranked resource, and various waterfowl species.
The study site, Leviathan Canyon, is the watershed of Leviathan Creek and Mountaineer
Creek; these two creeks merge to form Bryant Creek, which flows into the East Fork of the
Carson River. This is all part of the Lahontan Drainage area, one of the major internal drainage
systems of the Great Basin (Sada 2000 and Sigler and Sigler 1987). The waters of the Truckee,
Susan, Carson, and Walker rivers all flow into the Lahontan drainage. Tributaries of the Carson
River are found along approximately 50 miles of the crest of the Sierra (Sigler and Sigler
1987:5).
The native fish species of the Eastern Sierra (and Lahontan Basin) are found in multiple
habitats in this drainage system: thermal springs, small streams, rivers, and lakes. “Although it is
difficult to determine which areas the sixteen types of native fish…once occupied, these
probably included most of the lower elevation waters, but very few waters higher than 8000 feet
[2438 meters] elevation” (Sada 2000:246, emphasis added).
The creeks of Leviathan Canyon vary from approximately 1585 m (5200 ft) elevation,
where Bryant Creek flows into the East Fork of the Carson river; to approximately 1950 m (6400
ft), where Leviathan and Mountaineer merge to form Bryant; to approximately 2194 m (7200 ft),
where Leviathan flows adjacent to the Mine site (U.S.G.S. Map, Heenan Lake Quadrangle, 7.5
minute series). Thus, these sites are well within the range of elevations for distributions of native
species prior to historical and contemporary disruptions caused by mining and agriculture. A
2.12
hydrology report states that above the Mine, Leviathan Creek supports normal amounts of fish
and organic matter; however, once entering the Mine area and downstream to its confluence with
Bryant Creek and the East Fork, the creek no longer supports fish (Hammermeister 1985).
Another report on the Carson River notes that fish have not been reported in Bryant Creek since
1953, due to mining, and that huge quantities of fish were killed from the fishery in 1954 when
mass acid runoffs from the Mine entered into the waters (Horton 1999).
Native fish species (12 of them) are still found in the Eastern Sierra portion of the
Lahontan drainage, and most are widespread. The fish occupy five general types of aquatic
habitats: high-gradient streams, low-gradient streams, subalpine lakes, terminal lakes, and
springs and spring brooks. The Mountain Sucker and Salmon, Trout, and Sculpin fish tend to
inhabit high-altitude cold-water streams and lakes. The Lahontan redside, while possibly found
in these higher, colder waters, is more plentiful in lower-altitude, warmer waters (Sada
2000:253).
Lindstrom (1992) analyzed the use of native fish species by the Washoe people for the
Truckee River fishery and found fish to be a highly valuable resource, providing exceptional
nutrition in exchange for limited labor efforts, particularly during spawning runs. d’Azevedo
(1986:473) writes that “fishing provided the most predictable and consistent source of yearround food in the aboriginal and early historic Washoe period.” d’Azevedo details fishing
strategies of the Washoe, noting fish runs of Lahontan sucker up Long Valley Creek from Honey
lake, where large numbers of Washoe people gathered for first-fish rites and festivals. “Large
fish were caught by men using spears, hook and line, nets, traps, and weirs, while women used
twined baskets for scooping up minnows and fish eggs” (d’Azevedo 1986:473). In Washoe
origin tales, fish and minnows are mentioned frequently as major resources (Dangberg 1968).
Lindstrom (1992:69) gives a nutritional analysis of fish, noting that “fish are rich in
nutrients since they are excellent sources of digestible proteins, which are of high-quality
biological value in their amino acid composition…”. Most of the nutrients remain even in the
sun-dried state. Lindstrom compares lean meat protein composition (most game is considered to
be lean meat) of 550 calories per pound with that of fish, which ranges from 450 to 1,000
calories per pound. Fish are listed in Appendix B, with nutritional composition as provided by
Lindstrom (1992) noted.
Meadows
Meadows are found in every type of forest in the montane and subalpine Sierra, and can
be divided into three types: wet meadow, woodland meadow, and short-hair sedge.
Wet Meadow
This meadow is found above 1800 m (5900 ft) in the southern Sierra and presents an
open vegetation of perennial sedges, rushes, and grasses. Plants commonly reproduce through
rhizomes, which serves as a virtual storehouse of carbohydrates (Rundel et al. 1977:584).
2.13
Three subtypes of wet meadow are identified as: 1) Sphagnum moss dominated; 2)
Juncus (rushes) dominated, and 3) a fine-leaved sedge and grass type. The Sphagnum subtype
has acidic, “organic muck” that oxides if disturbed and is therefore easily disrupted by trampling.
The Juncus meadow is less easily disturbed because of tougher, more fibrous roots. The
resilience is offset, however, by the low carbohydrate and protein content of the plants, low
palatibility, and low tolerance to frost. The third type is found on drier, well-drained sandy
loams and has good forage value. Species of this type include Carex festivella (sedge),
Heleocharis pauciflora, Calamagrostis breweri (reed grass), Tricetum spicatum, Vaccinium
nivictum (dwarf bilberry), and Aster alpigenus ssp. andersonii (aster) (Rundel et al. 1977:584585).
Sedges and grasses formed seeds, identified by early Washoe people as very important to
their traditional diet (see Appendix B).
Woodlands Meadow
Like the wet meadow, the woodlands meadow is also found above 1800 m (5900 ft), but
hosts scattered grasses and forbs interspersed with lodgepole pine, willow species, quaking
aspen, and black cottonwood. A strong herbaceous community is found in this meadow,
depending on elevation and forest characteristics, and includes the grasses blue bunch
wheatgrass (Agropyron spp.), blue wild rye, and Bromus carinatus (California brome). Species
of lupine are also common (Rundel et al. 1977:585).
Below 2900 m (9500 ft) elevation, wildflowers are vivid and include species of aster,
Camassia quamash (camas lily) , Dodecatheon spp. (shooting stars), fireweed, Erigeron spp.
(fleabane daisy), Heracleum lanatium (cow parsnip), Cirsium scariosum (elk thistle), Dugaldia
hoopesii (mountain sneezeweed), Iris missouriensis (iris), Helenium bigelovii (sneezeweed),
Lilium pardalinum (leopard lily), L. parvum (alpine lily), Platanthera leucostachys (white bog
orchid), Oenothera elata (evening primrose), Barbarea orthoceras (winter cress), Sidalcea spp.
(checkerbloom), species of lupine, Pedicularis groenlandica (elephant heads), Potentilla spp.
(cinquefoil), Senecio spp. (groundsel), and Veratrum californicum (corn lily) (Holland and Kiel
1995:449-450).
This zone provides important medicines (cow parsnips, lilies, elephant heads, cinquefoil,
and corn lily) as well as foods (camas, wintercress, and lupine) for the Washoe people (see
Appendix B).
Short-hair Sedge
This third type of meadow is found at elevations from 2130 to 2440 m (7000 to 8000 ft)
and comprises a “tough Carex exserta [short-hair sedge] sod which will withstand considerable
disturbance. The foliage is extremely frost resistant and is high in carbohydrates and protein…”
(Rundel et al. 1977:585). This sedge and its associates, Antennaria spp (pussy toes), lupine,
2.14
needlegrass, and Trisetum spicata, prefer dry, gravelly soils. Growth takes place in the early
spring, with a summer dormancy. “Early growth, high nutrient content, and high palatability
make the short-hair sedge meadow an extremely important source of early-season forage” for
game (Rundel et al. 1977:585). Unfortunately, sheep grazing of the previous century severely
disrupted this vegetation, which once disturbed, reestablishes slowly and with difficulty (Rundel
et al. 1977 and Holland and Kiel 1995:448).
Possibly, the seeds of the sedges were harvested traditionally, but information is scant on
this resource for the Washoe (see Appendix B).
Desert Woodlands
Pinyon and Juniper Woodlands
Vasek and Thorne (1977:808) describe the pinyon and juniper woodland generally as
“vegetation types having one or more of the following species as a conspicuous emergent above
a shrubby or herbaceous understory: Pinus monophylla (one-leaf pinyon), Juniperus
osteosperma (Utah juniper), J. californica (California juniper), P. quadrifolia (four-leaf pinyon),
P. edulis (two-leaf pinyon).” This vegetation type occurs east of the Sierra Nevada and
southward from Alpine County and continues along the transmontane (east) slopes of the Sierra
Nevada. This is the westernmost distribution of the pinyon and juniper vegetation type, which is
found throughout the Colorado Plateau and the Great Basin. P. edulis does not occur in the study
area.
Vasek and Thorne (1977:808) prefer the term pinyon and juniper, rather than pinyonjuniper, because of altitudinal separation in distribution. They note that the woodlands
commonly occur above brush/scrub zones in valleys, “but a partial separation occurs with
junipers on lower slopes, pinyon on upper (steeper) slopes, and the two overlapping to some
degree near midslope…”
Holland and Kiel (1995:395) place the pinyon and juniper woodlands within their desert
woodlands communities, noting that desert woodland communities are characterized by a
“mixture of desert shrubs and small xerophytic trees,” with the distribution of trees dependent on
available soil moisture and range of temperature. This belt, at 750 to 2400 m (2460 to 7870
feet), falls below the elevations of Montane Forest, but above the desert scrub communities.
Precipitation is between 15 and 50 cm per year (Holland and Kiel 1995:395).
Trees are usually 3 to 15 m (10 to 50 ft) in height. Junipers are more xerophytic than
pinyon and will grow in pure stands in lower altitudes with warmer, dryer conditions. Pinyons
increase in dominance with elevation, often grading into the lower portions of Jeffrey pine
forests (Holland and Kiel 1995:397). Howald (2000:161) places elevation at 1520 to 2740 m
(4980 to 8980 feet), noting the woodlands occur where “soils are gravelly and well drained” with
yearly precipitation between 250 to 500 mm.
2.15
Howald (2000:161-162) notes the close association of pinyon-juniper with sagebrush
scrub, writing that “On Sierran slopes and uplands immediately to the east, stands of pinyon and
juniper commonly occupy higher, steeper slopes with rockier soils, higher rainfall, and cooler
temperatures, while Sagebrush Scrub occurs just below in sites that are less steep, less rocky,
hotter, and drier.” The pinyon is the dominant tree, although it forms mixed stands with juniper.
Dominant trees or large shrubs include one-leaf pinyon, Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper),
Utah juniper, and curly-leaf mountain mahogany.
Understory plants include Great Basin sagebrush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus and C.
viscidiflorus (rabbitbrush), Grayia spinosa (hop sage), Sarcobatus verniculatus) (greasewood),
curly-leaf mountain mahogany, Ephedra viridis (mormon or Indian tea), Purshia (bitterbrush),
and Prunus andersonii (desert peach).
The zone provides the Washoe with the seed from the single-needled pinyon, the pine
nut, which is one of the most important and critical resources to the Washoe people, both
historically and contemporarily. Shrubs such as sagebrush, greasewood, desert peach, and
antelope brush provide items of material culture, and plants of Indian tea and sagebrush provide
medicines.
Sierra Nevada Pinyon Woodland. Referring specifically to the Sierra Nevada Pinyon
Woodland, Vasek and Thorne (1977:809) describe single-leaf pinyon and Utah juniper occurring
in western Nevada and extending into Alpine County, California, and ranging southward over
the mountainous area east of the Sierra Nevada. Single-leaf pinyon, but not Utah juniper,
spreads into the Sierra Nevada “where they form a distinctive pinyon woodland on steep eastfacing mountain slopes between the sagebrush below and coniferous forests and woodlands
above. In Alpine Co., P. monophylla merges with mountain juniper woodland.” Understory
shrubs commonly are species of the Great Basin sagebrush scrub communities and include Great
Basin sagebrush, rabbitbrush, bitterbrush, desert peach, and perennial grasses (Holland and Kiel
1995:403).
Mountain Juniper Woodland. Mountain Juniper Woodland is marked by the presence
of J. occidentalis var. australis (mountain juniper) with associates of Jeffrey pine, curly-leaf
mountain mahogany, bitterbrush and Great Basin sagebrush. “The common pattern in this region
places mountain junipers in forested uplands and western junipers in sagebrush lowlands. The
transition between mountain juniper woodland and western juniper woodland is essentially
clinal…” (Vasek and Thorne 1977:803). Mountain juniper commonly grows above 2200 m
(7200 ft), and “on the transmontane slopes of the Sierra Nevada it commonly occupies a zone
over the pinyon pine woodlands and extends upward in elevation into subalpine forests”
(Holland and Kiel 1995:405).
2.16
Desert Riparian Communities
The high desert riparian woodland is similar to montane riparian woodland, but occurs at
lower desert elevations (Howald 2000:152). This zone includes willow (Salix lasiolepsis,), black
cottonwood, California black oak, Rhamnus californica (chaparral coffeeberry), water birch,
Fremont cottonwood, interior wild rose, Jeffrey pine, mountain pink currant, ponderosa pine, and
Clematis ligusticifolia (virgin’s bower).
Sagebrush Scrub
The Sagebrush Scrub (Sagebrush Steppe) Community is said to occur in “relatively deep
but well-drained, non-alkaline soils” at elevations from 1300 to 2300 m (4200 to 7500 ft)
(Holland and Kiel 1995: 357). It is defined as “a series of generally treeless, shrub-dominated
communities (in which) various species of Artemisia (sagebrush) are the dominant shrubs, with
perennial bunch grasses characterizing the understory” (Young et al. 1977:764). For the Eastern
Sierra, this is “a transitional series of communities between the coniferous forests of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains and the extensive Artemisia steppe of the Great Basin” (Young et al.
1977:764).
Dominant shrubs include Great Basin sagebrush, rabbit brush, Indian tea, hop sage,
bitterbrush, desert peach, and Tetradymia canescens (cotton-thorn) (Holland and Kiel 1995:359).
Frequently occurring species within the Eastern Sierra include Prunus spp. (e.g., chokecherry),
Purshia spp. (bitterbrush), Ribes spp. (currant and gooseberry) and snowberry, as well as
rabbitbrush and cotton-thorn (the latter frequently occurring on disturbed sites). Dominant herbs
include needlegrasses, California brome, squirrel tail, Leymus cinereus [Elymus cinereus] (Great
Basin wild rye), and blue bunch wheat grass. Important economic plants include currants,
gooseberries, grasses, and squirrel tail.
Of all the communities, Great Basin Scrub has been most affected by the introduction of
grazing. The indigenous grasses have been severely disrupted by sheep and cattle grazing
(Holland and Kiel 1995:360 and Howald 2000:167). The extent of the disruption is illustrated by
a reference made by DeQuille in 1861 to astounding fields of reaped grain from which
neighboring Paiute Indians collected large amounts of grass seed (Wright 1963). Such
concentrations of grass seeds are no longer seen.
Mule deer, pronghorn antelope, and desert bighorn sheep will browse on sagebrush that
occurs in areas of high water, especially zones where the sagebrush is transitioning to coniferous
forest or woodland; in general, however, bitterbrush is the most important browse species of the
Sagebrush Scrub (Young et al. 1977:771).
Conclusion
Together these zones and their biotic associations comprise a rich, diverse setting for
obtaining economic resources. In addition, specific locations and time of collection of any
particular economic resource will vary according to local environmental characteristics and
2.17
specific site histories. For someone unfamiliar with this territory, these details would seem
challenging to comprehend. However, traditional knowledge is passed from generation to
generation of Washoe people. Their local expertise serves as a cultural storehouse of microenvironmental information, locations for collections, and accurate details of procurement and
extraction techniques. Such information is perceived as vital to their cultural survival, and thus,
has been imbedded in their cultural traditions. A document of this information, as it pertains to
economic activities, is listed below as the Ethnographic Context. In many cases, this knowledge
is still actively stored in the customs, traditions and memories of living tribal members.
2.18
3. ETHNOGRAPHIC CONTEXT
Laurie A. Walsh
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this section is to show how the traditional Washoe lifeways, before and
after contact, are the foundation upon which contemporary Washoe life is based, particularly in
regard to those activities that expose people to the environment. As such, it is critical that a
general sense of what traditional life was like be presented. It is also important to give a sense of
how places such as Leviathan and Bryant Creek were used. Anthropologists working in the
region, conducting research in the context of their times, captured and documented an essence of
Washoe life as it was before Europeans arrived and they described how the Washoe coped with
the changes wrought by these invaders (e.g., Barrett 1917; d’Azevedo 1963, 1986, 1990;
Dangberg 1968; Downs 1966; Freed 1966; Jacobsen 1986; Lowie 1939; Lindstrom 1992; Nevers
1976; Price 1962, 1980; Siskin 1938, 1983; Steward 1938). The patterns these researchers
described provide essential context for understanding how Washoe people embracing traditional
values interact with their physical environment.
The Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California have resided for countless generations in the
Sierra Mountain Range and the first line of north-south trending valleys along the eastern edge
of the mountains. Origin stories recount how seeds were transformed into Washoe people in
“their valley” and convey how figures such as Coyote, the Weasel Brothers, and Old Woman
traveled in and used this land, and they show how these figures related to one another as social
beings (Dangberg 1968; Lowie 1963). The location of present-day Washoe communities in
Reno, Carson City, Gardnerville, Nevada and Woodfords, California not only reflects their long
term occupation, but signifies their tenacity in surviving the encroachment of Europeans into the
Washoe homeland. The Washoe never left their country, in spite of overwhelming foreign forces
that inhibited and prohibited their use of all that constitutes the traditional homeland, particularly
the richest parts of their country. As have so many other hunting and gathering people in the
world, the Washoe learned to live in a profoundly transformed environment and, like the strong
seeds that bore them, the Washoe are here to stay.
The Washoe were traditionally a group who fished, gathered, and hunted to make a living
(d’Azevedo 1986). The lifestyle was relatively mobile during the warmer months as kin groups
moved to known resource localities near which they built temporary shelters at traditional camp
sites. In contrast, winter was a time when people were sedentary and lived in substantial houses
at permanent residential bases subsisting on largely stored resources (i.e., seeds, pine nuts, fish,
meat) that had been gathered throughout the productive months. The core area of territory
contained most of the necessities for making a living and was an area of exclusive Washoe
occupancy, while the peripheral area enabled people to lay in additional and very necessary
stocks (i.e., fish or acorns) for the winter (d’Azevedo 1986:467). Like other people in the
region, this system usually guaranteed that Washoe families could store sufficient resources to
see them through the entire year. The Washoe, like all hunting and gathering peoples, carried
with them an encyclopedic knowledge of the location of both living and nonliving resources; this
knowledge was acquired through the experience of living in this land and was passed down from
3.1
generation to generation. In addition to knowing where to acquire certain living resources,
people had to fully understand life cycles and/or behavior of plants and animals and the
environmental factors that affect their distribution and productivity. One also had to know the
names and locations of traditional camping areas, and how to get there. As well, it was not
enough to know where obsidian or chert, for example, was to be found; one needed to
understand the quality of the material in terms of its size and flake-abilty and its suitability for
the task. All adults were knowledgeable about these matters and they continued to learn as they
aged and to pass this vital information on to younger generations.
Washoe people are no longer the hunter-gatherers of yesteryear. It would be absurd to
expect this, just as it would be misguided to assume contemporary Washoe bear no resemblance
to their ancestors. Most Washoe people share a common identity that ties them as a people to
traditional activities such as collecting pine nuts and acorns, a distinctive Washoe language and
an inclusive view of the natural world and practice that must include contact with that natural
world (D. Garey-Sage, personal communication, 2002). This identity is conceptualized as
separate from that of other Americans. In addition, many Washoe people commonly emphasize
different parts of their heritage. Some have become superior basket makers, while others make
sure they have a supply of pine nuts or acorns for the year that they grind on their own grinding
stones. Still others may take their kids into the nearby mountains to hunt and enjoy their
country. Renewal and preservation of the Washoe language is a high priority for the Tribe,
which for the past several years has provided much support to a nonprofit language immersion
school located on the reservation, where children have been intensively exposed to Washoe
language and culture. Some people have collected the grinding stones from their mother’s and
grandmother’s camps and placed them in gardens at home. When traveling to Lake Tahoe, many
Washoe people go the long way around the lake instead of passing through Cave Rock and its
spiritual power. These are all dynamic ways of maintaining a unique Washoe identity. Some
individuals are keenly interested in learning all they can about their traditional culture from their
elders and from anthropological sources and these people act on this knowledge. Tradition in a
contemporary context is dynamic and reflects a weaving together of very different cultural
values and practice.
TERRITORY
The traditional homeland was some 120 mi long by 40 mi wide and covered some 4000
sq mi that encompassed a wide variety of very productive environments in both Great Basin and
Sierran biotic zones (d’Azevedo 1986:466-468). Productivity was such that one person per 2.7
sq mi was the norm as opposed to one person per 15 sq mi further east in the Great Basin (Price
1980:46). The core area included heads of river valleys on the west side of the Sierra
(particularly the Stanislaus River) where acorn was available as well as the Lake Tahoe basin
with its abundant fisheries. The southern shores of Honey Lake marked the northern extent of
the homeland while the west fork of the Walker River drainage marked the southern edge of the
territory; in these valley systems fish, waterfowl, seed bearing plants, and other resources were
abundant. To the east, the core area extended into the Pine Nut Mountains and to a more limited
extent into the Pah Rah and Virginian ranges where pinyon pine provided nut meats. The
Washoe also used peripheral areas which expanded the range to 10,000 sq mi, but these were not
used on a sustained basis. The peripheral zone of use allowed for access to key concentrated
3.2
resources such as fish and acorn (acorn was especially important for northern groups who lived
beyond the range of pinyon pine) as well as opportunities for trade and socializing. Peripheral
areas included Mono Lake, Walker River and Walker Lake, the lower Truckee River and
Pyramid Lake, in addition to upper river valley systems on the west side of the Sierra (Barrett
1917; d’Azevedo 1986; Lowie 1939). Peripheral areas were used with permission and/or
understandings between the Washoe and their neighbors (d’Azevedo 1986:467). For example,
Paiute people allowed the Washoe to fish in lower reaches of the Truckee River within their
territory during running season (Fowler and Fowler 1970:120-121).
Washoe territory was loosely divided into four named directional sectors (d’Azevedo
1986:468-469; Downs 1966:49; Price 1980:46). People were associated with the northern,
eastern, and southern sectors. Interestingly, the mountainous western area, while named, was a
zone used during ‘moving about’ times. As such, no one was from that sector. The settlement
pattern in the Lake Tahoe basin reflected these regional subdivisions with people returning to
traditional camps and areas occupied by northerners, southerners, and easterners. The meaning
of these subdivisions is not fully understood in that they were not territories associated with
specific memberships; in fact, as d’Azevedo points out (1986:469), the use of the terms was
sometimes dependent on the location of the person using the term. Thus, people living in the
south might refer to those in Carson Valley as northerners. Association with one subregion or
another depended on where one generally wintered (Downs 1966:49), but as d’Azevedo
(1986:469) observes, these villages were also the places most people were born and had spent
most of their lives.
Also related to territory was family ownership of pinyon pine tree groves and resource
areas. Not all families owned pine nutting strips and people lacking these referred to themselves
as “vagabonds” (Siskin 1937) which perhaps indicates that property ownership tethered a person
to a place. Pinyon pine provided very nutritious nuts that could be stored for at least a year and
were thus a critical resource. Prime areas for pine nutting were in the Pine Nut Mountains,
toward the northern extent of the tree’s biotic range. Families gathered pine nuts in strips that
were about a half mile wide and extended uphill to the upper limit of the trees so that people
could capitalize on the lower to upper elevation ripening pattern. These strips were owned and
inherited through the father’s line (d’Azevedo 1986; Siskin 1937). If there were no children, the
brothers and sisters of the father continued ownership. Ownership depended on the nature of the
area. Foothills that were underproductive were open to all as were higher and more difficult to
access areas. Places between owned strips were also available to all. Price (1980:66) states that
owned strips were marked with stones, while Siskin’s (1937) field notes indicate that these were
“defended” in that trespassers had their tools (i.e., hooks, baskets) broken. Washoes lacking pine
nut strips could be invited to pick with extended family or use unclaimed areas. It is interesting
that unclaimed areas were not claimed by those lacking strips, which perhaps suggests that
inheritance was the only pathway to ownership.
Some fishing grounds were owned as well, especially areas where large fish spawned.
However, these were owned temporarily and an area could be claimed by anyone. If a man built
a fishing platform, he owned the spot and had exclusive rights; once he abandoned it, someone
else could claim the spot. Siskin’s (1937) consultants claimed that there were no individual
fishing sites in Carson Valley which may speak to the importance of the Truckee River system
3.3
fishery. As well, the Washoe people conceptualized a general type of ownership derived from
prior use (Price 1980:57). In this instance, local communities “owned” hunting territory, fishing
streams, and springs they actually used. Price (1980:57) also mentions that a Coyote story
suggests ownership of gathering locales. This “ownership” of resources patches due to either
inheritance or use-right shows that Washoe did not view their homeland simply as an array of
resources of varying types and densities, but rather their landscape was cultural with some
localities reflecting enduring or temporary use by specific peoples for specific purposes.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Family-based kinship dominated social organization among the Washoe people and the
household formed the core social group. The household group was composed of at least one
nuclear family who shared the same dwelling in addition to other relatives (d’Azevedo
1986:483). A man could have two wives, ideally who were sisters, but no more than that. If the
first wife did not want her husband to take a second wife, he usually concurred with her (Siskin
1937). At times two nuclear families, consanguinally related, resided together. As well, a few
more distant relatives could be part of the household in a flexible arrangement. The household
was the basic economic unit in that members were a self-sufficient extended family who hunted,
fished, and gathered for its benefit (d’Azevedo 1986:483-486; Price 1980:46). Sharing resources
within the household was expected. For example, if two women went to gather wild onions they
shared their take with all members of the family. Likewise, when a man returned with a rabbit,
he shared that with his family. As such, each member of the household received a portion of the
take regardless of the relative contribution each made. In regard to deer and other large game,
the hunter was obligated to share the meat with other members of the hunting party (Siskin
1937); once a man returned to his home, he then shared that portion with his family following
the same rules of sharing within a household. The ethos of sharing embodies what it meant to be
a member of a household–one took care of one’s family and they took care of you. To not share
was to be stingy and was not tolerated. Sharing extended outward but was less prevalent as kin
and residential distance increased (Price 1980:59). This strong value of sharing has profound
implications for the spread of toxins through contaminated foods and other resources.
After the household group was the local community (d’Azevedo 1986:48-486; Downs
1966:44-45; Price 1980:46-47). This social group was composed of two to ten households that
were closely related, either siblings, parents, or grandparents, who all lived in the same
residential base, particularly during winter. Some members were single, some were married.
Membership in the local community was quite flexible and people came and went at will
depending on social tensions, desire to visit other friends or relatives, need to leave following a
death, or insufficient resource base, among others. The local community was a cooperative
group who worked together during communal hunts or drives, for example. The local
community resided together at winter residences that were relatively permanent and when
families split off to “move about” during other seasons, the “home” they returned to was the
winter village and the families associated with that place. Thus, winter villages, for Washoe
people, were relatively stable and reflected the place where one was from. Naming practices
affirm this tradition in that names could refer to the community in which a person lived (Price
1980:21). Finally, regional communities formed a larger social grouping comprised of local
communities who had close ties and who lived in close proximity to one another within the
3.4
subdivisions of the territory (d’Azevedo 1986; Downs 1966; Price 1980).
MAKING A LIVING, OR MOVING ABOUT
The concept of “moving about” was documented by d’Azevedo (1986:484). This
Washoe term is associated with both seasonal mobility and the use of temporary camps, and
more specifically, connotes the splitting up of local winter communities into smaller family
units. Coupled with this concept is the idea of returning ‘home’ which is associated with the
winter residence, the most permanent of Washoe living places. These paired notions capture the
Washoe view of what anthropologists refer to as a seasonal round as well as mark a beginning
and ending point in the seasonal round. However, other ideas are also reflected. ‘Moving about’
seems to symbolize the transient time when people enjoyed traveling to known camps and
resource areas throughout the land, stopping only for short stays to fish, hunt, and gather before
packing up and moving to other locations. In contrast, the idea of returning ‘home’ suggests
some permanence of winter residence and a time for little movement. Perhaps most interesting
is that winter residences, used repeatedly by local communities and seldom fully abandoned,
were central places–home places. Mobility is the key to survival for many hunting and gathering
people, and in this the Washoe were no exception. ‘Moving about’ meant it was time to eat fresh
food and begin the long process and hard work of procuring stores for the winter. It also was a
time when people could visit places, family, and friends. After months of walking in their
country, collecting food and materials, going home meant it was time to settle in for the winter.
The seasonal cycle of movement began and ended at the winter village, or local
community. Winter was a time when people enjoyed the stored foods (such as seeds, pine nuts,
acorns, dried meat and fish, dried greens, and dried berries) they had worked so hard to set aside
during ‘moving about’ time. During winter, families lived in large and sturdy houses in local
communities situated in the lower parts of the Pine Nut Range and in the valleys near the rivers
and springs and close to a variety of ecozones (d’Azevedo 1986:472). Winter houses were
substantial structures built to last for several years (Barrett 1917:10-11; d’Azevedo 1986:479480; Price 1962:66-70). These large circular structures were entirely enclosed and layered with
various kinds of thatching to repel water and snow. A central hearth kept people warm and
doors always faced east so that families could soak up the warmth of the morning sun. Jim
Wade, George Snooks, and Mike Holbrook, working with Edgar Siskin in the 1930s, provided
more details about winter household spaces (Siskin 1937). Winter camp spaces also included
pine nut storage pits that were sited outside the house. At times, closely related families living
next to one another shared a storage pit, placing their food on opposite sides of the pit, but this
was infrequent. (Presumably there was more than one storage pit as people set aside far more
resources than pine nuts.) The house was owned jointly by the family and inside the house “the
wife is the boss” (Siskin 1937).
Toward the end of winter in warmer weather, local communities began ‘moving about’ to
take advantage of early grasses and bulbs. During this time, the local communities split into
household groups and these groups traveled widely to meet their needs. The household did not
necessarily remain intact during this time. Different life cycles of plants and animals meant the
different groups might make special trips to take advantage of certain resources. For example,
some of the younger men and boys traveled to Lake Tahoe to fish, and returned to the winter
3.5
camp on occasion to give fish to those remaining. As well, men sometimes formed a hunting or
fishing party and left for a few days while the women scoured the mountain meadows in search
of greens (Downs 1966:18). This pattern was not random; the Washoe pepole returned to
traditional camps and known resource zones throughout their territory, and often on an annual
basis.
Winter villages were never fully abandoned; elderly people stayed as well as some
grandchildren (d’Azevedo 1986:472). According to Jim Wade and George Snooks, if fresh food
was available at the wintering site, some people stayed to collect those resources, moving out
when those had been exhausted. Other families headed toward more distant resource patches or
perhaps travel to where other family members were already camped, provided those family
members approved. There might be 3-4 camps sited close to each other in these instances
(Siskin 1937). During this time people camped in temporary dwellings including windbreaks,
shades, and summer houses and the general pattern was movement toward the western part of the
territory, including Lake Tahoe (d’Azevedo 1986:472, 479-481; Siskin 1937). Typically, people
camped by a spring or some other water source and where they erect a shelter; at Lake Tahoe
family groups always camped by rivers and streams because they were primarily fishing (Siskin
1937). The people who went to the lake followed the same trail (a named place) every year and
the knowledge of that “road” was be handed down from generation to generation (Siskin 1937).
These trails followed major streams and passes. While not specifically mentioned by Siskin
(1937), Bryant and Leviathan Creeks provide such a travel corridor. People living in the pine
nut hills moveed to the valleys in spring; there they built valley type of summer shelters (Siskin
1937). As the weather warmed, people moved to the new resources, and while Washoe families
enjoyed these fresh foods, they were always carefully gathering stores for winter. During
‘moving about’ time, Washoe were camping and fishing, gathering, and hunting throughout their
territory, but the greatest density of people were clearly in the eastern Sierra and at Lake Tahoe.
Once people began to move around acquiring resources, a different kind of social
movement ensued. While the majority of adult members in a hunting and gathering society were
well-versed in most aspects of everyday life, the sexual division of labor ensured that males and
females provided different resources using different strategies. In general, men traveled more
widely and were expert hunters of large game and large fish, while women had more restricted
travel that was closer to home bases and they were expert gatherers of plants. Much of this
expertise was acquired in childhood, as adults needed to have the skills to support their families.
Among the Washoe, it was only after a boy first killed a deer that he was eligible for marriage
(Price 1980:27); at this point a young man had the expertise to support a family. As a man grew
older and gained even more experience, if an exceptional hunter, he could become a “leader” of
hunts as his knowledge and advice in regard to hunting activities was valued and followed (Price
1980:58). In contrast, a girl learned from her mother, grandmother, and aunties the life of plants
and how these were gathered, processed and used. This process went on throughout a lifetime,
but a girl had to be fully versed in gathering by the time of her first menses. After a girl’s
puberty ceremony, she was eligible for marriage (d’Azevedo 1986:487; Price 1980:26), and as
such had to be able to do the work of a woman. This division of labor and varying expertise,
when seen through production within a household, ensured that all needs were met in an
economic system that depended on direct acquisition of needed resources. However, during the
fall rabbit drives and pine nut picking, when very intense and large scale activities were required
3.6
to maximize harvest, men and women worked cooperatively. Again, this ensures that particular
dense resources are acquired in large quantities.
Hunting Activities
Hunting large game was a major task for men, particularly during fall migrations of these
animals. Large game such as California mule deer, antelope, and mountain sheep were hunted
(d’Azevedo 1986:477; Downs 1966:28-33). Among these, mule deer hunting was particularly
important to the diet, especially from late August to early winter (Downs 1966:28; Price
1980:48). The Washoe distinguished between deer that migrated east in the fall and those that
went west, but this was not linguistically marked (Downs 1966:28). In the eastern Sierra during
late summer and fall, deer migrated down to lower browsing areas using well-known routes such
as canyons and drainages. Deer could be hunted by one or two men who traveled to places
where deer were known to be. At times when herds had been seen, large parties of men walked
to migratory trails and set up ambushes. An exceptional hunter was chosen as the leader of such
a party and he knew of good hunting places and give instructions (d’Azevedo 1986:477; Siskin
1937). According to Siskin’s (1937) consultants, all the men bathed in cold water from a spring,
creek, or river prior to hunting. Then the hunter washed himself with the root of a plant to “kill
the human odor” and for good luck. For group hunts, 5-10 men might go and the hunters
informed everyone where they would camp, sometimes for five days, but more usually for three
to four. This suggests that hunting parties used the same camping places repeatedly. Ambushing
herds of deer involved stationing men in “low cuts in hills where deer could run” (d’Azevedo
[1986:477] cites Dangberg for the use of rock and brush blinds as well), while others circled
around to shout and chase the deer toward the waiting men who then shot the deer with bows and
arrows. At times small fires were lit to scare the deer. If a party made a kill on the first day, the
deer was cut up and hung in a dead tree and stored there until it was retrieved when the hunt was
finished. When a deer was killed both eyes were removed and buried to ensure the hunter’s
future luck. Intestines and insides were not generally eaten and were thrown on top of a log or
rock out of reach of other animals; if this was not done, a hunter would have bad luck. The cut
up deer was then transported back to camp where it was shared with family and friends. A
hunter did not “own” a kill. All participants in the hunt were entitled to a share.
Hunting small game provided a stable source of meat. Hares and rabbits were among the
most important animals to the Washoe being ubiquitous and easier to dispatch (d’Azevedo
1986:478). On a regular basis, rabbits were hunted individually using a bow and arrow, and they
could be clubbed in their burrows. In the fall when populations were high, large scale rabbit
drives lasting several days were held in lowland valleys and these involved large numbers of
people, including men, women, and children. Drives were led by a “rabbit boss” who held an
inherited position of leadership specifically for these drives and whose job it was to call together
people from various local communities to participate. Usually the drives began at the upper end
of a large flat area with a line of people walking in a semi-circle toward many individually
owned nets that had been connected. The rabbits were driven into the nets and then dispatched
with a club. The rabbits were divided among participants and then were skinned. The pelts were
used to weave rabbit blankets and capes. Some carcasses were cooked for immediate
consumption and many others were dried for use during the winter months.
3.7
Other smaller animals also formed a component of the Washoe diet, but these were less
important and taken on an encounter basis. Accordingly, this kind of hunting was not restricted
to adult males (d’Azevedo 1986:478; Downs 1966:34). For example, if a woman gathering
plants saw a marmot, she would take it. Chipmunks, squirrels, gophers, woodchucks, and
badgers were hunted using snares, traps, or bows and arrows. Women regularly smoked out
gopher or ground squirrel, or they flooded their burrows by diverting stream water (Downs
1966:34). Porcupines and beaver, being succulent, were sought regularly (d’Azevedo 1986:478;
Downs 1966:34). Porcupines, being slow, could be killed by a child using a stick. Squirrels
were also regular food and these were often caught by older men past their prime hunting years
or by boys learning the art of hunting.
Birds were common in Washoe territory, particularly in the eastern sector. In general
people did not move to these resources, but when available most birds were hunted (d’Azevedo
1986:478; Downs 1966:33-34). Exceptions were scavengers or predators such as eagle, magpie,
hawk, owl, and crow and presumably small birds like finches or sparrows. Land birds like sage
hen, quail, and doves were killed using a bow and arrow. Waterfowl were driven into nets when
found congregating in shallow lakes particularly in fall and spring when thousands of birds
traveled through the region which is on the Pacific flyway route.
Fishing Activities
Fishing was an important economic activity for Washoe people as fish was a consistent
and predictable resource (Lindström 1992:221-227) in their territory. Fish spawned during every
month except August and September and during times of abundance many fish were caught and
stored. Washoe fishing folk knew which fish inhabited the streams in their country and were
undoubtedly cognizant of the running pattern. The territory of the Washoe is well-watered with
multitudes of permanent streams draining east from the Sierra in addition to Lake Tahoe,
Washoe Lake, and Honey Lake, and the Truckee, Carson, and Walker Rivers. A wide variety of
fish inhabit these waters and they run at various times of the year. The Truckee River was and is
a major fishery containing Lahontan cutthroat trout, cui-ui, Tahoe sucker, mountain sucker,
mountain whitefish, tui chub, Lahontan redside, Paiute sculpin, and speckled dace (Lindström
1992:22).
Fishing for larger species was a major task for men and involved a wide variety of
techniques including spearing, line and hook, nets, traps, weirs, dams, and so on (d’Azevedo
1986:473; Downs 1966:12-16). These methods could involve a single person, a family, or a
group of men; of course, groups fishing was more effective during large runs (d’Azevedo
1986:473; Downs 1966:17). On the Truckee and Walker Rivers the Washoe constructed fishing
platforms where trout were speared. The spear was two-pronged and the head, made of wood,
sinew, and bone, fit into a pole. These fishing spots were owned by the individual who built the
platform for the duration of his use. Along the lower Truckee, Siskin’s (1937) consultants
indicated that groups of men built large dam-like fish traps in shallow places and that these were
co-owned by the group. Owners allowed others to fish at their sites with permission and at no
cost to the guest. Details of fishing in the Carson system are scant, but both the Carson and
Walker rivers contained cutthroat trout and mountain whitefish that run in spring and fall.
Siskin’s (1937) Washoe teachers indicated that there were no individually owned fishing sites in
3.8
Carson Valley. Overall, it seems these fishing techniques were used on larger streams where
larger and more fish were available.
Accounts relating to the use of small streams are scant, but given the emphasis on fish, it
is highly probable that all streams with fish runs were targeted. On small streams, water could
be diverted so as to scoop fish trapped in shallow pools. A man using a spear could stand at the
side of a stream or on a rock and spear large fish and often a man stood “waist deep in water” to
wait for his prey (Downs 1966:15). Downs (1966:17) also reports that small streams “only a few
yards wide could be swept by three or four men holding a net or pushing a bundle of willows to
entrap the fish” which then were scooped using a net or basket. Leviathan Creek was a place
where “big fish” (i.e., trout, whitefish) were caught and it appears to have been well-used by
individuals in recent times (Walker and Associates 2002). Women used baskets to scoop up
minnows and fish eggs. Minnows were easier to catch in large numbers as the warm weather
lowered stream levels and hundreds were scooped using a winnowing tray (Downs 1966:15).
Larger fish were pit roasted while smaller fish, fish eggs, and roe could be roasted, boiled
or dried. Excess large fish such as trout and whitefish were dried for winter stores (d’Azevedo
1986:473). Minnows were also roasted in an earthen oven (Downs 1966:15). A fire was set to
heat up the sediment. Once the ashes and charcoal were removed, the minnows were placed
inside, covered with sediment and a fire was lit on top of that. Typically these earth ovens were
dug stream side within the flood plain.
Siskin reported that “oysters” (probably freshwater mussels) were taken from rivers in
the valleys (Siskin 1937) and in small streams like Leviathan Creek (Walker and Associates
2002: 152). Oysters were baked whole in ashes and once the flesh was eaten, the shell was
thrown away (Siskin 1937).
Plant Gathering Activities
Plants, of course, grow throughout the territory, however, the distribution varies with
such factors as elevation, soil, water, and exposure (d’Azevedo 1986:473-477; Downs 1966).
Washoe people knew where every important resource occurred, along with its characteristics, so
they scheduled their activities to take full advantage of emerging resources. This was essential
as people not only gathered fresh foods for immediate consumption, but were also setting aside
stores for the coming winter in addition to collecting medicines and other useful plant products.
The importance of plant foods that were needed for winter is broadly linguistically marked with
those storable foods categorized as “real food” (d’Azevedo 1986:477; Rucks 2001:Table 6-2).
In general, the acquisition of greens meant movement first onto the valley floors and later
in the year into the foothills and mountains of the eastern Sierra to meadowy areas. Greens were
also collected in riparian zones. According to Downs (1996:17), watercress, found in small
streams, was one of the few green plants available all year long and when encountered it was
taken. Berries of all sorts were gathered as they became ripe in the montane zones. The
acquisition of seeds meant travel to the foothills and valley floors in the eastern part of the
3.9
territory in late summer where plants such as sunflowers and wild rye were ripening. Soon after,
in the fall, the pine nuts were ripening and people moved to pinyon pine country. After the pine
nut harvest the plant harvesting season had come to a close and families returned to their winter
villages.
Many plant gathering activities were primarily the business of women and these
resources contributed to the bulk of Washoe diet and balanced nutrition. Rather than stalking
deer, women stalked plants, perhaps within a days walk from camp. For this a few tools were
needed and the kit varied according to what was being harvested. The digging stick, a woman’s
implement, can be ranked in importance with a man’s bow and arrow. Made of a hard wood
such as mountain mahogany, a digging stick had to be sturdy and was used for digging bulbs or
roots such as onions and Indian potatoes. As well, a twined burden basket was needed to carry
the harvest. Gathering certain seeds required a seed beater to free the seeds from the heads, a
seed basket to catch those seeds, and perhaps a winnowing tray and grinding stone if field
processing was done. Willow, tule, or cattail harvest required a stone knife.
Plant products were processed in varying ways. Wild garlic, for example, was dug up in
its entirety and pit roasted for one day; then the roasted plant was formed into cakes and dried so
that people could eat greens during winter (Rucks 2001:6-28). Dangberg’s (cited in Rucks
[2001:6-30]) consultants said that onions could be roasted in a large conical pit that was filled
with layers of cedar bough and the onions. This was covered with more boughs, dirt, and hot
stones. In the morning the roasted onion had carmelized into a gooey substance and was
scooped out and shaped into large cakes (12 inches in diameter and 1-2 inches thick) that were
dried for winter use. Wild spinach was leached by soaking it in a stream (Downs 1966:21); once
this was done, the greens were steamed, made into large cakes, and dried for a few days on flat
rocks (Rucks 2001:6-30). Yampa could be eaten raw, but was mostly roasted and/or dried for
winter use (Rucks 2001:6-30). Seed processing required hulling, winnowing, and grinding.
Using a hand and milling stone, seeds were cracked to loosen the hull, these were then
transferred to a winnowing tray for cleaning and then further ground into flour using a milling
stone. Seeds were commonly parched and this could be done prior to other processing by
placing a few coals in the winnowing tray to lightly roast them.
Pine nuts were a major source of food for the southern Washoe and provided the most
important winter staple (d’Azevedo 1986:474). Families traveled to their groves or to others
where they had obtained permission to pick. Typically, stays lasted six to eight weeks. They
camped in shelters (not houses) usually near a water source, but if there was none nearby, some
families “would carry water quite a way” (Siskin 1937). For example, many Washoe travelled to
Leviathan Creek where they camped during pine nut and deer season (Walker and Associates
[2003:152]). Picking pine nuts was a fairly simple process with men using hooks to pull
branches down to pick cones and women gathering those into large burden baskets. Hooks were
stored by hanging them on a tree and sometimes carrying baskets were stored upside down under
thick trees. Nuts were then processed for storage. One method called for clearing and leveling a
four to five foot area, loosening the sediment inside, screening out rocks and chunks until the
sediment was fine. At this point the fine dirt was leveled off and brush was piled on top and lit.
Once the pile burned, ashes and charcoal were removed. A shallow hole about two to three
inches deep was scraped out, then nuts were placed inside and covered with more earth. This
3.10
was perhaps covered with bark, but historically sacks or rags were used. This was left over night
and in the morning the covering was carefully scraped off and the roasted nuts were removed.
This process was done either at the pinyon camp or at the winter camp (Siskin 1937).
Pine nuts were stored several different ways, generally in the vicinity of pine nut groves
(Siskin 1937). One form of cache was built under a pinyon tree by the camp. A bowl-shaped
clearing measuring six to eight feet in diameter was excavated and then pine needles were
scattered on the bottom of the clearing to form a floor. The winnowed nuts (presumably this
refers to extraction from the cone) were heaped on top of the floor and then covered with old
pine needles. Finally a layer of pinyon boughs was added. George Snooks said these nuts were
left until picking was over and then they were transported home to the wintering place where
they were placed in pits outside of the house (Siskin 1937). Each pinyon camp had its own
storage place, sometimes two. If an old woman stayed in camp she might stir the nuts to prevent
molding. d’Azevedo (1986:474) reports that “cones were stored on the spot” in these caches and
that each household is estimated to have had perhaps four caches which contained hundreds of
pounds of nuts (Price 1962:34). It is clear that nuts were both cached at pinyon camps and
carried back to winter residences. George Snooks’ account that roasted nuts were prepared at the
pinyon camp and then carried to winter camps suggests the enticing possibility that cones were
not stored in winter villages; this was an inefficient way to transport large quantities of nuts.
Granaries were also constructed to store pine nuts (Siskin 1937). These were sometimes built on
plentiful and sturdy boughs within a pinyon tree that had been strengthened with sticks. This
was built up into a bowl shape with bark and needles. The roasted nuts were piled in and
covered with bark. These granaries were a few feet above the ground, while other styles were
about a foot above the ground. One of these was a Miwok style structure (used for acorns) built
with a pole framework set in the ground and a loose “netting” made of willow that had been
attached to the frame with willow hoops. A bark and needle layer was added to the floor and the
walls were built as the granary was filled with the nuts. The willows were tied over the top and
it was sealed with bark. Anyone retrieving nuts got them from the bottom (Siskin 1937).
TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL CULTURE
The traditional technology of the Washoe has been outlined by Price (1980:48-49).
Houses and storage facilities have been described above and this section will focus on a few
other important classes of material culture. A variety of materials were used to meet the needs of
the Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986; Price 1980; Stewart 1941). Stone could be shaped into arrow tips
for hunting, knives for cutting hide or plant stalks, and grinding stones for crushing seeds and
other foods; bone could be shaped into barbs for fishing spears, hooks for fishing, awls for
sewing, knives for seed collecting, punches for hide work, or beads; antler could be cut and
shaped into pointed flaking tools used for the fine work of projectile point manufacture; plant
fiber could be transformed into baskets and nets; minerals could be ground and mixed with
grease to produce paints for the body or objects; and animal skins were made into such items as
blankets, clothing, and quivers.
Plants were the most intensively used material in Washoe technology. These were the
raw materials for a wide array of things, including baskets, cordage, nets, soap root brushes, fire
sticks, blankets, digging sticks, bows and arrows, girl’s puberty staffs, houses, and sun shades
3.11
(d’Azevedo 1986; Price 1980; Stewart 1941). Of the plants used in technology by the Washoe
people, it could be argued that willow ranks as the single most important. Willow was used as
the foundation of both coiled and twined basket forms and willow thread was used to sew or bind
the rods together. Traditionally, basket making was the domain of women. Seed beaters,
winnowing baskets, carrying baskets, burden baskets, pitched water jugs, bowls, boiling baskets,
spoons, baby baskets, mats, bags, stirring sticks, ladles, etc. were all a part of daily life. The
willow was harvested from stream sides in the cooler months of late fall, preferably from stands
that had been maintained to grow tall and straight. Leviathan Canyon was known as a collecting
place for willow (Walker and Associates 2002). Sufficient quantities had to be harvested to meet
the needs of the basket maker for repairs and new baskets.
Nets and fish traps (described above) were manufactured by men. The nets were knotted
together using cordage made from dogbane or milkweed that had been twisted and joined to
create long strands of cord. Nets were used for rabbit drives and for fishing. Bows were made
from juniper and arrow shafts and foreshafts were manufactured from sturdier materials such as
rosewood and greasewood. Tules were made into rafts for fishing.
Plant products used for manufacture had to undergo stages of processing and often water
was used to keep the materials soft through the manufacturing process. Based on contemporary
practice, it is possible to give details of the basket making process (e.g., Fulkerson 1995; GareySage 2003). Willow is selected and cut, but then it is to be tested for flexibility and quality. To
accomplish this, the willow needs to be stripped of leaves and the bark removed with a knife.
Then the willow is inspected by bending it and searching for holes. If the stand is not suitable,
the search continues. If it is good, quantities are bundled and transported to a residential setting.
At this point, the willow is peeled and either split for thread or prepared as rods. Splitting
involves separating each cane into three or four pieces (rods) and so the basket maker must hold
one piece between the teeth while pulling two other threads away using the hands. After
splitting, the pithy core is removed, again by holding the fibrous part of the plant in the mouth
and pulling the core away. Rod preparation involves scraping and sizing the piece until the
desired thickness is achieved. Thread can be stored dry, but during the weaving process it is
soaked in water to prevent breakage. Preparing cordage for nets is also labor intensive, but the
quality of the materials is not as critical so the harvesting process is easier (S. Monteleone,
personal communication, 2002). Here damp fibers can be separated from the stalk and then the
fibers are rubbed between the hands to work the bark out (or perhaps soaked in water to break up
the bark), then two clusters of strands are twisted along the thigh or one end can be held in the
mouth and the pieces twisted together.
Skins of deer, antelope, and rabbit were used for many purposes (Stewart 1941). Rabbit
skins, in particular, were important for the blankets and capes that could be made. During the
fall rabbit drives, not only was rabbit flesh abundant, the fur was thick for cold weather. After
carefully peeling the skin away from the body, the hide could be sliced into thin strips, twisted,
and woven into a blanket that might last several years. Rabbit skin could also be woven into
capes and buckskin could be sewn into leggings or moccasins. Belts, breechclouts, and aprons
could be manufactured with buckskin hide that had been tanned (Price 1980:48). Strips of
rawhide were used for the webbing of the Washoe’s snow shoes. Young antelope, fox, fawn,
coyote, badger, and other skins could be peeled whole from the carcass and then used for quivers
3.12
to hold arrows and other tools.
Stone tools were made from silicious stones found in various valley settings in Washoe
territory including the Lockwood chert source and the Steamboat Hot Springs sinter source.
Basalts and granites were obtained from Sierran settings, and obsidian from the nearby Bodie
Hills source were located to the south (e.g., Walsh 1995:94). Toolstone could be acquired
directly or through trade and was transformed into a tool state by using stone hammers and deer
antlers to remove flakes until the desired tool was created. Granite and basalt were used to
manufacture hand and milling stones for grinding activities. Ochre was used for religious and
decorative purposes and a source was known to have been used in the vicinity of Leviathan Mine
(Walker and Associates 2003).
Bone and antler were also important raw materials (Price 1980; Stewart 1941). Green
bones from animals such as deer were incised, snapped, and ground to produce pointed tools
such as awls and punches. As well, splinters were made into finer objects such as fish
hooks/barbs, tattoo scratchers, or needles. Antler from deer was especially useful for pressure
flakers used in stone tool manufacture and a variety of other objects.
CEREMONIAL LIFE
Certain ceremonies and rituals were important aspects of Washoe life. Among these, the
rituals attached to life cycles and subsistence cycles are among the most important. Overall, a
generalized religious view pervaded everyday life.
Many rituals were associated with birth (Price 1980:18-21). Just before the child was
due, the woman moved to a temporary shelter and special bed away from camp. The temporary
camp was prepared by the woman’s mother or a midwife. A special bed of grass, bark, cedar
boughs and sagebrush bark was laid in a trench and the ground under the bedding was heated.
The woman delivered the baby in this bed. Afterwards, the mother was not to get cold and was
given lots of warmed water with sugar pine sweetener. Otherwise, she was prohibited from
consuming foods, except pine nut soup. Both mother and baby were not washed until after the
umbilical cord fell off the baby (this took about four days). Price (1980:20) reports that in
“recent times, both baby and mother were bathed the first morning after” the birth. The father
was not allowed to be near (he was responsible, however, for providing firewood), but once he
heard of the birth, he was to take a bath in a nearby stream If the baby was a girl, her forehead
and cheeks were anointed with red ochre, while a boy’s nose and chin were covered with white
paint. The mother was to be confined for about a month and during that time she was massaged
with a salve and red ochre was painted on her body. For the duration she was not allowed to eat
meat.
The onset of a girl’s menses was also a time of ritual, and for the rest of her life a woman
was not to eat salt, meat, fish, or fat, or drink or bathe in cold water during her menstrual cycle
(Price 1980:22-27). Before her first menstruation, a girl was given instruction in proper
behavior. Once her cycle started, she had to observe several rituals for four days. She was to
fast for four days; she was to run daily, carry firewood and water, and help her mother. She
could only sleep briefly and was to rise early and never lay or sit down during the day; she held a
3.13
long elderberry stick painted red at all times; and she was to avoid hunters and fishers. At the
end of the four days a ceremony was held in which the girl danced, was painted with red ochre,
bathed, and fed. During the first two days of this ritual, the girl’s family tended to her concerns.
After this, other people came for the dancing and feasting on the final day. The elderberry stick
was special in that it was to help the girl get through this time and help her throughout her life.
At the end of the ritual, after the girl had danced, her father would take the stick into the
mountains and hide it. He lashed it to a living tree out of the sun so it would not bend. If it
never fell or bent (as it was not supposed to during the ritual), it helped the girl to have the
strength and lightness needed to climb the hills and mountains in her home. On the last day,
dances were held and these went on until just before sunrise. Just before the sun peaked over the
hills, the girl was painted with red ochre. When her legs were painted, the women tending her
“prayed” for her ability to walk lightly until she was very old. This quality was held in high
esteem by Washoe people. After she was painted, cold water was poured from a basket and the
girl was bathed. At sunrise, the ceremony was over and the girl, now a woman, was eligible for
marriage.
Among the many plant products Washoe people consumed, the pinyon pine nut was
especially important for groups in the south as hundreds of pounds of nuts could be set aside
(d’Azevedo 1986:474). Accordingly, there was major ritual surrounding the harvest (d’Azevedo
1986:474; Downs 1966:22-24). According to Siskin’s (1937) consultants, about a month prior to
the formal ritual, each pinyon strip owner traveled to the groves to pick a bough with about one
burr. This was then buried in the bed of a spring, stream, or river for the purpose of preventing
the crop from withering. When pine nuts were particularly plentiful, a four day ceremony was
held. “Big times” such as these involved four days of dancing (every night, all night) and the
performance of many games. A pine nut “watcher” announced the crop was plentiful and that it
was time for a ceremony. Following, a small group went to pick a small portion of nuts. After
they returned, the ceremony could begin. Men then went hunting because it was desirable to
have meat with pine nut soup. At the “big times,” each families built at least one brush shelter,
and camped together on the westerner, easterner, or “butt end of the camp” (a non-partisan side
according to Siskin). Big times were often held at Double Spring, and according to recent
interviews (Walker and Associates 2002), they were held at the Barney Riley locality along
Bryant Creek. At the close of the ceremony, everyone had a ritual bath. If they were at Double
Spring, participants dipped baskets into the spring, but if they were near a stream or river
everyone bathed in the body of water. After this, it was appropriate to go to the groves to begin
picking.
HISTORIC CHANGES
Prior to the encroachment of Europeans and others, the Washoe used their land
completely. Permission to use other people’s areas was expected if a person needed to do so.
Exclusive and “defended” use of an area seems to have applied only to pine nut strips, and
perhaps fishing sites. Defending a pine nut tract meant breaking a pole or basket. No one was
harmed. The arrival of foreigners changed all the parameters. The Washoe, at first, acted in
ways that were logical within their own culture. When the John Fremont party passed through
the territory in 1844, Washoe men stayed at a distance, let the visitors come to them, and then
generously offered the strangers handfuls of pine nuts (Nevers 1976:40). Later Washoe men
3.14
approached Fremont’s camp carrying their nets and bows (Price 1980:5-6). Fremont says they
came without fear and immediately went to the fires. Washoe men also warned Fremont of the
dangers of crossing the Sierra in winter. Other Washoe men were seen “skimming” along on
their snowshoes having spent some time observing Fremont’s party.
By all accounts, the Washoe people were friendly and helpful, but they were only to
experience a few years of exploration parties passing through (Price 1980:9-12). The penetration
of the Sierra meant travel corridors had been opened and the first “roads” passed through
Washoe territory. Jedediah Smith traveled through in 1825 and by 1847 a trading post had been
established at Woodfords, CA, and two years later a trading post was established in Genoa, NV.
In 1849 the rush to California gold was underway and huge waves of hopefuls came through the
area. However, conditions for the Washoe changed dramatically and irrevocably with the
Comstock Gold Rush in 1858. The discovery of gold in the mountains surrounding Virginia
City, NV inspired at least 20,000 people to travel east and west to the area. While the center of
this mining activity was on the edge of the Washoe homeland, areas surrounding the Comstock
were needed to support the rush. Pinyon pine forests were cut down to provide wood for
building and to make charcoal for smelting. By 1859 commercial fishing on Lake Tahoe began
in order to provide fish to workers and residents in and around the Comstock and by 1862 a
commercial fishing company was using a ½ mile long seine to catch tons of Tahoe trout. The
Washoe were forcibly excluded from using their fisheries at the lake. Later, when the
government determined that fisheries were threatened, all people were required to have a fishing
license. Washoe people were too poor to be able to buy fishing licenses (d’Azevedo 1987). By
1860 land on the East Fork of the Carson River and in the valleys was taken for cultivation and
at least 10,000 head of cattle, horses, and hogs were grazed in areas that had provided the
Washoe with much needed winter seed stores. In addition, the 1893 USGS 15' topographic map
shows a road that extends from Heenan Lake to Bryant and Leviathan creeks and then to the Old
Toll Road by Doud Springs. Of course the pace of change accelerated as more and more
foreigners came to Washoe territory, but this was just the beginning. Eventually, dense
populations settled throughout the valleys east of the Sierra.
To say Euroamerican encroachment had an impact on the Washoe as individuals and as a
society cannot be overstated. The Washoe were no longer free to use their land and, therefore,
could not acquire enough food independently. Fisheries had been severely impacted, seed
growing areas had been eaten and trampled by cattle, woodlands containing the precious pine
nuts were destroyed by logging, and the sites of winter homes taken. Diseases had already been
introduced by earlier explorers, but this new population density meant that many other diseases
could flourish, especially since it is likely that Washoe people experienced diminished immunity
due to dietary and other kinds of stress. In 1866 the Washoe Indian Agent reported that their
numbers were being reduced so rapidly (from disease) that soon all would be dead (thus
eliminating the need for a reservation) (Price 1980:13). This Indian Agent was wrong. In 1899,
and after years of requests by Captain Jim (d’Azevedo 1987), 528 Washoe were finally given
deeds for 62,713 acres of land in the Pine Nut Mountains (Price 1980:13). The pine nut
allotments, however, did not solve the severe problems the Washoe were experiencing. While
pine nuts were available in some areas, in many others the hills were barren, having been cut
down. They could not grow crops in most of this steep country and rights to what little water
was available had been claimed by whites. This was critical because the Washoe could no
3.15
longer gather the greens and seeds from most of their territory. As well, white trespassers
continued to help themselves to the pinyon pine for the wood it provided (Nevers 1976:64-65).
And so the Washoe continued to request other lands where they could take up agriculture and
provide their children with better living conditions (d’Azevedo 1987). Finally, in 1916, a 40
acre Washoe colony was set aside in Carson City and in 1917, William Dressler gave the Tribe
40 acres in Dresslerville. Finally, after years of exclusion from ancestral wintering homelands,
the Washoe had a place of their own, in their valley. Through the years land holdings have
increased and the Washoe Tribe has grown stronger.
In spite of the profound changes, the Washoe managed to adapt in their own way. This is
attested to by the survival of the Washoe as a people, and by the continuation of their unique
culture. For example, following the old division of labor, men hunted and women gathered
plants. Contemporary Washoe often bridge that division; women enjoy hunting, and men enjoy
gathering plants. Some aspects of traditional customs have been modified to suit contemporary
needs, but at their base is the maintenance of the spiritual link between economic and cultural
activities and their relationship to their landscape. This value provides the bonds between
generations and ensures long term cultural survival. Perhaps the most visible example of the
maintenance of a surviving craft is in their basketry. Washoe weavers are recognized as superior
artisans and younger people are learning the craft (e.g., Fulkerson and Curtis 1995). The annual
Washoe festival held at Lake Tahoe every July draws tourists and the curious to witness Washoe
people dancing, playing hand games, and basket making demonstrations. There at the “Washoe
culture camp,” young people are taught Washoe ways (cited in Walker and Associates
2003:107). Recent interviews demonstrate the continuity more specifically. For example, one
tribal elder reports going through the Puberty Ceremony (ca. 1920s) when she lived with her
parents in the Pine Nut Hills. She learned to grind and pound, and to cook pine nut soup and
acorn biscuits, and she learned that “water was precious” and that you should always pray when
you drink (Walker and Associates 2002:104). People pass their knowledge on. And so it
continues, different, but strong, and getting stronger.
DISCUSSION
The traditional lifeway of the Washoe indicates that all portions of the land were used.
Some places were used intensely, yearly, and systematically, while others were used on a more
ad hoc basis, depending on conditions throughout the region. Places like Leviathan and Bryant
Creeks and the surrounding country were been most important during moving about time. But
this corridor had water year round and it provides a travel route to the high meadows in the
Sierra. As such, it likely was used regularly. Spring brought watercress and other edible plants
and fish runs, fall witnessed “ripened” red willow, deer passing through, and the pinyon cones
filling with nuts. Washoe families came here traveling up and down the creek and throughout
the hills. Families camped near the creeks on flat spots above the water. From there, they split
off to pursue different resources in the area, such as the women gathering watercress while men
hunting deer. Winter was a quiet time when families returned to their winter residences
elsewhere.
We know that in recent times, Washoe tribal elders and their parents traveled to the
Leviathan Canyon area to collect watercress, willow, and ochre and to fish and hunt deer
3.16
(Walker and Associates 2003). Undoubtedly they learned of this place from their parent’s
parents, and so on.
Regardless, the creek systems are located near pine nut allotments in the eastern Sierra.
As such, the creeks and the surrounding hills offer a wide range of activities for Washoe people
choosing to practice traditional culture. This traditional culture is transformed. Washoe people
enjoy access to aspects of “non-Indian” society while they embrace their own heritage. They
may drive in four wheel drive vehicles to get there, but the Washoe are moving about the
homeland.
3.17
4. TRADITIONAL WASHOE LIFESTYLE SCENARIO
Laurie A. Walsh, Darla Garey-Sage and Julia E. Hammett
This lifestyle scenario presents an idealized portrait of a Washoe family practicing
traditional activities in the vicinity of Bryant and Leviathan Creeks. Normally anthropologists do
not create “scenarios” per se, but rely on specific field observations of cultural experts
conducting the traditional activities at the location in question. However, given the current
levels of contamination and subsequent restricted access to tribal members, such “in situ”
documentation is impractical. Therefore, the scenario below is a proxy for the information that
could be obtained if the study area were cleaned of contaminants and the Washoe people were
able to use the area today. It is designed to show how a very traditional Washoe family can be
exposed to toxins in the environment by performing their customary activities. The scenario
presented below is based on the details of the qualitative and quantitative data collected from
recent interviews with Washoe elders as well as information gleaned from the ethnographic
information on traditional Washoe culture.
INTERVIEW DATA
The data collected during recent interviews are provided in Appendices C and D. For
purposes of this report, the names of the Washoe tribal experts have been replaced with a number
in order to protect the confidentiality of our consultants. The interviews provide significant
evidence of the many and varied ways in which Washoe people may be exposed to
environmental contaminants in the Leviathan study area while carrying out traditional activities.
In some cases the cultural experts specified “vulnerable” tribal members that were exposed
through the traditional activities, field visits or particular food sharing activities. However, it is
realistic to look at the tribal community as a whole, and recognize that young children often
accompany adults in their daily activities, especially when they are performing traditional
activities so that these customs and rituals can be passed on to the next generation of Washoe
tribal members. Also, a great number of the people who have traditional knowledge and who are
determined to pass it on to future generations are themselves elderly, and hence, especially
vulnerable.
Washoe traditional activities are often conducted during family outings and, therefore,
older family members are often accompanied by children. While older children often participate
in traditional activities such as collecting foods, younger children tend to stay near their adult
family members occupying themselves in physical play, and thereby exposing themselves to
extensive contact with water and soil and any environmental contaminants that are present.
LOCATION
Pine nut allotments flank parts of the Bryant Creek corridor, and some provide potential
home sites for Washoe people. These hills, and the pinyon pine growing there, were a major part
of the traditional Washoe lifeway, and the pine nut allotments are important historically as these
were the only lands awarded Washoe people at the end of the 19th century. Pine nut allotments
provide refuge, privacy, connections to the homeland, and are the only places where Washoe
4.1
people can easily carry out traditional activities on a daily and sustained basis.
The ideal family conceptualized here would live on an allotment adjacent Bryant Creek.
Such an allotment would have some road access and relatively flat areas where a residence can
be sited. Access to Bryant and Leviathan Creeks and the surrounding scrub/woodland would be
most effectively accomplished by driving, walking, or a combination of those. Household
members can drive to places where roads are adjacent the creek or meadows, and from there,
walk up or down the drainage. The Leviathan Mine Road enables access to woodlands as well
as Monitor Pass. As well, household members can walk from their residence in the allotment to
Bryant Creek, passing through scrub/woodland along the way.
People would live in a permanent modern structure such as cabin, house, or trailer. They
would have access to well water and to creek and/or spring water that can be diverted to a
residence. If power lines are not accessible, generators, wood stoves, and possibly solar panels
and wind power can be used.
HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION
The ideal traditional household in contemporary Washoe life would have fluid
membership, but might typically comprise a married couple, their young children (i.e., less than
18 yrs old), either paternal or maternal grandparents, and aunts and uncles who are not attached
to other households (i.e., widows, younger sisters or brothers). To get in idea of absolute
numbers, our cultural experts indicated that foods that were harvested may be shared with 25
members, although more typically the family size consuming a food resource was reported at
between 6 and 10.
This ideal family is engaged in wage labor and children go to school in town. Evenings,
weekends, and summers are peak periods for all members pursuing traditional activities, but for
elderly household members this could be a full-time occupation. These elderly family members
would be primary daytime caregivers for small children and so those children will engage in
activities as well.
.
TRADITIONAL CULTURAL ACTIVITIES AND DIVISION OF LABOR
This ideal family enjoys the products and benefits of contemporary life while embracing
the ethics and activities of traditional life. In terms of activities, it is assumed that people will
be engaged with the major cultural activities in Washoe life including the getting and processing
of foods, the manufacture of material culture, and the performance of ceremonies and social
activities (see Tables 4.3 and 4.4 for details). All of the activities described in the tables are part
of a belief system that embraces an intense and direct physical relationship with the
environment. This relates to the Washoe ethic that such a relationship is reciprocal, meaning
that the environment is not a passive landscape and that people interact with it to create a
synergistic whole. Implicit in this belief is the notion that both people and the environment are
stronger because of this interaction.
4.2
Traditional material culture is produced to both learn, master, and pass on traditional
knowledge in addition to take advantage of a growing art market. The most significant is basket
weaving. An accomplished basket weaver is able to significantly supplement family income and
embrace the value system of their heritage.
Historically labor was divided along the lines of hunting and gathering. Today, hunting
is still primarily a male domain, but gathering involves men and women, young and old.
Basketry, long the domain of women, is now also men’s business
CONTEMPORARY ACTIVITIES
This contemporary idealized family would combine elements of a traditional subsistence
based lifeway and elements of rural small town life such as having a kitchen garden and perhaps
a horse; in this scenario we are excluding livestock such as cattle and sheep as the browsing
pattern of these animals conflicts with traditional Washoe subsistence patterns in riparian, scrub
and woodland zones (i.e., cows eat and trample edible plants). A kitchen garden, which does not
comprise native species, would provide fresh vegetables for immediate consumption, canning,
and freezing. The proximity of Bryant Creek would enable this family to divert some water to
irrigate the garden thereby saving well water.
The Washoe ethic of environmental interaction would carry over into the garden.
This means that, unlike suburban gardeners, Washoe people would want to work directly with
soil, water, and plants. For example, many elders do not wear gloves when working with native
plants; the plants need to feel the people.
Modern conveniences are part of the subsistence pattern. Deer, rabbit, and fish can be
frozen and/or smoked. In addition to traditional grinding, pine nuts can be ground in a food
processor. Berries can be frozen, canned, or made into pies and jam. Modern hunting and
fishing technology complements traditional tools.
SUMMARY
In conclusion, a family living on an allotment along Bryant Creek resides in an ideal
location to pursue many traditional and contemporary activities. Traditional life has always been
flexible–people had to change with the times to survive. Contemporary Washoe combine
different cultural values and practices to keep their heritage alive.
4.3
TABLE 4.1a. WINTER CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
EXPOSURE
PATHWAY
GATHERING*
FISHING*
HUNTING*
TECHNOLOGY/MATERIAL
CULTURE
STORED FOOD/MEDICINE +
Watercress
Whitefish
Rabbits
1. Basket Making
2. Netting/cordage
3. Bows & Arrows
4. Bone & Antler Tools
5. Fish Diversion
1. Pinyon Pine Nuts
2. Dried & Frozen Meats
3. Dried, Frozen & Canned
Berries
4. Dried & Frozen Fish
5. Dried Seeds
6. Medicines
7. Burning firewood
DERMAL
Harvesting in Water
Standing in
creek/fileting on bank
Carrying/skinning
1. Handling/weaving
2. Twisting/knotting
3. Handling
4. Handling/shaping
5. Handling/standing in water
1. Handling/hulling/grinding
2. Handling/grinding
3. Handling/grinding
4. Handling/grinding
5. Handling/grinding
6. Handling/pounding/
steeping/poultice/salves/
washes
7. Handling/stacking/stoking
INHALATION
Walking to creek
Walking to creek/
fileting on bank
Walking/ hunting/
processing
1. Particulates
2. Particulates
3. Particulates
4. Particulates
5. Particulates
1. Particulates++
2. Particulates
3. Particulates
4. Particulates
5. Winnowing/particulates/
6. Fumigants/particulates
7. Wood smoke/particulates
INGESTION
Washing/eating
Eating
Eating
1. Oral Manipulation
2. Oral Manipulation
3. N/A
4. N/A
5. N/A
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. Eating
4. Eating
5. Eating
6. Eating/drinking
7. N/A
*Includes immediate on-site processing/consuming
+Includes delayed processing/consuming of stored resources
++Particulate matter produced while processing materials (i.e., microscopic plant fibers)
4.4
TABLE 4.1b. SPRING/SUMMER CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
EXPOSURE
PATHWAY
GATHERING*
FISHING*
HUNTING*
TECHNOLOGY/MATERIAL
CULTURE
STORED FOOD/ MEDICINE+
1. Riparian Greens
2. Meadow Greens
3. Scrub/PJ Greens
4. Bulbs/Roots
5. Berries
6. Seeds
7. Firewood
1. Cutthroat
2. Dace / Minnow
3. Introduced Trout
1. Rabbits
2. Small Mammals
3. Birds
1. Fish Diversion / Harvest
2. Hide work
3. Paint (ochre)
4. Burning Firewood
1. Pinyon Pine Nuts
2. Drying, smoking, & roasting Fish
3. Medicines
DERMAL
1. Harvesting in and near
water / mud contact
2. Harvesting in and near
water / mud contact
3. Handling / soil contact
4. Digging in soil / mud
5. Picking / handling
6. Handling during grinding
7. Cutting / loading
1. Standing in or near
creek / fileting on
bank
2. Standing in creek /
scooping / netting
3. Standing in or near
creek / fileting on
bank
1. Carrying /skinning
2. Carrying/skinning/
flooding burrows
3. Carrying /plucking
1. Handling /standing in water
2. Skinning / scraping / tanning/
cutting / sewing
3. Extraction / handling /shaping
4. Applying to skin
5. Handling / stacking / stoking
1. Handling / hulling / grinding
2. Handling/grinding / excavating
earth ovens or roasting pits
3. Handling / pounding / steeping /
poultice / salves / washes
INHALATION
1. Walking to & along creek
2. Walking to & through
meadow
3. Walking to & through
scrub & PJ zone
4. Walking to & through/
digging
5. Walking to & through
6. Walking to & through /
beating / grinding /
winnowing
7. Chainsaw cutting
1. Walking to &
along creek /
fileting on bank
2. Walking to &
along creek
3. Walking to &
along creek/
fileting on bank
1. Walking/hunting
2. Walking/hunting/
digging / smoking
burrows
3. Plucking
1. Particulates
2. Particulates
3. Particulates
4. Wood smoke / particulates
1. Particulates
2. Smoking/particulates
3. Fumigants/particulates
INGESTION
1.,2.,3.,4.,& 5. Washing and
eating
6. Eating
7. N/A
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. Eating
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. Eating
1. N/A
2. N/A
3. N/A
4. N/A
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. Eating/drinking
*Includes immediate on-site processing/consuming
+Includes delayed processing/consuming of stored resources
4.5
TABLE 4.1c. FALL CULTURAL ACTIVITIES
EXPOSURE
PATHWAY
GATHERING*
FISHING*
HUNTING*
TECHNOLOGY/MATERIAL
CULTURE
STORED FOOD/MEDICINE+
1. Pinyon Pine Nuts
2. Willow/Fiber Canes
3. Berries
4. Watercress
5. Seeds
6. Firewood
1. Whitefish
1. Deer
2. Rabbit
3. Bighorn Sheep
1. Rabbitskin Blankets
2. Fish Diversion
3. Pinyon Nut (PN) Roasting Pits
4. PN Caches in PN Groves
5. PN Granaries
6. PN Storage Pits at Residence
7. Shelters at PN Camps
8. Hearths at PN Camps
9. Hunting blinds
10. Paint
1. Pinyon Pine Nuts
2. Meat & Fish Drying, Smoking
& Freezing
3. Burning Firewood
DERMAL
1. Handling/picking cones/
collecting cones/extracting
nuts/pitch from all of above
2. Handling/cutting/ bundling
3. Picking/handling
4. Harvesting in water
5. Handling during grinding
6. Cutting/loading
1. Standing in or
near creek /
fileting on bank
1. Butchering/
eviscerating/ carrying
/ hiding in blind
2. Carrying
3. Butchering/
eviscerating/
carrying
1. Skinning/cutting/stretching
2. Handling/standing in water
3. Digging/sifting/spreading soil
4. Excavating soil/covering with
pine needles
5. Harvesting willow, other
framing wood, & bark
6. Excavating soil
7. Harvesting willow, brush, &
poles/excavating floor
8. Digging soil/collecting rocks
9. Collecting & stacking rocks or
brush/ excavating floor
10. Extraction/handling/shaping/
applying to skin
1. Grinding/hulling & shelling/
storing nuts & cones for later
processing
2. Handling/spreading on racks/
packaging
3. Handling/stacking/stoking
INHALATION
1. Walking to & through groves
2. & 3. Walking to & through
patches
4. Walking along creek
5. Walking to/ through beating/
grinding/ winnowing
6. Chainsaw cutting
1. Walking to &
along creek/
fileting on bank
1.& 3. Walking to &
through/stalking/
hunting / dust
2. Walking to &
through/hunting/
dust from group
drives
1. Drying/stretching/ weaving
particulates
2. Particulates
3. Smoke/ash/ particulates
4., 6., 7, 8, & 10. Dust/particulates
5. Particulates
9. Dust/ash/particulates
1. Fumigants/dust/
particulates
2. Smoke
3. Wood Smoke/particulates
INGESTION
1. Eating
2. Oral manipulation of fibers
3., 4., 5. Eating
6. N/A
1. Eating
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. Eating
1. to 10. N/A
1. Eating
2. Eating
3. N/A
*Includes immediate on-site processing/consuming; +Includes delayed processing/consuming of stored resources
4.6
TABLE 4.2. CEREMONIAL AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
Pine Nut Dance: The Barney Riley location, along Bryant Creek, is known to be a traditional place for the Pine Nut Dance. Prior to the main ceremony, grove owners are to bury
in mud a pine cone to ensure the upcoming harvest. About a month later, people gather for the dance. People camp at the site of the dance for at least 4 days; various activities of
the celebration include the round dance, which is performed nightly, games, preparing meals, cooking meals, consuming meals, preparing roasting pits for the pine nuts, roasting
the pine nuts, building camp fires, grinding of pine nuts, and hunting. All participants engage in the ritual bathing in the nearby creek
Exposure Pathways: Dermal, inhalation and ingestion exposures are intense during this celebration.
Girls Puberty Dance: The idealized Washoe family would host a coming of age ceremony for their daughters or nieces, known as the Girls Puberty Dance. This is a 4-day
celebration wherein families and friends gather to witness the young girls’ transformation to adult status. For the first few days, the family prepares for feasting and gift-giving.
On the fourth night, the family hosts the dance and feast. Fires are built up the hillside to invite guests to the feast. Guests arrive and are expected to dance and celebrate all night
long. At dawn, the young woman is bathed with water from the nearby creek. She is brushed with a sagebrush bough and fed a small morsel of sagebrush and pine nuts to break
her four-day fast. Her elderberry staff, which has supported her throughout her four-day trial, is taken by her male relatives and hidden in the hills.
Exposure Pathways: Dermal, inhalation and ingestions exposures are intense during this celebration
Ritual Washing: Any time a Washoe person goes to gather, to hunt, to fish, or to partake in some activity in their homeland, they must first ritually cleanse themselves at a local
water source. Many Washoe also bathe themselves first thing in the morning and say their prayer to their Creator for the blessing of their homeland. For the idealized family
living on their pine nut allotment, the nearby creek would be the best source of water for this daily blessing. Drinking of “natural” water, that is, water from creeks, streams, etc., is
considered to be a strengthening and empowering act. As well, new mothers, fathers, and babies were ritually washed at the time of a child’s birth.
Exposure Pathways: Dermal–Skin (face, hands, body) are washed; inhalation–n/a; ingestion–incidental ingestion during washing and deliberate drinking of creek water.
Sharing: This is a basic ethic within the household and it extends to other kin and friends. As such, even though one household member may act to acquire a resource, that product
would be shared with all members and thus exposure occurs in that way. As well, any products acquired from the area, i.e., meat, willow, greens, berries, etc., could be given to
people who do not live within the household. In addition, access to one’s resource area is shared, so that close relatives and friends would be given permission to use one’s
resource area and thus visitors would share in the exposure pathways of residents.
Exposure Pathways: All possible pathways. See tables.
4.7
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5.2
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5.3
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5.4
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5.5
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5.6
APPENDIX A.
INTERVIEW FORMS USED DURING RESEARCH STUDY
1.
Plant Food Activity Form (2 pages)
2.
Animal Food Activity Form (2 pages)
3.
Plant Based Technology Activity From (3 pages)
4.
Animal Based Technology Activity Form (3 pages)
5.
Medical Technology Activity Form (3 pages)
6.
Ceremonial and Social Activity Form (1 page)
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date:_____________________
PLANT FOOD ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 2
Activity:_____________________________________Season__________ Resource type: Green/Root/Berry/Nut/Seed
Plant name_______________________________________________________________
Gathering setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub
Consumption setting: gathering site/pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/hunting camp/fishing camp/recreational camp/indoor at residence/outdoor
at residence/other (describe)______________________________
Amount eaten on-site
No. fed
Days per
yr.
Amount eaten at home (fresh and
stored)
No. fed
Days per yr.
Amount shared (note vulnerable
populations)
Activity (steps of harvesting and physical contact with water, soil, etc. in as much detail as possible):
Amount harvested (i.e., 1 or 5 gallon bucket, gunny sack, large garbage bag, 30 willow bundle, etc.)_______________________________________________________
Intensity score____1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours per day____ Hours spent cutting____digging____picking____beating____other (describe)____________
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
PLANT FOOD ACTIVITY FORM/Page 2 of 2
On-site processing (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed on site _______________________
Intensity score____1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours per day____Hours spent washing____cutting/peeling____grinding/pounding____winnowing____roasting____
boiling____drying____other (describe)_____________________________________ time _____
Off-site processing (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed off site____________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours per day____Hours spent washing____cutting/peeling____grinding/pounding____winnowing____roasting____
boiling____drying____other (describe)___________________________ time ______
Date:______________________
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
ANIMAL FOOD ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 2
Activity:_____________________________________Season________
Resource type: large game/small game/rodent/bird/fish
Animal name_________________________________________
Hunting setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub
Consumption setting: hunting site/butchering site/pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/hunting camp/fishing camp/recreational camp/indoor at residence/outdoor
at residence/other (describe)______________________________
Amount eaten on-site
No.
fed
Days/yr
Amount eaten at home (fresh and
stored)
No.
fed
Days/yr
Amount shared (note vulnerable
populations)
Activity (steps of hunting and physical contact with water, soil, etc. in as much detail as possible):
Amount hunted (number of animals/fish or appropriate measure)___________________________________________
Intensity score____1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours Hunting per day____ Hours spent: tracking/walking____hiding/waiting____ other (describe) __________________________ time _____
Total Hours Fishing per day____ Hours spent: scouting fishing spot____pole fishing____other (describe)___________________________time_____
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
ANIMAL FOOD ACTIVITY FORM/Page 2 of 2
On-site processing (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed on site_______________________________
Intensity score____1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours per day____Hours spent washing____plucking____butchering/skinning____grinding/pounding____tanning____roasting____
boiling____drying____smoking____scaling____gutting____filleting____frying____baking____
Off-site processing (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed off site__________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Total Hours per day____Hours spent washing____plucking____butchering/skinning____grinding/pounding____tanning____roasting____
boiling____drying____smoking____scaling____gutting____filleting____frying____baking____
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
PLANT BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 3
Technology type: basketry (list particular type)/netting/cordage/snow shoe/digging stick/bow/arrow/pine nutting pole/girl’s stick/windbreak/shade shelter/house/pine nut
storage ‘house’/fish traps/other (describe)________________________________
Describe type: ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Harvesting setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub Season: _________
Days/yr_____________
Total hours harvesting____
Hours spent cutting____digging____picking____beating____other (describe)_______________________________________time____
Description of activity (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount harvested (i.e., 1 or 5 gallon bucket, gunny sack, large garbage bag, 30 willow bundle, etc.)_____________________________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
PLANT BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 2 of 3
2. Processing setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub/ pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/hunting camp/fishing camp/recreational
camp/indoor at residence/outdoor at residence/other (describe)______________________________ Season:________________ Days/yr____________
Total hours processing _____
Hours spent soaking in water____soaking in mud____dyeing_____ cutting/scraping _____ splitting ____ coring _____ peeling _____
weaving _____ twining/twisting cordage _____ knotting _____ construction (houses, shades, storage facilities) _____
excavating (for houses, pits)_____ other (describe)_______________________________________________________ time _____
Description of activity (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed on site_______________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
PLANT BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 3 of 3
3. Use setting: _____________________________________________________________________________ Season: _______________ Days/yr: ________
Description of use (use of technology, settings of use, contact with people and environment):
Amount Used_____________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
ANIMAL BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 3
Technology type: blanket/clothing/jewelry/rattles/whistles/container/awl/needle/scraper/string/gaming pieces/snow shoe webbing/fish hooks/other_________________
Describe type:___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 Materials acquisition setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub
Season: ___________________
Days/yr_____________
Total Hours Hunting per day____ Hours spent: tracking/walking____hiding/waiting____ other (describe) __________________________ time _____
Total Hours Fishing per day____ Hours spent: scouting fishing spot____pole fishing____other (describe)___________________________time_____
Description of activity (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount harvested (i.e., number of animals or other appropriate measure)__________________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
ANIMAL BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 2 of 3
2.
Processing setting: hunting site/butchering site/water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub/ pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/hunting
camp/fishing camp/recreational camp/indoor at residence/outdoor at residence/other (describe)______________________________
Season: ___________________
Days/yr____________
Total hours processing____
Hours spent cleaning ____ scraping____ drying _____ tanning ______ smoking _____plucking _____skinning _____
weaving ___ incising/cutting_____ grinding _____ sewing _____punching/drilling _____ beading _____
decorating (describe)___________________________________________________ time ____
other (describe)_______________________________________________________ time _____
Description of activity (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount processed __________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
ANIMAL BASED TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 3 of 3
3. Use setting: __________________________________________________________________Season: _________________________________ Days/yr__________
Description of use (use of technology, settings of use, contact with people and environment):
Amount Used _________________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 3
Resource type: plant/animal/mineral/water
Describe type:________________________________________________________________________
1 Materials acquisition setting: in water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/ meadow/sage scrub
Season: ______________________
Days/yr_____________
Total hours harvesting/hunting____
Hours spent cutting____digging____picking____beating____other (describe)_______________________________________time____
tracking/walking_____ hiding/waiting ______ other (describe)_________________________________________time _____
Description of activity (steps of and physical contact with environment):
Amount harvested ____________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 2 of 3
2.
Processing setting: hunting site/butchering site/gathering site/ pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/hunting camp/fishing camp /recreational camp/indoor at
residence/outdoor at residence/other (describe)______________________________
Season: ___________________________ Days/yr____________
Total hours processing____
Hours spent cleaning ____ scraping____ drying _____ tanning ______ smoking _____plucking _____skinning _____
grinding _____ sewing _____punching/drilling _____ beading _____
decorating (describe)___________________________________________________ time ____
other (describe)_______________________________________________________ time _____
Description of activity (steps of processing, ingredients added, and contact with persons and environment):
Amount processed ____________________________________
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant______________________________
Date___________________
MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY FORM/Page 3 of 3
3. Use of Medicines
Medicine type*
*Animal, plant, mineral, water
Season: ________________________ Days/yr__________
Part Used
Method of treatment+
Dosage (amount & timing);
length of treatment
Population Treated
+smoking, inhalant, poultice, salve, tea, eating
Description of use (what ailment(s) does medicine treat; details of how medicine is applied/taken; setting of application (i.e., in house, outdoors, at special location), etc.)
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
Leviathan/Bryant Creek Risk Assessment Project
Consultant: _____________________________________
Date:______________________
CEREMONIAL AND SOCIAL ACTIVITY FORM/Page 1 of 1
Activity type:_________________________________________________________
Environmental Setting: water/stream side/ p-j/conifer forest/meadow/sage scrub
Residential Setting: gathering site/hunting site/fishing camp/pine nut camp/ceremonial camp/recreational camp/indoor at residence/outdoor at residence
other (describe) _____________________________________________________________
Season ________________
Days/yr:______
Describe activity (steps of activity, attendance (note vulnerable populations) and contact with people and environment):
Intensity score____ 1. less than gardening; 2. equal to gardening; 3. more than gardening; 4. much more than gardening
APPENDIX B.
ANNOTATED LIST OF WASHOE ECONOMIC PLANTS, ANIMALS AND FISH
Darla Garey-Sage
APPENDIX B. WASHOE ECONOMIC PLANT AND ANIMAL RESOURCES 1
Darla Garey-Sage
Abies spp.
A. concolor. White fir. Cones cut by tree squirrels for winter food (Storer and Usinger
1963:151). Soft resin from bark is eaten to cure tuberculosis; a teaspoon full daily or a little each
day until cured (Mead 1972).
A. magnifica. Red fir. Forests of red fir, which have limited understory due to dense
canopy, attract birds that feed on its cones: woodpeckers, nuthatches, chickadees, kinglets,
warblers, and various seed-eating birds; chickarees, chipmunks, and other mammals, even
martens, make nests in cavities of Red firs (Storer and Usinger 1963:153).
Acer macrophyllum. Big leaf maple. Distribution through Yellow pine belts; along stream
borders; the sap contains sugar (Storer and Usinger 1963:163).
Achillea lanulosa. Western Yarrow. Widespread distribution in many plant communities,
including aspen, conifer, sagebrush, mountain brush, riparian, meadow and alpine (Whitson
1996:43). A poultice of mashed leaves used on sores by Washoe (Mead 1972).
Achnatherum spp. [Stipa}. Needlegrass.
A. hymenoides [Oryzopsis hymenoides]. Ricegrass. Seeds harvested by Washoe (Fowler
1986:76).
Agropyron spp.
Reclassified to Pseudoroegneria spicata.
Allium spp. Wild onions and garlic. Several species of wild onions grow throughout the Sierra
(Storer and Usinger 1963:73). Many species were harvested both for bulbs and greens by
Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:474; Nevers 1976:10).
Alnus spp.
A. rhombifolia. White alder. Distribution through Yellow Pine belt; along rivers and
smaller streams (Storer and Usinger 1963:158).
A. incana ssp. tenuifolia. Mountain alder. Grows at mid-elevation zones on wet slopes;
grows in dense thickets, which provide good cover for small animals and birds (Storer and
Usinger 1963:158).
Amelanchier alnifolia. Western Serviceberry. Distribution in ponderosa pine lodgepole pine
forests, favoring moist locations. Indians and early settlers ate the berries (Storer and Usinger
1963:126; Nevers 1976:6-10). Said to be excellent browse for sheep and cattle, as well as deer
1 All botanical names have been verified using Hickman 1993.
B.1
and elk (Mozingo1987:147). Washoe place named after service berries in creation myth,
identifying its significance as a food source (Dangberg 1968:66). Identified by d’Azevedo
(1986:475) as food source. Serviceberry’s inner bark has been used by American Indians as an
anti-inflammatory eyewash, as eardrops, and to help stem vaginal bleeding. This astringent
action is related to its high levels of tannic acid (Tilford 1997:134).
Angelica brewerii. Angelica. Found in coniferous forests, 1000-3000 m in the high Sierra
Nevada and in Nevada (Hickman 1993:140). A root used as a bronchitis remedy, taken as a tea
(Mead 1972); root chewed to relieve sore throat (Price 1980:48).
Apocynum cannabinum. Indian hemp (sometimes locally called milkweed although true
milkweed is not in the dogbane family; Asclepias speciosa also produced strong fiber used by
Native Americans). Grows in moist places near streams, springs, etc., below 2000 m in Sierra
Nevada and Nevada (Hickman 1993:168). Indians used to make fine, long, strong thread for
twine, fish lines, and baskets (Storer and Usinger 1963:96). Thread made from this (Price
1980:51). This genus contains cymarin, a substance that causes irregular beating of the heart;
despite this toxic affect, clinical studies have shown antitumor properties (Tilford 1997:196).
Arabis platysperma. Rock cress. Seeds of A. holboelli (Rock cress) eaten by Great Basin
Indians (Fowler 1986:72).
Aralia californica. Elk clover.
Arctostaphylous spp. Manzanita. Distribution from montane chaparral to Ponderosa pine forests.
Berries eaten by some birds, by foxes and by bears; seeds are “relished” by chipmunks (Storer
and Usinger 1963:134). Cook (1941) refers to manzanita cider drunk by the Washoe Indians;
d’Azevedo lists both berries and cider as a resource, and use of wood for snow shoes (1986:475,
477). Nevers (1976:17) describes manzanita boughs being used as boughs for winter houses.
Very limited forage value; use by some “Great Basin Indians” as a diuretic by making of extract
of leaves (Mozingo 1987:128). Also known as kinnikinnik, used as a mixture with native
tobacco for smoking; plant is high in tannic acids and thus can be used as a diuretic and
astringent (Tilford 1997:86).
Artemisia tridentata. Great Basin Sagebrush. Leaves made into tea for colds and tonic (Mead
1972). Giant in Washoe myth breaks his leg and ties it with sagebrush bark (Dangberg 1986:46).
Food of jackrabbit in Washoe myth; people admonished not to eat it (Dangberg 1986:48) Fire
embers were said to be burned into sagebrush bark to preserve them (Stewart 1941 by d’Azevedo
1986:477). Babies said to be rubbed with soft sagebrush bark, and bark used as a diaper pad;
leggings and woman’s napkin also made from bark (Price 1980:20, 48). Protective compounds
(terpenoids) in the leaves inhibit its use as forage for cattle and sheep; the leaves of big sage
“equal alfalfa meal in protein content and have more carbohydrates and twelve times more fat”
(Mozingo 1987:272). The leaves and flower are important food for sage grouse, antelope and
deer (deer are said to “belch” the effects of the terpenoids as they chew their cud) (Mozingo
1987:272). The plant provides some food for jackrabbits and ground squirrel, but is “invaluable”
as a necessary cover for many animals (Mozingo 1987:272).
B.2
Mozingo (1987:281) notes further that Great Basin Indians made a tea from its leaves for
a tonic, antiseptic for wounds, remedy for colds, sore eyes, and diarrhea, and a method of
protection against ticks; in addition, it was used for a hair tonic, and “the seeds were eaten raw or
pounded into meal”. Tilford (1997:208) notes that big sage has an impressive antibacterial
quality when used topically; internally, taken as a tea, big sage has been used to stop internal
bleeding and to rid the system of parasites; also, the plant has a long use of ceremonial
“smudging” to rid the body and spirit of contamination.
Asarum hartwegii. Wild ginger. Like gingerroot, wild ginger (two are not related plants) causes
peripheral vasodilation and is used medicinally (Tilford 1997:156).
Aster alpigenus ssp. andersonii. Aster.
Balsamorrhiza sagittata. Arrowleaf balsamroot. Found on dry hillsides and open meadows
from California into Nevada and on into Rocky Mountains; roots dried and ground for flour by
Indians when other foods scarce; sticky sap used as antiseptic by Native Americans (Tilford
1997:16). Burning root used as a fumigant (Mead 1972). Girl’s birth cord buried in living
sunflower root (Price 1980:20). Identified as one of first food sources by Old Woman in Washoe
myth (Dangberg 1968:38).
Barbarea orthoceras. Wintercress. Found in damp meadows, wet rocks, streambanks, and moist
woods (Hickman 1993:404). B. vulgaris, common winter cress, along with Rorippa curvisiliqua
and R. sinuata, harvested by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:475).
Betula occidentalis. Copper or Water Birch.
Bromus carinatus. California brome. Seed germination occurs in fall, young plants dormant in
winter then hardy growth in spring with early summer maturation; palatable throughout its life
cycle (Whitson 1996:421).
Calamagrostis breweri. Reed grass.
Calocedrus decurrens. Incense cedar. This tree is used by the Washoe for flavoring acorn flour
during leaching, and its smoke is used to color tanned deer hides (Nevers 1976:13, 14;
d’Azevedo 1986:475).
Calochortus nuttalli. Sego lilly. Reclassified as C. bruneaunis. Found in dry shrub or grass in
pinyon and juniper woodlands, 1700 – 3000 m (Hickman 1993:1185). Eaten raw or cooked
(Mead 1972; d’Azevedo 1986:474).
Calycanthus occidentalis. Sweet-shrub.
Calyptridium umbellatum. Pussypaws.
B.3
Camassia quamash, Camas. Damp forests, meadows, streamsides, below 3300 m,
in Sierra Nevada (Hickman 1993:1189). Important bulb food gathered by Washoe
(d’Azevedo 1986:474).
Carex festivella. Sedge. Reclassified as Carex microptera (Hickman 1993). Used root as a
wrapping in basketry (Mead 1972).
Castanopsis chrysophylla. Renamed Chrysolepsis chrysophylla. Giant chinquapin.
Ceanothus spp. California Lilac. Distribution from foothills to subalpine areas. Group has no
common name (but Hickman 1993 calls it California lilac), but “buck brush” or “deer brush”
refer to the preference of deer for browsing on leaves and stems. The bushes also give shelter
and nesting sites for birds, and the seeds are eaten by rodents and birds (Storer and Usinger
1963:129). Thorns used in tatooing by Washoe (Price 1980:53).
Cercocarpus ledifolius. Curly-leaf mountain mahogany. Wood of mountain mahogany is
extremely hard; Great Basin Indians used wood for bow construction as well as a medicinal
source. Bark was dried and used for tuberculosis, colds, and other respiratory problems.
Powdered bark applied topically to sores and wounds. Tea from leaves or bark used as general
tonic, for everything from heart disease to venereal disease (Mozingo 1987:152).
Chamaebatia foliolosa. Mountain misery.
Chrysolepsis spp. Chinquapin.
C. chrysophylla [Castanopsis c.]. Giant chinquapin.
C. sempervirens [Castanopsis s.]. Mountain chinquapin.
Chrysothyamnus spp. Rabbitbrush. Used as a chewing gum and blossoms used to make dye
(Reed 1962). Food for snow shoe rabbit in myth; people admonished not to eat it (Dangberg
1968:47).
Cirsium scariosum. Elk thistle. Stems and some roots of Cirsium spp. eaten by many Great
Basin Indian people (Fowler 1986:71). “American Indians used various species of Cirsium to
treat respiratory congestion, dermatitis, parasitic infections, and venereal disease, and to help
stop bleeding, stimulate milk production in nursing mothers, and even as a contraceptive”
(Tilford 1997:144).
Clematis ligusticifolia. Virgin’s bower. Plant is essentially toxic, but was used as a medicine
previously (Tilford 1997:190).
Clintonia uniflora
Cornus sericea [C. stolonifera]. American or Creek dogwood. Inner bark made into tea (Reed
1962); said to reduce fevers (Price 1980:48).
B.4
Cyperus spp. Nutsedge. Bulbs of C. esculentus eaten by some Great Basin Indians (Fowler
1986:73).
Deschampsia elongata. Slender hairgrass.
Descurainia spp. Tansy Mustard. Seeds eaten by Great Basin Indians (Fowler 1986:72);
Washoe ate seeds (d’Azevedo 1986:474, Reed 1962). D. incana [D. richardsonii], found on open
sites, meadows, sagebrush, open aspen groves, 1500 – 3400 m; D. pinnata, found on washes,
slopes, often saline soils, below 2500 m (Hickman 1993:414
Dodecatheon spp. Shooting stars. All parts of the plant are edible; Northwest Indians made a
tea from the leaf to treat cold sores (Tilford 1997:136).
Dugaldia hoopesii. Mountain sneezeweed.
Elymus spp.
E. cinereus. Reclassified to Leymus cinereus.
E. elymoides [Sitanion hyxtrix]. Squirreltail. Palatable to livestock when young, but
mature spikes are harmful to animals (Whitson 1996:459). Seeds harvested by some Great Basin
Indians (Fowler 1986:76).
E. glaucus. Blue wild rye.
Ephedra viridis. Green ephedra. Mormon tea. Taken for delayed menstruation (Mead 1972); tea
is a powerful antihistamine (Price 1980:48).
Epilobium spp. Fireweed or Willow herb.
Epilobium angustifolium. Fireweed. Leaves and shoots are high in Vitamin C and betacarotene; can be eaten raw or cooked. Tea can be made from it for laxative; tea is also used to
treat asthma and whooping cough because of its antispasmodic properties; Blackfeet Indians
used the root as an astringent and antiseptic poultice (Tilford 1997:62).
Equisetum spp. Horsetail, Scouring brush. Burned ashes used on sore mouths; used to smooth
bow and arrows (Reed 1962).
Erigeron spp. Fleabane daisy.
Eriogonum nudum. Wild buckwheat. Many Eriogonum spp. are excellent bee fodder (Hickman
1993:860).
Fragaria californica. Reclassified to Fragaria vesca. Wood Strawberry. Foothill and
Ponderosa pine belt in shaded, damp places (Storer and Usinger 1963:86). Washoe harvested
wild strawberries (Nevers 1976:8).
Fraxinus latifolia. Oregon ash.
Gayophytum nuttallii. Reclassified as Gayophytum humile.
B.5
Goodyera oblongifolia. Rattlesnake plantain.
Grayia spinosa. Hop sage.
Helenium bigelovii. Sneezeweed.
Heracleum lanatum. Cow parsnip. Tea from root used to stop diarrhea (Mead 1972); root used
as a painkiller for toothache (Price 1980:48).
Hordeum brachyantheum. Barley. Wild barley palatable at younger stage to animals, but when
mature spikes are hazardous to animals (Whitson 1996:459). Seeds of Hordeum spp. harvested
by Great Basin Indians (Fowler 1986:76).
Iris spp. Iris
Iris hartwegii.
Iris missouriensis. Western blue flag. Roots eaten by Utah Southern Paiute (Fowler
1986:74).
Juniperus spp.
J. occidentalis var. occidentalis. Western juniper. Branches burned as a fumigant after
illness (Mead 1972); tea from leaves and steam from branches (Reed 1962); branches used to
prepare acorn meal (d’Azevedo 1986:475).
J. occidentalis var. australis. Mountain juniper.
J. osteosperma. Utah juniper.
Leptodactylon pungens. Phlox.
Lewisia redivia. Bitter root. Rocky, sandy ground, talus, serpentine, clay, granite, shale, open
woodlands and sagebrush shrublands with pine, oak, or juniper, 60 – 3000 m. Roots food for
Native Americans; bitter if taken after plant flowers (Hickman 1993:903). Harvested by Washoe
(d’Azevedo 1986:474); fed to children by Old Woman in Washoe tale (Dangberg 1968:41).
Leymus cinereus [Elymus cinereus}. Great Basin wild rye. Harvested by Washoe (d’Azevedo
1986:474).
Lilium spp. Lily. Tiger lily seeds eaten (Nevers 1976:10); many bulbs eaten by Washoe (Fowler
1986:75); Washoe admonished to eat lilies in myth (Dangberg 1968:95—could also be referring
to Sego lilies).
Lomatium dissectum. Indian balsam. Woody or bushy slopes, 150 – 2000 m, Sierra Nevada
foothills (Hickman 1993:153). Oily sap used on cuts, root applied to umbilical cords of newborn babies (Mead 1972); tea made from dried root for coughs and flu (Reed 1962); roots used
for medicinal purposes as remedy for colds and body aches (d’Azevedo 1986:474). Laboratory
tests have demonstrated the plant’s antibacterial properties (Tilford 1997:184).
B.6
Lupinus spp. Lupines.
L L. brewerii.
M L. latifolia var. columbianus. Toxic to livestock due to alkaloids (Hickman 1993:622).
Montia perfoliata. Miner’s lettuce. Species is widely distributed in west, usually in moist, shady
areas (Whitson 1996:521). Green favored by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:475).
Monardella odoratissima.
Oenothera elata. Evening primrose. Seeds of many spp. harvested by Great Basin Indians
(Fowler 1986:75). Seeds are very high in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), the substance which has
proven effective in treatment of heart disease, vascular disease, asthma, and arthritis (Tilford
1997:56).
Pedicularis groenlandica. Elephant heads. Medicinal uses ranging from treating of urinary
problems to sedative properties (Tilford 1997:92).
Perideridia bolanderi. Yampah. Meadows, scrub, pine forests, 600- 2000 m. Sierra Nevada and
Great Basin (Hickman 1993:160). Important tuber source (Fowler 1986:71; d’Azevedo
1986:474).
Phyllodoce breweri. Mountain heather.
Physocarpus capitatus. Ninebark.
Pinus spp. Pines.
P. contorta ssp. murrayana. Lodgepole pine.
P. jeffreyi. Jeffrey pine.
P. lambertiana. Sugar pine. Sugar used medicinally (Price 1980:19).
P. monophylla. Single-leaf pinyon pine. Listed in Washoe creation myth as the first plant
created by Old Woman; also where Old Woman lived (Dangberg 1968:38). Pine nut soup listed
as important food in Washoe tale (Dangberg 1968:81). Pine nuts were perhaps the singly most
important food to the Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986; Price 1980; Nevers 1976).
P. ponderosa. Ponderosa Pine.
Platanthera leucostachys. White flowered bog orchid.
Populus spp. Poplar, Cottonwood, Aspen.
Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa. Black cottonwood.
Populus fremontii ssp. fremontii. Fremont Cottonwood.
P. tremuloides. Quaking aspen.
Potentilla spp. Cinquefoil. Name comes from the Latin diminutive for powerful because of
reputed medicinal value of genus (Hickman 1993:964).
B.7
Prunus spp. Seeds of many ssp. toxic because of hydrocyanic acid (Hickman 1993:969).
P. andersonii (Desert Peach).
P. emarginata (Bitter Cherry). Distribution in upper ponderosa and lodgepole belts, often
forming large thickets. Fruits are quite bitter for humans, but birds enjoy them (Storer and
Usinger 1963:125).
P. subcordata (Sierra Plum). Distribution in ponderosa belt. “It was used by Indians and
by early settlers for a delicious jam” (Storer and Usinger 1963:125).
P. virginiana var. demissa (Western Chokecherry). Distribution in foothill and
ponderosa forest; fruits are tart (Storer and Usinger 1963:125), but Washoe prefer to make a jam
or jelly from it, or dry it (Reed 1962). “Chokecherries were consumed in such large quantities
that their discarded seeds eventually produced compact clumps of bushes which are said to mark
the sites of old camps” (d’Azevedo 1986:475).
Pseudoroegneria spicata. Bluebunch wheatgrass. Seeds of many species eaten by Great Basin
Indians (Fowler 1986:76).
Purshia tridentata. Bitterbrush.
Pyrola picta. White-veined wintergreen.
Quercus spp. Oak.
Quercus kelloggii. California black oak. Fruits eaten by Washoe (Fowler 1986:74). The
acorns, like the pine nuts, were staple foods of the Washoe with much cultural significance
(d’Azevedo 1986).
Quercus vaccinifolia. Huckleberry oak.
Rhododendron occidentale. Western azalea.
Ribes spp. Currant, gooseberry. Distribution from foothills to subalpine belts. Includes currants
and gooseberries. Currants have unarmed stems, few or many flowers in the raceme, and smooth
berries. Gooseberry stems have spines, flowers are single or few in a group, and berries are
spiny or smooth.
Many of these plants have been eradicated by the U. S. Forest Service in an attempt to
control White Pine blister rust, which uses Ribes as an intermediate host. Nonetheless, plants
remain and are sought out by birds, squirrels, and people (Storer and Usinger 1963:120).
Currants and gooseberries were gathered, eaten raw or dried by Washoe people (Nevers 1976:610; Reed 1962).
Rorippa nasturium-aquaticum . Water cress. B. vulgaris, common winter cress, along with
Rorippa curvisiliqua and R. sinuata, harvested by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:475).
B.8
Rosia woodsii var. ultramontana. Interior wild rose. Tea from roots makes rose colored drink
and yellow dye made from inner bark (Reed 1962); canes used for arrow shafts (Nevers
1976:13).
Rubus parviflorus. Thimbleberry. Rubus spp. fruits eaten by Great Basin Indians; Washoe in
particular ate fruits of thimbleberry (Fowler 1986:78). Rubus ssp. are high in vitamins and
minerals, and a tea made from its leaves is said to be a “female tonic,” referring to its content of
fragrene, which is believed to tone the body’s smooth muscle organs (Tilford 1997:122).
Salix ssp. Willow. There are 14 species of willow in the Sierra and they all occur close to water.
Willows form a major component of riparian zones up to the ponderosa belt. Willows are an
important nesting site for many species of birds (Storer and Usinger 1963:157). Basket willow
used in Washoe myth to transport magically a woman and child to safety (Dangberg 1986:45).
Woven willow net used to catch minnows in Washoe tale (Dangberg 1986:57). Major
material for Washoe material culture, especially basketry.
Sambucus ssp. Elderberry. S. mexicana (blue elderberry) grows on dry, open Sierran slopes up
to 8000 ft. S. racemosa (red elderberry) is found in Lodgepole pine and subalpine belts at 6000118000 ft. Fruits are favored by birds (Storer and Usinger 1963:138-139). Listed in Washoe
myth as a stalk used to prop open a safety hole (Dangberg 1968:81). Very important symbolic
staff in girl’s puberty ceremony (Price 1980:22; Nevers 1976:24). Also a favored food
(d’Azevedo 1986:474). Tilford states that recent studies show the berries possess antiviral
qualities (1997:54).
Sarcobatus vermiculatus. Greasewood.
Senecio spp. Groundsel, Ragwort, Butterweed.
Sitanion hystrix. Reclassified as Elymus elymoides.
Stipa occidentalis. Stipa spp. reclassified as Achnatherum spp.
Symphoricarpos parishii. Waxberry, snowberry.
Tetradymia spp. Cotton-thorn, Horsebrush. Floral buds toxic to sheep (Hickman 1993:352).
Trisetum spicatum.
Vaccinium nivictum. Reclassified as V. caespiatosum. Dwarf bilberry. Leaf extracts from
Vaccinum species have been shown in medical studies to decrease blood sugar levels, which is
useful in treatment of diabetes (Tilford 1997:80).
Veratrum californicum. Corn lily, False hellebore. Alkaloids used medicinally; toxic to both
livestock and humans (Hickman 1993:1208). Washoe used root to produce emetic (Price
1980:48).
B.9
Viola purpurea. Violet. Leaves of violets are believed to have diuretic, expectorant, and laxative
qualities, most likely because of its saponin content; in large quantities, the roots are emetic and
were used by American Indians to induce vomiting in instances of poisoning (Tilford 1997:152).
Wyethia spp. Mules ears. Listed in Washoe creation myth as one of first plants created by Old
Woman (Dangberg 1968:38).
W. angustifolia
W. mollis. P. ponderosa to subalpine belts in dry, wooded areas (Storer and Usinger
1963:112) Seeds are important food source; leaves used to wrap other foods for cooking (Nevers
1976:9). Girl’s birth cord buried in living sunflower root (Price 1980:20).
ANIMALS
Antilocapra americana. Pronghorn antelope. Hunted when available by all Great Basin Groups
(Fowler 1986:79); hunted by Washoe (Nevers 1976:13, d’Azevedo 1986:477).
Castor canadensis. Beaver. Beaver played the “weed stick game”; killed one of the weasel
brothers, who in turn kills beaver (Dangberg 1986:62). Hunted by Washoe (Fowler 1986:80,
d’Azevedo 1986:478).
Ammospermophilus and Spermophilus spp. Ground Squirrel. Listed in creation myth as one of
first animals created by Old Woman (Dangberg 1968:38). Hunted by Washoe (d’Azevedo
1986:478).
Dendragapus obscurus . Dusky or Blue Grouse. Mostly in Lodgepole-fir forest and upper P.
ponderosa belts, among conifers (Storer and Usinger 1963:263). Hunted by Washoe (Nevers
1976:14, d’Azevedo 1986:478).
Erethizon dorsatum. Porcupine. Used as a pet/guardian in Washoe tale (Dangberg 1968:59).
Hunted by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:478).
Eutamias spp. Chipmunks. Listed as hunted for food and roasted in Washoe myth (Dangberg
1968:53-54). Hunted by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:478).
Lepus spp. Jackrabbits. Listed in creation myth as one of first animals created by Old Woman
(Dangberg 1968:38). Very important food source (Nevers 1976:13, d’Azevedo 1986:478).
L. townsendii. White-tailed jackrabbit. Distribution in High Sierra (Storer and Usinger
1963:327)
L. californicus. Black-tailed jackrabbit. Distribution throughout grasslands and
chaparral, also flatter open area (Storer and Usinger 1963:326).
Marmota flaviventri. Yellow-bellied marmot, also called ground hogs, woodchuck. Distribution
in Lodgepole-fir belt up to above timberline, in or near meadows with rock outcrops or boulders
for shelter (Storer and Usinger 1963:331). Hunted by Washoe (Nevers 1976:13, d’Azevedo
1986:478). Ground hog played “smothering game” in Washoe tale; Ground hog kills one of the
B.10
weasel brothers, who in turns kills ground hog (Dangberg 1986:63).
Odocoileus hemionus. Mule Deer. Distribution throughout Sierra in summer; migrates to lower
regions with less heavy snow fall in winter (Storer and Usinger 1963:356). Washoe hunted deer
and used all parts of its body for food and material culture (Nevers 1976:14). Listed in creation
myth as one of first animals created by Old Woman; one of the weasel brothers instructs the
other to chase the deer toward him so that he can shoot it (Dangberg 1968:38, 60, 62, 69-77).
Sinew listed as a rope and a chewing pacifier for children in Washoe tale (Dangberg 1968:96).
Oreortyx picta. Mountain quail. Lodgepole-fir belts and below, in brushy areas of forest (Storer
and Usinger 1963:263). Hunted by Washoe (Nevers 1976:13).
Ovis canadensis. Mountain Sheep. Hunted by Washoe (Nevers 1976:13, d’Azevedo 1986:477).
Sylvilagus audubonii or nuttallii. Cottontail. Found in valleys east of Sierra in flatters areas and
brushy places near grasslands (Storer and Usinger 1963:330). Listed in creation myth as one of
first animals created by Old Woman (Dangberg 1968:38). Robe of cottontail skins used for
sleeping in myth (Dangberg 1986:52). Hunted by Washoe (d’Azevedo 1986:478).
FISH
Leviathan Canyon, wherein Leviathan Creek (which receives run-off from the Leviathan
Mine) and Mountaineer Creek merge to form Bryant Creek (which flows into the East Fork of
the Carson River), is part of the Lahontan Drainage area, one of the major internal drainage
systems of the Great Basin (Sada 2000; Sigler and Sigler 1987). The waters of the Truckee,
Susan, Carson, and Walker Rivers flow in the Lahontan drainage. Tributaries of the Carson
River are found along approximately 50 miles of the Sierra crest (Sigler and Sigler 1987:5).
The native fish species of the Eastern Sierra (and Lohanton Basin) are found in multiple
habitats in this drainage system: thermal springs, small streams, rivers and lakes. “Although it is
difficult to determine which areas the sixteen types of native fish…once occupied, these
probably included most of the lower elevation waters, but very few waters higher than 8000 feet
(2438 meters) elevation” (Sada 2000:246, emphasis added).
The creeks of Leviathan Canyon range from approximately 5200 feet elevation, where
Bryant Creek flows into the Eastern Fork of the Carson River, to approximately 6400 feet, where
Leviathan and Mountaineer merge to form Bryant, to approximately 7200 feet where Leviathan
flows adjacent to the mine site (U. S. G. S. Map, Heenan Lake Quadrangle, 7.5 minute series).
Thus, these sites are well within the range of elevations for distribution of native species prior to
historic and contemporary disruptions caused by mining and agriculture. A 1985 hydrologic
report states that above the mine, Leviathan Creek supports normal amounts of fish and organic
organisms, however once entering the mine area and downstream until its confluence with
Bryant Creek and the East Fork, the creek no longer supports fish (Hammermeister 1985).
Additionally, a 1999 report on the Carson River includes the information that fish have not been
reported in Bryant Creek since 1953 (due to mining) and that huge quantities of fish were killed
B.11
from the fishery in 1954 when mass acid runoffs from the mine entered into the waters (Horton
1999).
There are 12 native fish species in the Eastern Sierra portion of the Lahontan drainage,
and most are widespread throughout the drainage. The fish occupy five general types of aquatic
habitats: high-gradient streams, low-gradient streams, subalpine lakes, terminal lakes, and
springs and spring brooks. The Mountain Sucker and Salmon, Trout, and Sculpin fish tend to
inhabit high-altitude cold streams and lakes. The Lahontan Redside, while possibly found in
these higher, colder waters, is more plentiful in lower-altitude warmer waters (Sada 2000:253).
Lindstrom (1992) analysed the use of native fish species by Washoe people for the
Truckee River fishery and found fish to be a valuable resource, providing excellent nutrition in
exchange for limited labor efforts, particularly during spawning runs. D’Azevedo (1986:473)
writes that “fishing provided the most predictable and consistent source of year-round food in the
aboriginal and early historic Washoe period”. D’Azevedo details fishing by the Washoe, noting
fish runs of Lahontan sucker up Long Valley Creek from Honey Lake, where large numbers of
Washoe people gathered for first-fish rites and festivals. “Large fish were caught by men using
spears, hook and line, nets, traps, and weirs, while women used twined baskets for scooping up
minnows and fish eggs” (d’Azevedo 1986:473). In Washoe origin tales, fish and minnows are
mentioned frequently as major resources (Dangberg 1968).
Many non-native species have been introduced into the fishery of the Washoe people.
Species such as Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), Brown trout (Salmo trutta), and Brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis) are enthusiastically fished by Washoe people, along with native species.
A study from the University of California, Santa Barbara, found that trout belonging to genus
Oncorhynchus (golden, rainbow, and cutthroat) are more sensitive to acid inputs than trouts
belonging to genus Salvelinus (brook) or Salmo (brown) (Jenkins et al. 1994). The latter two are
now dominant species in the Sierra and are non-native.
Lindstrom (1992:69) gives a generalized nutritional analysis of fish in general, noting
that “Fish are rich in nutrients since they are excellent sources of digestible proteins, which are
of high-quality biological value in their amino acid composition…”. Most of the nutrients
remain even in a sun-dried state. Lindstrom compares lean meat protein composition (most
game is considered lean meat) of 550 calories per pound with fish, which ranges from 450 to
1,000 calories per pound. Fish listed below are given their nutritional composition as presented
by Lindstrom (1992).
SALMON AND TROUT (SALMONIDAE)
The cutthroat trout (including Lahontan and Paiute cutthroats) are the only native trout in
the Great Basin, along with the Eagle Lake Trout. Cutthroats are present in many high, coldwater streams and lakes. The Lahontan cutthroat has a range including the Truckee, Carson, and
Walker Rivers, Donner Creek, and Pyramid, Walker, Donner, Independence, and Summit lakes
(Sigler and Sigler 1987:113).
B.12
Lahontan Cutthroat Trout
These fish (Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi) prefer the slower-moving waters typical of
low-gradients found in meadows; in lakes, they occupy shalls near the shore where prey is most
abundant. Lahontan cutthroat spawn only in streams and only during the spring. Females
deposit eggs in nests they dig into stream gravel beds where there is sufficient current to aerate
the incubating eggs. The eggs require a water temperature below 57 degrees F. This species is
endemic to the Lahontan Basin, where it once occupied 5 lakes and at least 3500 miles of stream,
1170 miles of which occurred in the Carson, Walker, Truckee, and Susan rivers. “In the Eastern
Sierra today, self-sustaining populations persist only in the 17 miles (28 km) of small tributaries
in the upper Walker and Carson rivers and in Independence Lake” (Sada 2000:257).
A recent recovery plan for the trout says that the cutthroat need cool water, pools in close
proximity to cover and velocity breaks, well vegetated and stable stream banks, and relatively
silt free rocky substrate in riffle-run areas (Coffin 1995). Its historic distribution in Carson River
basin included most of the drainage downstream from Carson Falls, California on the East Fork.
Lahontan cutthroat trout fillets have 953 calories per kilogram (17 per cent protein, 2.8
per cent fat, 1.36 per cent Ash, and 79.09 per cent moisture). Mineral composition (mg per 100
g as eaten) include zinc, 0.69; copper, 0.12; iron, 1.15; manganese, 0.02, and calcium, 35.42
(Lindstrom 1992:293).
Paiute Cutthroat Trout
This fish (Orcorhynchus clarkiseleniris) has a similar life history to Lahontan Cutthroat
Trout. Its historic range was approximately 6 miles of isolated stream in the Silver King Creek
drainage of the upper East Fork of the Carson River (Sada 2000:258).
Mountain Whitefish
The whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni) prefer to spawn in streams, in the autumn, over
gravel substrates. It is found in the bottoms of colder streams and lakes in the Lahontan Basin
and tributaries to the Snake River in northeastern Nevada (Sada 2000:258-259). Late in the fall,
generally mid to late November or early December, the whitefish in streams move from pool
areas to riffles for spawning. Those living in lakes move up the nearest stream. Spawning
activity lasts about two weeks (Sigler and Sigler 1987:107).
Whitefish fillet has 1345 calories per kilogram (20.84 per cent protein, 4.79 per cent fat,
2 per cent ash, and 72.55 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g as eaten) includes
zinc, 0.89; copper, 0.13; iron, 1.58; manganese, 0.09, and calcium, 96.46 (Lindstrom 1992:293).
MINNOW FAMILY (CYPRINIDAE)
Lahontan Speckled Dace
B.13
Dace (Rhinichthys osculus robustus) occupy a wide variety of habitats, including
thermal springs, cool- and warm-water rivers and streams, swift riffles over cobble-sized
substrate, quiet backwaters, or shallow, muddy-bottom streams. Dace spawn in the spring and
occupy most of the mid-elevation streams in the northern portion of the Eastern Sierra (Sada
2000:259).
A whole dace consumed has 814 calories per kilogram (15.28 per cent protein, 2.25 per
cent fat, 3.67 per cent ash, and 77.84 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g
consumed) is zinc, 5.48; copper, 0.17; iron, 1.86; manganese, 0.02; and calcium, 367.62
(Lindstrom 1992:293).
Lahontan Redside
The redside (Richardsonius egregius) spawns in late spring to early summer when they
congregate over gravel bottoms in streams and lakes. They are distributed throughout the
Lahontan Basin. Large schools are common in mid- and low-elevation lakes and streams
throughout the Eastern Sierra (Sada 2000:260).
The redside, consumed whole, has 915 calories per kilogram (16.01 per cent protein, 3.05
per cent fat, 3.85 per cent ash, and76.54 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g
consumed) is zinc, 6.47; copper, 0.14; iron, 1.94; manganese, 0.19, and calcium, 426.53
(Lindstrom 1992:293).
Lahontan Creek Tui Chub
Lahontan Lake Tui Chub
Tui chub (Gila bicolor obesa, Gila bicolor pectinifer ) spawn in the spring. They occupy
lakes, streams, rivers, and springs. They prefer calm, deep areas with protective cover. The
chub are abundant in many locations and most drainages support a distinct subspecies. Both of
these species are endemic to the Lahontan Basin and are widespread throughout its larger waters
(Sada 2000:260).
Tui chub fillets have 1245 calories per kilogram (25.28 per cent protein, 2.6 per cent fat,
3.04 per cent ash, and 69.63 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g consumed)
includes zinc, 1.28; copper, 0.15, iron, 1.39; manganese, 0.09, and calcium, 288.51 (Lindstrom
1992:293).
SUCKER FAMILY (CATOSTOMIDAE)
Tahoe Sucker
Tahoe suckers (Catostomus tahoensis) are endemic to the Lahontan Basin and are the
most common of the suckers for the region. They are found in most of the Eastern Sierra waters
of the Lahontan Basin, but are most common in warmer, lower-elevation waters (Sada
B.14
2000:261).
Tahoe sucker fillets have 862 calories per kilogram (17.46 per cent protein, 1.82 per cent
fat, 1.72 per cent ash, and 78.71 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g eaten)
include zinc, 1.26; copper, 0.17; iron, 1.28; manganese, 0.04, and calcium 149.58. Eggs contain
1066 calories per kilogram (24.77 per cent protein, 0.84 per cent fat, 1.39 per cent ash, and 66.55
per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g eaten) includes zinc, 2.63; copper, 0.18; iron,
2.27; manganese, 0.09, and calcium 8.85 (Lindstrom 1992:293).
Lahontan Mountain Sucker
These fish (Catostomus platyrhynchus lahontan) are endemic to the Lahontan Basin as
well. They spawn from late spring through midsummer in streams over gravel substrate. They
prefer swifter waters and colder streams (Sada 2000:262).
Mountain sucker consumed whole has 1117 calories per kilogram (15.93 per cent protein,
5.33 per cent fat; 3.66 per cent ash, and 74.71 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g
eaten) includes zinc, 2.86; copper, 0.2; iron, 7.37, manganese, 1.5, and calcium, 393.09
(Lindstrom 1992:293).
Cui-ui
This famous fish (Chasmistes cujus) is endemic to Pyramid Lake (Sada 2000:262).
SCULPIN FAMILY (COTTIDAE)
Paiute Sculpin
The Paiute sculpin (Cottus beldingi) is the most abundant bottom-dwelling fish of the
Eastern Sierra. It spawns during the spring in riffles in streams and in lakes along wave-swept
areas of shoreline or close to stream mouths. It prefers riffles in cold streams, in habitats
typically occupied by trout (Sada 2000:263).
This fish has 1105 calories per kilogram (15.28 per cent protein, 5.49 per cent fat, 3.39
per cent ash, and 75.05 per cent moisture). Mineral content (mg per 100 g eaten) includes zinc,
1.55; copper, 0.13; iron, 3.16; manganese, 0.13; and calcium, 228.06 (Lindstrom 1992:293).
B.15
APPENDIX C.
QUALITATIVE DATA FROM INTERVIEWS
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
Record #
Date of
Interview
Form
Resource
Type
1
8/6/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Harvesting
1
8/6/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Off-site processing
2
8/30/02
PF
GATH
Acorn
Harvesting
Resource Name
Acorn
Place on Form
2
8/30/02
PF
GATH
Off-site processing
3
9/6/02
CS
OTH
4
8/1/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
4
8/1/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Off-site processing
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
Valley Quail
Harvesting
Leviathan use Activity
Text
In the spring, walk through water searching for water cress. Pick root kneeling
in mud and water.
Wash it clean, drain it, boil it like a spinach. Fry some bacon first then add to
finished watercrest.
Go to the Placerville area in fall- try to get as much as possible-also go to
Susanville for acorns (October). Get on hands and knees with bucket- fill
bucket to gunny sack. Old days, walked to Placerville and carried harvest on
back- stage transport; very hard work. Eat acorn more than pine nuts because
acorns keeps better than pine nuts.
Home : lay it flat under bed or in attic to dry all winter (will mold if doesn't
dry). Spring, take them out, crack and shell. Cracked with rock by hand and
peeled shells off (only enough for meal). Stores best in shell and will keep for 2
to 3 years. Crack/shell- 2-3 days (6hrs/day), have reddish skin-peel off with
knife-1 day, ready to pound (grinding stone)- pound/ clean in winnowing tray
repeatedly- 1 full day; mix cedar when pounding. Flour- Dad take family to
river (Markleeville)- Built open fire, cook acorn in square tins- 2 or 3 at a timekeep stirring (flour) so don't scorch- 1 to 2 hours. Take hot, cooked flour down
to river down to river. Scooped out pit with rim- lined with cloth- pit has river
water in it; not swift. Male takes soup bowl-gently fold into water. Leave
biscuits all afternoon- ready to eat in evening- takes biscuits out, put into
kettles, pots. Haul it home- ready to eat. Biscuits keep well for one week.
Acorn goes w/ meat- flavors complement.
Ladies hear people talk quite a bit about use of Leviathan. Ladies also say you
can find lots of flat rocks in the area.
Just taking berries, walk and search through thick brush, very intensive activity.
Wash elderberries first. Elderberries can be made into jam, canned, or left out
to dry for two days.
Valley quail hunted around ranches and especially around bushes because quail
like cover. Flush out quail with dogs/self. After quail take flight, shoot them
and throw them in bag.
C.1
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
Mountain Quai Harvesting
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
Dove
Harvesting
Mountain quail are more rare and are mostly found in the Pine Nut Mountains.
Mountain quail are flushed out with dogs or by walking. Mountain quail found
along mountain springs, quail stick close to water. Bryant Creek good site for
Mountain Quail and Chucker.
By Carson river in cottonwood trees (Break-a-Heart Ranch site). Hunter has to
wait on doves to fly before shooting. Quail can't be flushed out because high in
trees.
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
Quail/Dove
On-site processing
Clean in field and put in bag to take home.
Off-site processing
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
Quail/Dove
6
8/30/02
PT
BASK
Willow Basket Harvesting
After game brought home, take and skin them. First, cut head/feet/wings off,
cut open, gut them, wash them, and then ready to cook. Fry and make into stew
or mostly just boil it.
Look for nice straight willow with no big buds on it. Find in the spring before
it buds or fall after leaves gone.
6
8/30/02
PT
BASK
Willow Basket On-site processing
Go out into willow stands, cut few willows, check it for splitting; if good, cut
more. Cut good willow then sort.
6
8/30/02
PT
BASK
Willow Basket Off-site processing
7
8/23/02
PT
GATH
Stirring stick
Harvesting
Leave willow bundle outside until ready to split; if kept in damp cool place,
will keep a month; leave it a few days to get ready (easier to split). Once
willow dries, no good, split within two days. Peel red outside off, smoth it ,
size it. One hour to clean bundles of threads (30-50 threads per bundle). Notch
willow to start split; split a little with hands, then put one section in mouth and
hold willow in mouth; use hands and mouth to split willow. Split one 30"
willow, core it (central core first), then outer core ; total ninety seconds in
mouth per willow. Can split in side or outside; cut all leaf buds off. Split, core
it, get a bunch, wrap and tie; leave it until it seasons where bark will peel off
easily. After bark removed, take knife and smooth out thread. Size it through
lid with holes of different sizes. Grey willow cores are hard to split, use mouth;
5' or higher, 5" to split these, then round it with a knife, pull core out with
sharp knife. Half an hour to shape and smooth; leave it until have a bunch,
doesn't turn dark (6 to 7 tied together). Weaving time, coiling, threads and coils;
Very young pine tree is cut at the base. Always taken from under pine nut trees
in early fall. Look for a slender 4" diameter tree. The cut tree is 5 to 6 foot
long.
C.2
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
7
8
8
8
9
8/23/02
8/30/02
8/30/02
8/30/02
8/30/02
PT
PF
PF
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
GATH
GATH
GATH
Stirring stick
Wild Potato
Wild Potato
Wild Potato
Pine Nut
Off-site processing
Get a fire going and then clean and debark around for 5 to 6 feet. Place wood
over fire and constantly turn wood to keep from burning. Heating the tree will
make the tree bendable. The tree is then twisted to make a spoon shape. Wire is
used to hold the tree together.
Harvesting
On-site processing
Off-site processing
Long metal crow-bar type (lighter metal-shorter handle).
Small thumbsized potato (same dia.length). Mother and girls, sometimes brother, would go
walk and dig with metal stick and pop up potatoes. Bare-handed gathering.
Shake dust off, throw in bag.
Wash them, boil them.
Harvesting
Dad drop them off when he went to work- stay all day pine nutting, go early in
the morning- spent all day gathering pine nuts. A big pit dug, sagebrush used to
roast pine nuts. Time spent near pit fishing cones out and picking nuts out of
cones. Pit 5 by 5' . Pick pine nuts when open on tree, sit on ground, pry nuts
out of cones.
Pine nut
cache 2.5- 3' diameter round 2-3' high (pyramid shaped). Green cones piled up
large, covered with rocks to protect from rodents and left to ripen. Go back to
cache before snow and use stick to knock pine nuts out of cones. Pine nuts go
in sack (-+ 50lb). Others wouldn't bother your cache, recognized it as yours.
Nuts gathered from ground also when cones open and nuts fall out "cleaner"
work.
9
8/30/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nut
On-site processing
9
8/30/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nut
Off-site processing
10
10
8/30/02
8/30/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Wild onions
Wild onions
Harvesting
On-site processing
10
8/30/02
PF
GATH
Wild onions
Off-site processing
Kids help dig big pit, gather sagebrush to line pit, pour pine nuts and green
cones onto sagebrush, light on fire, stir and stick, burn down, cover with hot
dirt, steam it for one hour while had lunch, then sit down by pit and fish cones
out, pick pine nuts out, and sit there all day long eating fresh nuts.
Built fire outside to get hot charcoals, cook raw pine nuts in basket with
charcoal, put pine nuts in can, cover with cloth to steam them, then shell nuts
on flat rock with muller, then use flat basket to winnow shells. Cook with
charcoals again. Prepare just enough for two to three days (twenty pounds of
raw nuts).
Walk for miles until three to flour sacks full gathered. Do not store, so share
with others. Stay all day; whole family went-gathering all the way.
Pick it/eat it.
At home, put in cool place in a flat basket; four to seven days worth of food-eat
fresh and raw.
C.3
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
Don't remember mother gathering these, but they have eaten them and enjoyed
them a lot.
Look for spring water or creek. Walk all over, for hours looking for good
patches. Walk to creek/spring, pick or cut out of water and if cut it will grow
back. Needed to stand in water to cut, used bare hands.
Steam/boil watercress, add cooked bacon to it. No need to wash, because it
comes right out of the creek.
11
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Wild Strawberr Harvesting
12
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Harvesting
12
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Off-site processing
13
13
9/6/02
9/6/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Service Berry Harvesting
Service Berry Off-site processing
14
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Wild Rhubarb Harvesting
14
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Wild Rhubarb Off-site processing
15
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Choke Cherry Harvesting
15
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Choke Cherry Off-site processing
16
9/6/02
CS
GATH
Firewood
Harvesting
16
9/6/02
CS
GATH
Firewood
On-site processing
16
9/6/02
CS
GATH
Firewood
Off-site processing
Ladies didn't like it, was a slimy berry. Pick Serviceberries, find them on
hillside; grows like cherries. Bigger berries than elderberry and blueberry size.
Same process as canning rhubarb. Just can, don't make jelly.
Grew limited area, around Silver Lake. Wild rhubarb grows tall, thin ( vs. dom.
rhubarb shorter). Grows in large patches, cutting stalk, down low, close to
ground. Put in can.
Clean it, strip leaves, cut up stalk, wash it, and cook right away. Add small
amount of water and sugar, boil 30 min. Place rhubarb into jars, seal lids, and
store to eat all winter. Used wood stove to do all cooking.
Grows close together; break off clusters with hands. Pick and eat when black,
otherwise too tart.
Good for jelly and add apples to cut taste and set jelly. Same process as
elderberries and gooseberries.
Dad would gather wood all day. Dad had an old dodge car; would haul little
trailer. Had to feed wood stove all winter, need more than six cords of wood.
Walk through woods, looking for dead tress (need dried wood).
Father cut trees with hand saw, kids job to cut limbs off,so dad could cut trunk
into logs to haul home.
Once home, cut into stove lengths, then split logs with hammer and wedge.
Sole source of heat and cooking when growing up.
17
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
Need to go up canyons to find. Find along steep hillsides on rocks without
water close by. Use small pruning shears to cut cluster of berries.
C.4
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
17
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
18
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Sierra Goosebe Harvesting
Makes good jelly, same as gooseberries and chokecherries. Berries will keep
for several days. Cut berries off biggest stems and leave little stems in for jelly,
but for pie, have to pick each berry off each little stem. Wash berries (outside
in pans), bring inside to boil for jelly (water and apples to gel). Strain it
through jelly sack and hang on stout limb outside and let juice drip out over
night. Measure juice cup by cup (one cup sugar to one cup juice). Boil again
and watch until thick. Measure thickness by how slowly juice drips off spoon.
Pour jelly into sterilized jars and let set overnight, then seal and parafin. Done.
Sierra Gooseberries grow in rocky areas high in the mountains far from
water.Long time ago, very plentiful. Hike in to find them, stoop to gather
berries. Wear gloves or use stick to beat ripe berries off bushes. Pick a berry at
a time. Out all day stooping and picking barehanded. Bare handed picking
results in lots of pricks from thorns.
Sierra Goosebe Off-site processing
Sierra Gooseberries made into great jelly with no need for pectin and has a
beautiful color. Bring home buckets of prickly berries and keep a couple of
days; wash it (like elderberries), boil it in water, strain overnight, make jelly
from juice (equal parts sugar/juice). Old flour sacks sewn into a funnel shape
for straining. Twenty-four small jelly jars from ten gallons.
18
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Off-site processing
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
Choke Cherry Harvesting
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
Choke Cherry On-site processing
Walk to site through and over brush and rocks carrying buckets or burden
baskets. Pick the berries off the stems. Constant contact with environment. The
plant was not damaged. One five gallon bucket collected on single outing.
No processing only travel to and from site gathering and harvesting; constant
contact with environment. This was a family unit endeavor involving all family
members.
Choke Cherry Off-site processing
Plucked berries off of stems cleaning debris and washing of old skin and stems.
Berries cooked for canning jelly and for pies. When cooking berries for jelly,
strain berries until all juices are squeezed out. During squeezing process,
berries were put in porous material to allow dripping and what was left was
placed in a tourniquet until juice was gone. Berry juice can be kept frozen for
later use. Juice is also used for syrup. Cooked berries can also be used for jam
and eaten as fruit. Four gallons per processing; a four day process.
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
C.5
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
On-site processing
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Off-site processing
Elderberry picked off the stems; contant contact with the environment. Walk to
site through and over brush and rocks carrying buckets or burden baskets
No processing only travel to and from site gathering and harvesting; the same
as choke cherries.
Plucked berries off of stems cleaning debris and washing of old skin and stems.
Berries cooked for canning jelly and for pies.
Looked for prairie dogs by traversing meadows and rocks where they lived in
rocky areas. Stalking and ambush methods used. Call prairie dogs by imitating
their calls and moving through water; constant contact with environment. Flush
prairie dogs out with water and snaring them, (pell et) killed at rock outcrops.
Gutted prairie dog on site where they fell and hauled home. Buried the
intestines with dirt or rocks, this may be a personal thing to do.
Prairie dog and marmot were processed and cooked the same. Bring food home
and build the fire pit. Make the fire and singe the hair off of the animals. Wash
the innards and close the cavity with willow skewers. Wrap the animals in
burlap sacks, the sacks will then be dampened with water and wrapped with
willow branches with leaves included. By this time, the fire was removed and
set aside and the pit was deepened and laid with rocks. The wrapped meat is
then placed on rocks and covered with soil, then fire coals. The fire is kept hot.
This is an all day process.
Marmot killed at rock outcroppings. Two marmot killed per hunt.
20
11/6/02
AF
HUNT
Prairie dog
Harvesting
20
11/6/02
AF
HUNT
Prairie dog
On-site processing
20
20
11/6/02
11/6/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Prarie dog
Marmot
Off-site processing
Harvesting
20
20
11/6/02
11/6/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Marmot
Marmot
On-site processing
Off-site processing
21
10/30/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
21
21
10/30/02
10/30/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Deer
Deer
On-site processing
Off-site processing
Gutted marmot on site where they fell and hauled home. Buried the intestines
with dirt or rocks, this may be a personal thing to do. The same as prairie dog.
Prairie dog and marmot were processed and cooked the same.
Deer hunting is the same as a ceremonial hunt. Two deer per family (usually
one) per Fall hunting season.
On-site processing of gutting deer, cleaning, washing, butchering, and
bleeding; constant contact with environment.
The final processing done at home with most of the deer used.
Harvesting
Hunting rabbit by traversing sage and scrub brush, usually rolling hills, and
constant contact with brush and air particulates from sage. 100 to 150 rabbits
needed to make a blanket in the Fall.
22
10/22/02
AT
HUNT
Rabbit
C.6
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
22
23
23
10/22/02
10/30/02
10/30/02
AT
CS
CS
HUNT
HUNT
HUNT
Rabbit
Deer
Deer
Off-site processing
One rabbit takes fourty-five minutes to clean, thirty minutes to scrape, and two
to three weeks to dry. Six rabbit skins sewed together in one day for two weeks
for one adult size blanket. Blankets used for sleeping in cold weather and for
clothing.
Harvesting
Hunting for deer in the fall is considered family unit hunting. The hunt is not a
sporting event, but a traditional and cultural social activity. The hunting camp
is set up, the area cleared of debris, wood is cut and gathered for burning and
cooking, sleep on the ground, natural vegetation used for windbreaks, wake up
early and take a bath in stream as a purification or cleaning traditional use with
no soap before sunrise. Say prayer. Use sagebrush to wipe down body to
remove bodily scent. Set out for hunt as communal hunts: knowing the location
of other hunters, cover the four different directions, and elders were often
placed in locations where the game was driven to them.
On-site processing
Once game was killed, others came to asist with butchering. The hunter would
pray over the animal. Every part of the animal was used. Clean meat in streams
then hang from trees for curing. The game was usually eaten in camp.
23
10/30/02
CS
HUNT
Deer
24
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Wild potatoes Harvesting
Sometimes animals were butchered at home indoor or outdoor. The hide was
processed at home. Processing of hide taken several weeks into clothing. The
bones were broke open for the marrow and antlers used for tools. A boy's first
kill was a ceremonial occasion. Constant contact with environment.
Dig up bulbs with digging stick or sharpened spring from old cars. Found in
dry, rocky areas.
24
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Wild potatoes Off-site processing
Boil potatoes or eat raw; wash first.
Off-site processing
C.7
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
25
8/20/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Harvesting
25
8/20/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
On-site processing
25
8/20/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Off-site processing
Knock down cones or pick up from ground, or climb trees in late Sept. into
October. Hit cones with stick to shake nuts out, leave stacks of cones. In pine
grove, wear scarves to protect hair from pitch, but pick cones bare handed
(lots of pricks from sharp tips of cones), so powder hand with dust to counter
act pitch. Gather cones in burden baskets (bucket now). Gather cones in bucket
with 9 hours spent picking. 1,000 pounds at least gathered by family of ten.
125 pounds of fresh nuts out of cones in weight per bag per camp per day,
times 10 to 15 days (1,000 to 1,500 lbs).Total of four to eight weeks harvesting
( depending on weather); part-time spent gathering with part-time cleaning.
Picking done on other side of Double Springs Flat, also on this side right after
coming down from Lake Tahoe.
Harvest green cones , bury in pit, line pit with dry sage brush; put more cones
in; cover with more brush. Place coals on top of brush to burn; pitch burns very
hot. Keep stirring cones burning cones, brush to cook evenly, stirring with long
willow poles; cook until they pop or turn black. When cones turn black, cover
with dirt from pit to hold steam; take shovels and cover with dirt. Pit is five by
six feet at one foot deep. Cones and charcoal to be stirred for thirty minutes;
steam and bake overnight. Leave about one hour if cooking several batches
concurrently. To shell and peel cones, cones easier to work with when warm.
Eight hours to peel green cones and fingers get very sore. Two to three cups of
pine nuts eaten per person, per sitting.
Cook with charcoal; shell and crack open with rock (oval muller); winnow to
remove shells; eat fresh or cook again with charcoal for soup. Five lbs. pound
into flour; add water to make soup. Stir constantly, add water slowly (like
gravy). Five pounds per winnnowing tray, cook one at a time. One hour spent in
Pine nut soup made by boiling and not into mush. Pine nuts also roasted and
eaten. Pine nuts were mixed with wheat at Lake Tahoe. One thousand pounds
processed old days, now two-hundred plus or minus pounds today. One hour to
roast and eat, four hours spent to make soup, and two and a half hours to boil
nuts.
C.8
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
26
8/15/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
26
26
27
8/15/02
8/15/02
8/20/02
AF
AF
AT
HUNT
HUNT
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
Deer
Off-site processing
Rabbit Skin BlaHarvesting
27
8/20/02
AT
HUNT
Rabbit Skin BlaOff-site processing
28
8/20/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
Harvesting
28
8/20/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
Off-site processing
29
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Rhubarb
Harvesting
29
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Rhubarb
Off-site processing
Time to hunt when snow is on Mt.Siegel. Deer stay along snow line. Lots of
buckbrush on Mt.Siegel. In the old days, used to find deer in valley, but not
know. At pine nut camp, men go deer hunting and try to hunt at least two deer
per trip. Whole families going hunting with wagon and horses. Eat what you
get (dry meat in strips) and go get more if need it. Out in forest/shrub,
stalking/following them/shoot them-butcher at hunting site-bleed them, gut
them-if too big to carry, cut head off-pack entire animal back to hunting/pine
nut camp to butcher.
Camp-clean meat-cut meat up-skin deer-head and hooves throw away.Old wayeat entire deer at camp.
Modern Day-bring meat home and freeze it.
Skin rabbits (see hunting).
Cut skin into one long continous strip(old timers held knife in mouth-held skin
with both hands to cut into strips);attach all strips together with rags; twist into
twine with stick, while rolling on pantleg; dry it on wall or sticks (outside), also
get rid of ticks; can put in gunny sack until ready to work with it-size of double
sliding glass door-build loom of sticks-weave it back and forth on frame; tie
together with rags. Maybe one person per hunt would gather hides for blanketothers thrown away.
Rabbit boss would call the men together with a fire. Men would form a big line
with rabbit boss in middle-curved line-men walk across sagebrush (about 20'
apart); flush out rabbits-shoot them-put rabbits on belt or on sash with holes for
heads-each man can get 20-30 rabbits (all the men from family go hunting).
Forty to fifty men would go hunting; two or three per family.
Bring rabbits and the older men would skin and clean rabbits. The old timers
could skin rabbit in five minutes. The men and women skinned rabbits. Skin all
four legs by pushing up past sockets; peel skin off body (back to front) in one
move. The skin is inside out; gut it/clean it-hang entire rabbit up to dry (cut feet
off, but leave head on). After dried, put in sacks to store; fry it or boil it. Cut
the rabbit apart; ate head (eat brain/meat on head-delicacy); fry when fresh and
boil when dried.
Walk through brush and stand (knee to waist high), cut stalks with knife and
put into bags. Rhubarb considered a delicacy, not a staple.
Rhubarb doesn't keep fresh, so can it ( boil and place in jars) or make juice
(squeeze, put in jars). Can make pies from canned fruit.
C.9
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
30
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Harvesting
30
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
On-site processing
30
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Off-site processing
31
9/6/02
CS
OTH
Outdoor play Activity
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Processing
Reaching into streams with bare hands, pull bunch and place in gunny sack.
People craved this food, must have been something in it people need because
parents insisted that children eat it.
Eaten while gathering; pick it, rinse in creek where gathering and eat fresh.
Clean it at house and then boil it, fry it or eat it raw. Fry raw or after boiling,
prepare enough for meal (family of ten) plus leftovers-100lbs cooks down to
about 10lbs.
Children play outside all the time. In winter, went skiing with skis made out
curved barrel slat with leather straps, and waxed on the bottom. Ball park at
Dresslerville, big ski area. Big fire built with skiing until nine or ten at night.
Big truck tires, children would climb inside, while others pushed tire. Rocks
played like jacks and jump rope played often. Stick game Sigalak), ladies play,
have braided rag, each side has round pit goal at their end. Two teams with
players swinging sticks , try to take rag away, put it in your goal, then score
point. Players get hit in the leg with stick a lot. Children swim in river in
summer. Tire swing down by river used to swing over river after school.
Children would go help gather local resources, taught how to cut willow,
harvest plants when older, sand seed, and buck berries. Horse riding and
haying working for ranchers and cutting hay in summer. Pine Nut dances, girls
dances, tribal BBQ, and cards were played by old people. People went to
Chinese restaurant to play cards. Old folks played (gambled) inside in back
room of restaurant, while children played outside.
Berries this year drying up, too hot and dry this year. Take all day to gather
berries. Berries harvested in late summer. Berries found hillside, foothill, up
the canyons where it's moist. Elderberry and chokecherry found in similar
environments--canyons. Currants found by Grass Lake over by Hope Valley
(meadow type). Sierra Gooseberries found up at Lake Tahoe and other higher
elevations. Thimbleberry (wild rasberry) grow all over. Wild Strawberry are
found at Lake Tahoe in meadows and very sweet, but tiny. Buckberries grow
along river. Large Blueberry grows on plant with gray leaves, grows in
meadow; berry size of fingernail, little round leaves.
Can or make jellies out of all these berries. Three to five gallon buckets needed
to make jelly per berry. Can dry elderberries (air dry) and then cook in winter.
Also, boil it and add sugar; same with buckberries.
C.10
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
33
8/22/02
PF
GATH
Swamp onion Harvesting
Similar to bosdi, but has bigger leaves.
33
8/22/02
PF
GATH
Swamp onion
34
9/6/02
CS
GATH
Firewood
Off-site processing
35
10/15/02
PF
GATH
Wild onion
Harvesting
36
36
36
8/15/02
8/15/02
8/15/02
PF
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
GATH
Wild onion
Wild onion
Wild onion
Harvesting
On-site processing
Off-site processing
37
37
8/15/02
8/15/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Wild sweet pot Harvesting
Wild sweet pot Off-site processing
38
38
38
10/15/02
10/15/02
10/15/02
PF
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
GATH
Lily
Lily
Lily
39
8/22/02
AF
HUNT
Prairie dog/wooHarvesting
Only eat leaves, don't eat bulb.
Once got it home, chop it if it is big to stove length, otherwise just burn it
whole. Burns fast; mix sagebrush with cottonwood, obtained at the river. Look
for dead cottonwood (dried wood) -saw it into size to haul home, then cut it
up.Clean off branches-saw it into stove lengths, spilt it too.If sagebrush big,
split it too clean bark off sagebrush (peels off easily)-use it to start fires (call it
chips) or use it to roll up and smoke.Get up very early in the morning to make
the fire.
Kids liked to dig bulbs for snack; adults too. Gather opportunistically and eat
raw.
Pick greens-stooped over to ground, pick/snap greens off at base with bare
hands, put into grocery bag. Either stay in concentrated patch, or wander from
patch to patch.
Eat raw.
Simply wash and eat raw.
Potatoes are small, thumb- sized, with a strong flavor. Bend down or get down
on ground to dig them up. Use digging stick work bare-handed. If ground is
hard, much more intensive labor than when ground is soft.
Wash them and and boil.
Kids preferred this as an "after school" snack-lilies avaliable 4-6 weeks in
spring.Kids would stop in field after school and dig and bulbs raw.Take home
"left overs" to parents.Kids dig with bare hands in soft dirt under
sagebrush.Brush off and eat raw.
First brush dirt off lilies and eat raw.
Wash and boil.
Hunt with 22 (Hope Valley- Dressler Field) Blue Lake Road. Shoot them in
head. Shooting them anywhere else, they run off to hole; hard to catch. Can
trap them too with wire (will cut through fishing line or thread with sharp
teeth). Find them in morning and evening. Hike through meadow with wild
grass, see them, shoot them. Risky to trap because of sharp teeth. Use dogs to
retrieve.
Harvesting
On-site processing
Off-site processing
C.11
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
39
8/22/02
AF
HUNT
Prairie dog/wooOff-site processing
40
8/22/02
AF
HUNT
Minnows
Harvesting
40
8/22/02
AF
FISH
Minnows
Off-site processing
Shoot them, throw them in a bag, bring them home. Gut them, use sticks to
hold cavity closed, hold them by legs, singe hair off in open flame (outside
fire), turn black when hair singed off. Roast them or put in whole animal in
gunnysack and place gunnysack in pit where fire has burned down to coals.
Once roasted, peel skin off and eat meat-throw head away to dogs. Very fatty,
rich meat (make you sick). Five minutes to gut woodchuck, two minutes to gut
prairie dogs, and ten minutes to singe oof hair. Woodchuck cooked 2.5 hours
in pit. Prairie dogs roast in oven one to two hours. One woodchuck or ten to
twelve prairie dogs per family per meal.
Scoop or fish for minnows (fish with little screen or chase them into screen).
Eat if big enough and throw tiny ones back in. Fish for minnows with willow
poles; need at least ten to fifteen minnows to make a meal per person. Kids
really like minnows.
Whole minnow cleaned by squeezing out innards by hand. Minnow dipped in
flour and placed in hot oil (2-3"). Entire minnow becomes real crispy and is
eaten whole. Can use for bait when fresh.
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
Lake Tahoe TroHarvesting
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
Lake Tahoe TroOn-site processing
Spawning runs out of Lake Tahoe with fish being bigger than men (fish out of
Upper Truckee). Hooks from heavy, stiff wire, snag fish in river. Must hide
from fish in rivers and creeks. Fish in East Fork are German Brown Trout.
Brook Trout in creeks along Genoa and File's ranches (slough). Topaz Lake
and outlet, Smith Valley, Washoe Lake, and Wally's Hot Springs all have
Catfish. Fish General Creek up by Meeks Bay; big Brook Trout up there; don't
need pole with line, just use short stick with line because of shallow creek.
Mountaineer Creek fish for Brook Trout. Fish along creek, lots of willow along
bank and get scratched up by brush. 20 to 30 trout considered a good day.
Twenty to thirty fish per trip, with each fish at four to six ounces.
Catch and gut trout. Throw whole fish in oil and fry it. After cooked, take meat
off the bones to eat (also dip fish in flour before frying). Give tails and heads to
cats and dogs. Eat as many fish as available. When fishing for cui-cui, filet
along back; just eat filets.
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
Lake Tahoe TroOff-site processing
same as on-site processing
C.12
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
42
8/15/02
CS
OTH
Scouting
Activity
43
8/15/02
PF
BASK
Willow
Activity
44
8/22/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Harvesting
Protect camps, monitor plants and animals for readiness. Leader designates
young man from camp to guard or watch for others and monitor resources. The
environmental factors too variable and have to have someone keeping their
eyes on things.
Cooking basket is open weave used to cook with live coals; woven wide to
allow lots of coal to fall through. Rim made of chokecherry. Cooking basket 70
medium willows deep and 20 medium willows wide. Cleaning tray closer
weave than cooking basket, but still enough space for needles and chaff to fall
through. Sifting tray is closely woven for sifting flour at 150 to 200 small
willow at widest point by 18" to 20" long.
People monitor pine nut zone to see when they're ready because weather affects
harvest time. Family would move out to Pine Nut Camp and stay out for 30
days as long as weather lasts. Pick five gallon bucket/per person/per day.
Picking and harvesting pine nuts while camping. Pine cones have a lot of pitch
(hair covered)-hands bare, use dirt to rub pitch off all day;under trees, in trees,
getting very dirty, pitchy. Some people put canvas under trees. On hands and
knees, get pricked by cones/needles. Put green cones in a sheltered spot.
Knocked off tree- walking on it to open. Pyramid pile with sagebrush/tree to
cover it/protect it from rodents. Lots of wood gathering, camp preparation to
set up Pine Nut camp. Everybody expected to work everyday. Special basket
for pine nuts. 2 ft. tall- uncleaned willow- with ends of willow making a standthrow it away when done because of pitch. Once cones open on trees, knock
off w/ long poles (collected long poles at Tahoe)-always left long poles in trees
for next year. Green cones- Knock off trees with long poles. Dig pit, line it
with dried sagebrush (from old bushes). Light sagebrush, put green cones on to b
On-site processing
On-site processing outside at pine nut camp. Camp food; roast nuts with live
coals in backet tray. Individuals crack and eat pine nuts twice per week or
serve them to guests. Eat one or two handfuls (cup); can't eat more because
warm pine nuts not good for you in large amounts. Did not make pine nut soup
at camp,too busy and too tired from gathering pine nuts during the day. Three
pounds processed on-site in winnowing tray by roasting. Everyone shares and
one to two handfuls eaten outside by fire while continously adding coals.
44
8/22/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
C.13
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
44
8/22/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Off-site processing
45
8/15/02
AF
HUNT
Meat
Harvesting
46
8/28/02
PT
BASK
Willow
Harvesting
Off-site processing consists of storing nuts (raw) in a cool, dry place. When
ready to make soup, roast nuts and coals. Then, crack and peel pine nuts, use
cleaning tray to sift shells off. Take pine nuts roast again with live coals.
Roasting gives flavoring for soup and easier to get moisture out. Pine nuts are
ground once. Toasted nuts are ground into flour. For cleaning, use sifting
basket. The actual cleaning getting nose off (little membrane at top). Sifting
really cleaning; grind again leftovers. Children loved to freeze a cup of pine
nut soup and make it "ice cream". Children learned by imitating. The elders
didn't always explain reason why. Grind twice and then give leftovers to birds
because birds spread pine nuts to sparse places. In early spring, take pine nut
cone from tree, bury it in spring and must pray for good harvest. A spiritual
person needed to conduct prayer. Used to have pine nut dance before harvest,
but don't do that anymore. Pine nut soup always served at dance. A little
handful of pine nuts given to you, so dance must have been when pinenuts
ready. Once flour cleaned, use spring water to make soup at camp. Even today,
Prefer meat wild because better flavor and less fat. Deer and rabbit eat natural
food such as grass resulting in a better flavor.
Full day of traveling and scouting looking at several sites before finding good
willows. Large willows needed for burden basket to support weight. Type of
willow gives without leaves along stem, only on top-use those willows for
cradleboards-makes extra strong stems that makes strond cradle board-very
traditional Washoe-hood needs tips of willows stems (small and pliable). Smal
willows-hood-25 willow bundle (1/8-1/4" diameter). Medium willowswinnowing trays-30 willow-bundle (1/4" diameter). Large willows-base of
cradle basket- (1/2" diameter)-(45 willow bundle). Child needs 3 sizes for use:
newborn basket-midsize one large one. Washoe style:Straight across topWashoe style/Paiute-rounded on top. Baby's first dinner-family hosts dinner
when baby 1 month-puts gift basket (close weave winnowing tray) out as
blessing for baby. Mid-size basket- 2" long- 1" wide- 40 to 45 large willows, 7
medium for arms- 120 for hood (small ones). Big size bikus- 2 1/2 to 3 " long
by 1 ft wide- 40 to 45 lge, 7 med, 130 to 140, slightly bigger/ heavier for larger
bikus. Gather bundles- have to clean as you go- when willows dry out, hard to p
46
8/28/02
PT
BASK
Willow
On-site processing
Gather bundles then clean as you go. When willows dry out, hard to peel.
Also, need to work with it to make sure it's good willow (straight and smooth).
C.14
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
46
47
47
48
8/28/02
8/15/02
8/15/02
7/25/02
PT
PF
PF
PF
BASK
GATH
GATH
GATH
Willow
Acorn
Acorn
Water Cress
Off-site processing
Traditional method- don't use knife to clean willows- peel bark off. Use all
willow gathered in fall year of gathering. Clean bigger willows, 3 to 4 willow
bundle- 8 to 12 hours. Bracken fern- cleaning- more time intensive than willow2 to 3 grocery sacks full ( store for long time) 3 to 4 rhizomes= 3 to 4 hoursget large bundle then bury in mud ( bury it in dark spring mud). Thread- take
leaf buttons off; split it into 3 parts-notch top with knife to start split; hold one
portion with mouth and other 2 portions with hands- 5 seconds to split willow!
One strand at a time- take inner core. Put strand in mouth and peel inner core
away- more careful- 10 seconds in mouth (at least one minute per willow to get
3 strands cored). Coil it to store until ready to use ( can store a year or morecan't use for at least a few days until skin dry enough to peel off). When ready
to use- peel bark off- size thread- ready to sew. Clean willow- use knife, scrape
bark off, smooth it out- 5 - 10" to clean willow (depending on length -smaller
ones take more time. Most important learning in actually going with elders and d
Harvesting
Pick nuts off ground, bending and stooping in late fall after nuts drop. Throw
nuts into burden basket and transfer to sack. Annual trek to gather acorns - 2-3
days to get to camp- then whole family go camp/ gather acorns.
Off-site processing
Store for one year - lay out to dry (usually under bed on canvas on floor). Some
use drying bins. Must dry nuts for over one year. Crack shells - outdoors on
rock- use 1 rock to crack nut- another rock as base. Crack one nut at a time and
only crack enough for immediate use otherwise nuts go rancid within one
week. Leach at least 10-15 times until flour water runs clear and flour turns
white. Clean paste-scrape top film off (save for soup later use) - pot ready for
cooking- add water to paste- constant stirring until proper consistency, cook at
least 4 hrs (boiling). Next to put with running water (by river/creek) take one
cup soup and drop it into cold water- to gel instantly. Lay out on winnowing
tray (nuts still have skin. Next day, sprinkle nuts with water and place in sun.
Skin of nut will bubble and blister in sun and then remove all of skin. Six hours
to skin then dry again. 5 gal bucket processed. Grind nuts with hand grinder.
Twelve to sixteen hours to grind on grinding rock. Grinding cedar in with nuts
(one quart cedar to 5 gallons of nuts). Then use fine weave sifter to get chaff out
Harvesting
In water, use sharp knife, cut with one hand while other hand lift and cut at
base; leave roots. Cut it , shake off, put in basket. Eat fresh, harvest in April
and May. Water cress too bitter by June, but still edible.
C.15
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
48
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Off-site processing
Wash it , separate it (pulling clumps apart); boil it. Eat it boiled and after
boiled, fry it.
49
49
7/25/02
7/25/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Bodsi
Bodsi
Harvesting
Off-site processing
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Rhubarb
Harvesting
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Rhubarb
Off-site processing
Don't munch while gathering-rule of old people (traditional). Bosdi doesn't last
long; consume fresh, pick greens only: don't pull up bulb; don't deplete patch;
cattle destroy. Bosdi is first seasonal green. Take five days to harvest patch ;
move to next patch. Dusty ground while stooping over and bending on knees.
Wash it; give away; consume raw.
Rhubarb harvesting done without following elevation; only harvest one patch.
Rhubarb is a large leafy plant; grows densely; harvesting stalk and place in
large burden basket.
Wash it; give away; cut leaves off; dice it into lengths. When boiled, rhubarb
makes amushy soup (add sugar). Cook rhubarb at home and consume
immediately because not enough to harvest for later use.
Koksi bulb or root harvested stooping and bending on knees while prying out
with digging stick; shake off dirt and toss into bag or basket. Whole plant
harvested; like bosdi, follow it low to high in elevation (sagebrush scrub).
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Koksi
Harvesting
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Koksi
Off-site processing
50
50
50
51
51
8/1/02
8/1/02
8/1/02
8/1/02
8/1/02
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
GATH
GATH
GATH
Spinach
Spinach
Spinach
Mushroom
Mushroom
Harvesting
On-site processing
Off-site processing
Harvesting
Off-site processing
52
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Sand Seed
Harvesting
52
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Sand Seed
On-site processing
Koksi washed and eaten raw at home (1/2 an hour to clean).
Searching for spinach in patches, gather by cutting leaves and stock.
Considered an essential food.
Washing of spinach.
Boil spinach and drain water.
Gathered with bare hands picking just the tops of mushrooms.
Clean first then boil. Dried mushroom kept stored one day or two.
Make sure to check areas for gathering, weather plays a big part in what time
you gather. Patches are only gatherable for one week. Grew mostly after a
forest fire: sand seed is a fire follower.
Seeds cleared of leaves and debris before taken back to camp (winnowing).
Shifting of seeds was done very carefully, lots of work was done to make sure
all of the seed wasn't lost.
C.16
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
52
8/15/02
PF
GATH
Sand Seed
Off-site processing
53
8/1/02
PF
GATH
Stick Weed
Harvesting
53
8/1/02
PF
GATH
Stick Weed
On-site processing
Sand seed roasted for about 15 min. until it changed color, brownish to indicate
loss of moisture. Let cool, then ground on a 12"*12" rock into a paste. Sand
seed not really a flour because of oily base of the seed. Boil water then add
flour to make a sort of gravy. After that, sand seed paste is added to make a
soup. One cup per batch of soup. Store rest of seed before roasting. Add about
one cup to one large bowl of soup. Always done to taste on average.
Sometimes sugar was added to make an after meal desert - eaten maybe once a
week, desert included.
Day trip to gather - using seed beaters to gather, stooped over, made into soup,
used immediately after grinding, less perforated than sand seed. Winds came
into play making gathering time longer; this is a fragile seed. Metsim less prone
to scatter with wind then dahal- seems to be heavier seed.
Possible; Clean seeds; use close weave trays; shake to clean off leaf parts
(seeds tiny). Can also clean at home.
53
8/1/02
PF
GATH
Stick Weed
Off-site processing
54
8/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
54
8/6/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Off-site processing
55
8/12/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Harvesting
Store seeds in flour sacks; mix with sand seed (flavor is stronger). Sand seed is
peanut butter flavored; can last all winter in stored condition (jars and sacks).
Bake it in oven to roast to dry it out (15" to roast). Used to cook on hot rock;
grind it into flour. Make soup with flour and water. Add ground seeds to flour
and water; very oily. 1:4 ratio of seeds to flour. One quart sauce pan, use two
tablespoons of combined sand/seed stick weed.
Searching for berry patches in thick brush and hiking onto hillside carrying
gunny sacks.
Clean off stems and the outside of berries. Wash berries after removing debris.
Cooked by boiling and then canned berries.
Store bag of cones under trees until the cones open. Nuts gathered by shaking
the trees and gathering little pine nuts off of the ground under trees. Place pine
cones and pine nuts in sacks by crawling on hand and knees. Use sticks and
cedar hooks to pull branches to make cones and nuts fall. Also, knocking cones
out of the trees done by climbing into trees. six gunny sacks are full of pine
cones.
On-site processing
Build a fire pit; use a sifting basket and place fire coals in basket. Then add
pine nuts and shift constantly and cook nuts for consumption. De-shelled when
eaten. Similar to sunflower seed consumption.
55
8/12/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
C.17
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
55
8/12/02
PF
GATH
Pine Nuts
Off-site processing
56
56
8/6/02
8/6/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Wild onion
Wild onion
Harvesting
Off-site processing
57
57
8/6/02
8/6/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Choke cherries Harvesting
Choke cherries Off-site processing
58
7/25/02
PF
GATH
Onion
Harvesting
58
58
7/25/02
7/25/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Onion
Onion
On-site processing
Off-site processing
59
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Potatoes
Harvesting
59
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Potatoes
Off-site processing
After cones have opened, must take cones and place in one hand, keeping cone
points pointed away from you. Beat the back or butt of pine cone with stick to
make pine nut fall out. Gathering all the pine nuts up and putting them in
sifting basket. Then sift pine nuts, throwing the nuts in the air to weed out
hollow pine nuts out to be discarded. The wind will blow hollow cones to the
side. Edible ones will stay in the center. Shell pine nuts and place in sifting
basket (Mu-dal) and begin sifting in wind to weed out shell left behind during
de-shelling process. Grind nuts down to flour form, use grinding rock, or grind
between two stones. Whatever you decide. Sift grinded meal, taking fine meal
and separating corse meal to be reground. Take fine meal and add water and
make a batter for a soup. Store like modern day soup. The pine nuts are kept all
season if needed.
Kneeling down to pick. Picking tops of plants: never pick whole plants (roots)
and making sure picking in a dry area. Hiking to higher altitudes to pick later in
season, following the snow. Mainly picked in the spring, but can be picked
early spring into late summer.
Eaten with meals.
Searching for patches to pick making the way through thick brush. Little trees
were picked for gathering choke cherries; just taking stems and berries.
Wash the berries, de-stem berries, and then consume.
Greens gathered in meadow and are picked like bosdi. Greens cake also a
plant, wild onion known as buye.
Onion piled with other harvested greens; water added and greens laid on top of
fire warmed rocks. Greens turned into mush; hand formed into cakes and let to
dry.
Take home home to eat it and store it.
Gathered about the same time as wild onion, searching for a type of flower,
doesn't really grow in patches. When found, must bend down on hands and
knees. Then dig up up pototoe about 4 inches below surface. Hard work to
gather, not gathered very often, not very plentiful so not much gathered. Not
everybody like to eat.
Wash potato, boil water add potatoes, prepared was similar to potato from
grocery store except wasn't peeled or was small potato about 4 inch tall 2
inches wide on average.
C.18
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
60
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Strawberry
Harvesting
60
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Strawberry
Off-site processing
61
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Blueberry
Harvesting
61
8/14/02
PF
GATH
Blueberry
Off-site processing
62
8/14/02
CS
OTH
63
8/12/02
PF
GATH
Pine nut Dance Activity
Acorn
Harvesting
63
8/12/02
PF
GATH
Acorn
Off-site processing
64
8/23/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
64
8/23/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
Searching for strawberries, in damp areas. Bending down to pick ripe ones- a
little hard to find, growing under bushes and on the ground. Must push aside
larger plants to get to berry. Only pick ripe ones.
Washed then eaten- not much preparation for consumption. Eaten like a snack
food or desert.
Hike and search for berry patches and walking through brush and damp
meadows. Picking it, you had to move bushes growing around blueberry to
pick.
Wash first berries, de-stem blueberries, heat pot full of water and add berries
for boiling; boil for ten minutes.
Prepared pine nut soup to be eaten during ceremony and combine with other
traditional foods. Ceremony includes circle dancing all night. At the end of the
dance, pine nut soup is eaten. Everyone from the elders to infants attends the
dance. It is very dusty at dance, with dancing close to fire pit.
Acorns are easier to shell when let out to dry for one week. Acorns picked off
the ground crawling along ground. Place acorns in sack. One half day
searching for acorns and another one half day gathering.
Place acorns out to dry, one week of drying. De-shell acorn and grind it. Grind
four cups at a time; shirt acorn to fine acorn meal. Lay out a square cloth then
spread it over evenly over cloth. Boil water, about five gallons start with luke
warm water pouring over acorn meal to take bitterness out of acorn. Gradually
increase the temperature of the water. The boiling water must have cedar in the
water to add taste. The camp fire must be kept constantly going to keep heating
the water. Scoop up acorn meal and then mix with luke warm water. Try to
make a sort of batter like pancakes and mix batter. Keep stirring mix until it
thickens. Have three gallons of cold water standing by. Once acorn batter is
ready, scoop up a cup full of acorn meal and gently pour into water forming a
shape similar to a football. The left over acorn is made into soup.
Only allowed one deer per season. Went out as many times as it took to get a
deer. Hiking and searching for deer walking through all types of ranges; very
intense process searching for deer.
Cleaned out at killing site: insides are taken out to make deer lighter for
carrying out of hunting range. Heart, liver kept forr consumption.
C.19
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
64
8/23/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
65
8/12/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
Harvesting
65
8/12/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
On-site processing
65
8/12/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
Off-site processing
66
8/23/02
PT
GATH
Willow
Harvesting
66
8/23/02
PT
GATH
Willow
Off-site processing
67
12/11/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit
Harvesting
67
68
12/11/02
12/11/02
AF
AT
HUNT
HUNT
Rabbit
Off-site processing
Rabbit Blanket Harvesting
68
12/11/02
AT
HUNT
Rabbit Blanket Off-site processing
69
11/25/02
AT
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
Hung up deer from the head and then skinned deer. The deer laid out for
butchering meat. The butchered meat is stored for later consumption. The
sections of jerky sometimes made from the deer flank.
Hiking and roaming areas of sage brush to find rabbit. Making noise to flush
out rabbit. Kill rabbit, usually use a shot gun. A lot of hiking involved to search
for animal, no waiting involved.
Clean out the inside of rabbit by cutting along belly of rabbit. If water was
available would wash out the insides. Five rabbits processed on site.
Must skin first. Wash out meat, and cut up rabbit into sections similar to a
chicken. Rabbit fried or boiled. Rabbit meat is stored like any other meat in a
cold place.
Walking through meadows and stream side looking for good willows. Willow
patches tend to be thick, so a lot of effort is taken to push aside smaller willows
to cut the right size willows. Then bundles are made of willows cut into 1'
diameter, the average size.
For the baby basket, clean willows by scraping the outer skin off the willow
until the white core is visible. All bundles are cleaned and left to dry for one
week. Wet willows to prepare to start weaving. Only soaked enough to work
with one at a time. Small willow are then weaved starting with the bottom of
cradle board and working your way up. Baby basket, shifting basket, burden
basket uses.
A big rabbit drive involving 50 to 60 men, predominantly men using shotguns;
a communal organized hunt, walking through sage/scrub.
Clean, gut,and skin rabbit at home; cleaned next to stream. Cooked rabbit by
boilling, roasting, grilling over open flame, cooked underground (same as
woodchuck), and cooked in Dutch oven underground. Store rabbit by drying
(smoked with hardwoods) and freezing (stored in cellar).
The harvest equals the same as hunting (100 to 120 rabbits for a blanket).
In an outdoor setting, need lots of room, the inside of hide cleaned with water.
Processed skins immediately using natural materials ie., a willow stem. It takes
two to three months to make a blanket. The blanket is used as a shawl and
transported from place to place and never during rain. Transported mostly
during the cold and cooler seasons. Blanket can be worn as a shawl when
outdoors and had to hold up when worn.
Six hours spent walking and waiting. Hunting season in fall; 10 to 15 days
consecutively.
C.20
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
69
11/25/02
AT
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
69
11/25/02
AT
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
If the deer is extra large, need to quarter for transport. When processing on site
there is constant contact with the environment.
Moderate contact with environment when processing at home. Deer used for
bow quiver, shoes, gloves, snow shoes used for hunting. The tools will be used
at home (ie., awl). Baby basket transportable, can go everywhere. All of deer is
used. Implements made will make life easier, but the activity of hunting is still
arduous.
Fish are speared, snagged with treble hooks. Fish snared with hook tied to rod
or pole and hooked. Hooking preferred at the gills (netting was done by other
people). Other people ate fish eggs. Big trout from Lake Tahoe.
Gut and clean on site, washed, and transported in a wet gunny sack. 4 to 5 fish
if lucky.
Sun-dried, smoked, placed in hut on wood and rocks for smoking; preferred
hardwoods for smoking like chokecherry and mahogany.
70
12/3/02
AF
FISH
Trout
Harvesting
70
12/3/02
AF
FISH
Trout
On-site processing
70
12/3/02
AF
FISH
Trout
Off-site processing
71
11/15/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
71
11/15/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
71
11/15/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
72
72
11/15/02
11/15/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Woodchuck
Woodchuck
Harvesting
On-site processing
72
11/15/02
AF
HUNT
Woodchuck
Off-site processing
Take cold bath in river before sunrise. Traversing through and over water,
rocks, brush, trees, and always in contact with environment; sit and wait.
Cut the throat of deer and drain blood, gut deer, remove bladder, and carry out
deer over shoulder. Keep antlers pointed down so not to get shot and carry
cross country.
At camp, butcher, dry meat, cook over flame, clean with stream water or spring
water.
In contact with the environment always. Hunt in high country in morning or
late afternoon. 2 to 3 woodchuck hunted.
One hour spent gutting woodchuck on-site.
Cleaned and cooked woodchuck at home. Woodchuck can be cooked
underground or place over open flame. One half day spent cooking
underground.
Harvesting
Gathered in the beginning of hunting season when animals are ready to be
hunted. Roses are easier to handle when on the green side. A lot of time is
spent looking for usable plants, so looking for straight shafts clipped down low
to the ground. Crawling through a lot of brush to get to bottom. A dozen taken
at a time and place in a bundle. Four per dozen is given away.
73
10/10/02
PT
GATH
Rose bush
C.21
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
73
10/10/02
PT
GATH
Rose bush
Off-site processing
74
10/10/02
PF
GATH
Wild Garlic
Harvesting
74
10/10/02
PF
GATH
Wild Garlic
Off-site processing
75
10/10/02
PF
GATH
Wild onion
Harvesting
75
10/10/02
PF
GATH
Wild onion
Off-site processing
76
10/3/02
PF
GATH
Choke cherries Harvesting
76
77
10/3/02
8/7/02
PF
PF
GATH
GATH
Choke cherries Off-site processing
Elderberry
Harvesting
78
8/7/02
PF
GATH
Potatoes
Harvesting
78
8/7/02
PF
GATH
Potatoes
Off-site processing
79
8/7/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Harvesting
79
8/7/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
On-site processing
Strip outer bark and needles. Thirty inches of shaft used. Rose bundles left in
bundles to dry for a week. One shaft at a time worked between the river rocks
that were gathered. Shafts pulled back and forth between rocks to get out bends
of shaft. Point, (usually obsidian) attached with sinew; feathers attached with
tree pitch and sinew. Used to hunt wild game.
If seen while out will gather. Always share what is gathered. Dig up from
ground about 3 to 12 inches in ground. Place in whatever is around to use.
Rinse with water. Put in soups, stews, etc. Put in and cooked with whatever is
the meal for the day.
Hiking out a few hundred yards to patches. Moving from patch to patch.
Crawling along the ground picking onions; taking from ground level. Place in
large paper grocery bag.
Wash it and separate onion from other types of plants. Wash with water
available. Onions used just like domestic onions and similar use as chives.
Hike one mile to find trees, usually hiked through thick brush. Use choke
cherry hooks to get cherries down. Hooks usually used for pine nuts too. Hook
the trees limbs and pull all the way down. Pick cherries off limbs storing
cherries in burden baskets.
Clean stems off. Boil them about forty-five minutes in a big cooking pot. Add
sugar, also be sure to get apple juice from real apples. Then place in jar for
storage.
Hiking in thick brush to find patches.
Hiking to harvest area. Kneeling down to pick up root. Using hands and choke
cherry stick for a digging tool. Digging out roots 6 to 8 inches down in earth.
Only taking half the root or less to preserve root patch for later harvest.
Wash and scrub dirt off just like potato, boil potato sometimes peeled after
boiled or just eaten with skin. Used as a side dish; sweet tasting.
Following snowline for harvesting; early spring in the valley, June would be
the last month to pick in higher elevations. Bending down on hands and knees
picking tops of plants never pulling up the roots. Searching for patches of
onion, not eaten as your picking, ok to eat at a meal sitting on site.
No processing, just eaten at lunch, one hand full per person. Gone out
harvesting.
C.22
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
79
8/7/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Off-site processing
80
11/5/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Harvesting
80
11/5/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Off-site processing
81
81
11/12/02
11/12/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Deer
Deer
Harvesting
On-site processing
Sort the weeds out, shift around to knock dirt or mud off. If onions were really
dirty, rinse off. Keep onion in cool place, so they don't wilt.
Look for patches of onion and looking for flowers. Hiking through damp areas.
Always had family or community place, always gone to for good harvest.
Always moving to different areas and never taking all the patches. Leave some
of the patches to ensure growth for the next year. Crawling on the ground on
hands and knees picking just the tops never picking up the roots. Putting them
in pillow cases; whole family involved in activity.
Placed in coolers to keep. Must weed out and shake debris when picked. Wild
onion cleaned everytime it was eaten. Wild onion only kept a few days before
it was no good.
First hunt, killed buck only. Every part of deer used. The whole deer was
consumed three days after kill. During the first hunt for a deer, must come up
from behind and punch out the eyes after kill, so he'll never see you sneak up
on them in the future. Then jump to horns to thank deer for feeding your
people, most meat shared with the elders. The best parts were shared with
elders because they were the best parts.
Throat cut to bleed them.
81
11/12/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
82
11/12/02
AF
FISH
Trout
Harvesting
82
82
11/12/02
11/12/02
AF
AF
FISH
FISH
Trout
Trout
On-site processing
Off-site processing
One day of waiting before deer was eaten. Gut, skin, and then butchered.
Certain parts usually, but best parts given to elders. All of deer bones should be
buried. It is bad to share with dogs. What ever was in season was shot. A lot of
contact with brush and other foliage when hunting and hiking. Deer was very
plentiful long ago, not much looking needed then. Deer hides and horns are put
in trees. A Washo tradition, never used as trophys or mounted.
Went to fishing spots, usually walking through thick willow patches and
sometimes walked through water.
Fish were knocked out. Fish put on willow through gills and put in water while
fished.
The fish were scaled and gutted.
Harvesting
Everyone had their own spots where they gathered. Hiking along stream side to
find their certain spots walking through foliage, must find straight and certain
sizes of willows. Cutting at base of willow and cutting only one at a time.
Continous contact with damp areas along stream side and dense plant life.
83
11/5/02
PT
GATH
Willows
C.23
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
83
11/5/02
PT
GATH
Willows
Off-site processing
84
11/12/02
AT
HUNT
Buck skin
Activity
85
10/11/02
AF
HUNT
Goose
Activity
86
10/4/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
86
87
10/4/02
10/4/02
PF
CS
GATH
OTH
Elderberry
Off-site processing
Elderberry Stal Activity
88
10/4/02
PF
GATH
Acorn
Harvesting
88
10/4/02
PF
GATH
Acorn
Off-site processing
89
10/11/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
Scrape off outer bark until the inner white core was exposed. All about process
are done in stages. One stage done per day. Willows are cut in uniform size for
use.
Soak deer hide to make ready to de-fur; a one night process. Then deer brain
and hide boiled together to make it plyable. Hide worked by rubbing together
to make it plyable for whatever use wanted.
Hike to steam/ meadow area, always knew the area to hunt. Sit and wait for
birds to set flight. Kneeling down in moist area while waiting. Geese taken
usually in flight. Most times must wade in water to retrieve bird, or wherever it
may fall.
Hike out about one half mile out to elderberry patches. Taking berries from the
bushes, usually the larger ones. Storing in five gallon buckets, berries are taken
in clusters.
Clean and wash berries, de-stem and then cook more for jelly. Boiling berries
for ten minutes. Crushing berries for juice then sugar is added. Pulp of brries
made into patties, stored for winter. Berries boiled later for flavoring used for
pudding and dumplings.
Elderberry stalk used in puberty ceremonies for young women.
Pick the fallen nut from the ground by kneeling on the ground. Hiking about a
half mile to gathering spots. Early season must survey the area to be picked.
Take a few seeds, give thanks, then plant seed in ground to make sure there is a
good harvest for the season.
Shell taken off nut then ground into a flour. Flour is then leached with water to
take out any bitterness. Make into a wet biscuit for consumption. Shell and
cleaning of acorn taken 3 hours. Two days to dry acorn. All day to grind (8
hours), pounding on a grinding rock. Leaching of flour 3 hours. Place leached
flour into kettle heated into a soup to a thickness desired. A cup full taken of
hot acorn soup. Cup then dropped into cold water to form a 2" thick biscuit
approx.
Early season not good for deer hunting because deer meat isn't good to eat.
Find hunting area, usually close to living area. Hiking through all types of
climate areas. Stalking deer may take all day of hiking. Once game is killed,
immediately bleed the deer. Throat is cut and whatever heart beat is left will
pump out the remaining blood. This is very important. Remove bladder and
also everything else of animal (organs) left as is for other animals, never wash
deer in hunting place.
C.24
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
89
10/11/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
90
10/4/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Harvesting
90
10/4/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Off-site processing
91
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Harvesting
91
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Elderberry
Off-site processing
92
92
12/30/02
12/30/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Porcupine
Porcupine
Harvesting
Off-site processing
93
1/3/03
PT
BASK
Willow
Harvesting
Deer is hung up to cure for 3 to 4 days, hide of deer is taking only when deer is
ready to butcher, hide helps with the curing processing. Deer is then cut in half
and butchered into it's sections. Sometimes deer is stored and parts taken as
needed. The deer bladder is removed as soon as possible, as not to contaminate
meat. Always lots of contact with brush, and if waiting for game, must hide in
foliage area. Only take what you are going to use. Never take excessive
amounts of game. Sometimes, at certain times of the day, stalking at watering
areas is done. ie; at riversides, meadows, and stream sides. The first kill of deer
for the first time the hunters deer is never kept. Deer is always given to family
and the rest of the community. Looked upon as good luck for the rest of the
years the hunter would hunt. Also seen as the teaching of sharing bountiful
hunts. Depending on availability of season, sharing only a few cuts if season is
bad. Before leaving for hunt, you must bathe in moving water to bless
themselves for successful hunt. Also, to remove human sent from body. If you
were camped out in hunting area, you would find the closest moving water.
Looking for area or onion patches, looking natural compose area.Hiking for
most of the time about one half mile. Thanks given for harvest with a handful
of onion. Sitting on the ground, close to onion patch picking just the tops of
green, never take whole plant and clean area around you and then move on.
Never picking all onions, leave some to keep patch fertile.
Sort out grass, sticks, etc. from onion stems. Then place in refrigerator for
storage. Eatten at every meal until gone. Clean onion as needed.
Hiking through thick brush up hills to find patch. Branches broken off where
they connect to main branch. Whole branch isn't taken off, just where berries
hang. Flour sacks used to hold berries. Flour sacks used a lot for other
gathering as well.
Pick through take berries of broken branches washed stems taken off then put
in big pot and boiled for ten minutes, jelly made from berries. After cooked,
get cheese cloth berries placed in and mashed in to get berry juice out of. Sugar
and other ingredients add to juice for jelling. Mixed until thickened, then
placed in jars for storing. One days work for jelly (8 hours).
Dad shot one in tree- fill out of tree. Didn't make specific trip, followed tree
line, would hunt one (all that family hunted) per summer.
Skin, gut and then boil in water with salt.
Mother made baskets, but girls didn't go with her. Don't remember gathering
willow, but know their mother must have.
C.25
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
94
94
12/30/02
12/30/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
95
12/30/02
CS
OTH
96
1/3/03
CS
GATH
Jack Rabbit
Jack Rabbit
Harvesting
Rabbit boss tells when and where rabbit drive will be ( go to Smith Valley).
Walk along line, flush them out, shoot them. Tie onto belt and collect so many
rabbits. Bring home.
Off-site processing
Dad skinned him-10" per rabbit.Mom gutted him-15" to gut rabbit. Leave
overnight then wash them and cut them up; either stew or roast. Everybody
loved brains:cook head whole and crack it open. Dry whole rabbit and hang
alongside the east side of house.Leave it there all winter and cook as needed
(boil it). Move to a shed in summer. Lasts all year. Saved hides - 100 plus
rabbits per blanket, made rabbit skin blankets - roll and dry hides - weave
hides. Skin dries - stretch it out on west side of house - ntack it onto wall and
leave it there until winter - (1-2 months). Each kid had a rabbit skin blanket usually just got one/lifetime. Weaved with it with muslin - couldn't see muslin
once its woven. Work on blanket all winter - sit inside work on blankets.
Girls Dance
Activity
Sugil adas
Harvesting
When young girls start period at 13 plus or minus ( now girls starting periods
younger at 9 or 10; change in environment and diet most likely the cause), girls
have a ceremonial dance. Fasting for four days with water only and on the
fourth nite have dance. Evening of dance, girls run up a hill and light fire to
signal to come to party. Acorns, pine nut soup (usually acorn because pine nuts
weren't always available), meat, beans and stew made by everyone; everyone
contributed. This was the only big party for Indians. Entertainment was
important; old ladies played Indian five cards. Now, the young people don't
play cards. Everyone dance with a big feast at midnight. Even when it snowed,
folks danced in the snow too. In the early evening one girl and the period girl
would hold a painted red stick; only period girl has red stick (color from red
rock and stick from elderberry bush). Women elders sing a special song. Dance
would be held around families house, always outside. A big fire (like bon fire)
all night until sunrise with people dancing a circle dance all night. At midnight,
call people into eat, and only a few at a time could fit in house to eat. At sunrise
Burn root in a bad thunder/lightening storm to chase thunder away - root had
odor - burned it inside your wood stove. Two types of sugil adas: one very
fragrant and small that grows close to the ground and a taller, with no odor that
is taller. Dig root in usually in hard, somewhat rocky area. Sugil adas is a deep
root. Dig intensively and pull root, shake off dirt and take home. Dry it before
burn it. Dry plant out in sun.
C.26
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
96
1/3/03
CS
GATH
Sugil adas
Off-site processing
97
1/3/03
PF
GATH
Tule
Harvesting
98
98
1/3/03
12/30/03
AF
AF
FISH
FISH
Trout
Trout
Harvesting
On-site processing
98
12/30/03
AF
FISH
Trout
Off-site processing
99
99
12/30/03
12/30/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Deer
Deer
Harvesting
On-site processing
99
12/30/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
100
12/30/02
PF
GATH
Sugil adas
Harvesting
101
101
1/3/03
12/30/02
AF
AF
HUNT
HUNT
Wood Chuck Harvesting
Wood Chuck On-site processing
101
12/30/02
AF
HUNT
Wood Chuck Off-site processing
Root burned to chase away storms such as thunder and lightning. Possible
effects against damp weather?
Tule - fresh, tender early spring. Toward bottom of plant, tender shoots,peel
them and eat raw. Find it opportunistically and eat. Adults and children would
eat it as they found it.
Brothers went fishing everyday in summer - Bring home enough for dinner and
breakfast next morning. Loved to go creek fishing too - trout.
Gutted on site.
Bring it all home, fry it and eat it. Just eat fresh.Didn't dry it. Cut head off; fry
whole - Put in flour, salt and pepper. Fry fish in bacon fat. Same thing for
breakfast.
Family always had venison, dad and brothers went hunting. 3 deer - only hunt
Sept. - Nov. - mating/pregnant - males get tough/lots of running. First deer have to give it away to ensure good luck, not to relative, but to someone else.
Samething - if you win money gambling, supposed to give some away to
relatives.
Butcher deer on site and carry out.
Jerky meat - boil it in winter to supplement, cut inside/hang outside. Cut into
strips, hang on fence with salt/pepper to keep bees away. Deer left out to dry
for several weeks until dry. 75 pounds eaten fresh.
The fresh stems of sugil adas are edible. Follow it up elevation to harvest. Eat
sugil adas raw - peel it. Eat opportunistically.
Wood chuck found in Hope Valley and Washoe Valley near rock dens or in
low meadows. Shoot wood chuck and take home.
Gut wood chuck.
Leave hide on and sew belly up to keep the dirt out. Roast it in a pit; hair is
singed off in pit. Pull wood chuck out of pit; hit with a stick to shake off ash,
peel skin off (very crispy). Cooking wood chuck takes a full day to cook. The
meat is very rich and fatty.
Water
The game is not as plentiful. All the nutrients have been washed out.
Mountaineer Creek is starting point for native trout hat can only run down into
Doud Creek; creeks dead after that point. The deer, birds rabbits, grouse, and
turkey, all drink from the creek. The animals die from slow poisoning and
spread the poison as they die. As the body dies, poisons are released into
surrounding habitat. As the ground percolates, reabsorbs poisons.
102
12/30/02 AF/PF
OTH
On-site processing
C.27
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
103
1/31/03
MT
MED
Lomatium tea Off-site processing
104
1/3/03
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
104
1/31/03
AF
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
104
1/31/03
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
Put a 1" to 2" section of root (depending on desired strength) into a pan of
water on top of stove. Boil it for at least one hour. Lots of oil leaves the root
and comes to the top of the water. Root very oily like acorn. The tea is
extremely bitter. Depending on how sick you are is how strong you make it.
Boil it down to 2 to 3 cups of fluid. Drink it all at once or possibly, reheat
leftovers and use again. The treatment is usually effective.
Took pack lunch with them in back country and depended on how far back.
Rough country and with lots of walking and drank water from springs. Leave
4:30am - get home dark - walking whole time - go to least populated areas
(avoidCalif/city hunters) took the boys to rough back country. Hay Press
Meadows considered prime deer hunting area. Mule deer from Brunswick
Canyon and Holbrook Junction migrate to Hay Press Meadows, but residential
herd doesn't migrate. Other migratory herds migrate into Hay Press Meadows
from Bagley Valley, Monitor Range, Carson Range, Stewart, and Walker. The
poison affects all herds, not just residential. Ranchers would pull open range
cattle out of area. Poison affects all of food chain. Predators like hawks, eagles,
buzzards, bobcat, and mountain lions feed on small rodents (chipmonks) and
deer. Bible tells us, when land is sick, people are sick. Whole ecosystem is
sick, waters sick - makes everything sick (life-giving quality of water
contaminated.
Gut deer; intestines and lungs dropped, but kept the liver and heart. To pack
deer out on back, place hind legs through front legs. Pack out with legs on one
side and the antlers and head on the opposite side. It took a long time to pack
out the deer because it was rough country.
Hang deer for three days to drain blood. Skin it, cut legs off, cover with sheet,
and let it hang out in the cold. The cold puts a hard glaze over meat (seals the
meat), and can store this way. Take deer and cut off what you want or butcher
whole deer. Bones left in meat for flavor or given to dogs. Neck is used for
stew meat. Some elders would take the heads to use brains for tanning hide.
One whole deer can be butchered in about an hour with a couple of guys
working.
C.28
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
Trout
Harvesting
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
Trout
On-site processing
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
Trout
Off-site processing
106
1/31/03
PF
GATH
Metsim
Harvesting
106
1/3/03
PF
GATH
Metsim
Off-site processing
Both fished Mountaineer for native and introduced trout with their dad (early
1950/60s). Mountaineer starts from a spring at top of HWY 89 (Beaver
Ponds). Find all through Mountaineer Creek, then dies out because of the
contamination of Bryant Creek. Mostly elders and children fed by sharing.
Walk to where fishing and leave at 3:30 or 4 am and return 10 or 11 at night.
Fishing at all elevations of creek, moving all day (12 to 20 miles walked per
day). Families followed fishing season from end of April until the end of
October. Hamburger/chicken- treats; no sliced bread. Wild game, fish, beans,
rice potato- staples. Incorporated pine nuts/acorns (fall)-more ceremonial
because took so long to prepare. Bagley Valley- Soda Springs catch Rocky
Mtn. White Fish- get up to 8-10 lbs- eat on site- cook on rocks, filet and eat on
site. See fish left on bank to die because people think they're a sucker. Killing
off fish. Can't find anymore- elders preferred white fish over trout. White fish
in E & W fork. Also found in Markleeville- in bigger creeks. Dad would smoke
Kokonee out of Tahoe/ N. Fork of Eel River- Round Valley.
Cut head and tail off; gut them and didn't eat. Smaller fish, eat the head, tail,
and whole fish. Scaling not required on small fish. Elders ate roe too either
boiled or fried. Would censor catch if too many females caught and would quit
fishing. Cooked outdoors, on rock, grill, or whatever available at camp, if no
campsite, built a fire and cooked right there.
At home, fried on stove. If head of fish fit in pan, kept head and the tail, if
didn't fit, cut up. Fish need to fight current and their meat turns from white to
pink. 12" to 21" German Brown and Rainbows caught, (only caught native
trout (Cut throut) when planted such as farm fish from Heenan Lake); didn't
like these fish, too spongy. Cooking in winter done inside on stove, but in
summer done outside. Old days, fishing camps maintained by ; fire ring, wood
laid out, extra wood, clean grill in tree, pot for cooking, and find place with
matches protected by plastic/ canvas in crook of tree, just for everybody;
camps not named. Everybody could use it- Washoe, cowboys, fisherman. Even
old Cow cabins kept stocked with camp food- can't do it now because people
steal it/ruin site.
Dahal-fire follower-very oily. Metsim, tiny- seeds- use seed beater togathervery hard, stooped work-tkes long time to fill can.
Winnow out trash and grind it on a flat rock with a stone muller. Boil it as a
soup-fairly rich.
C.29
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
107
1/3/03
PF
GATH
Megel
Harvesting
107
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Megel
Off-site processing
108
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Harvesting
108
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Water Cress
Off-site processing
109
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Harvesting
109
9/4/02
PF
GATH
Wild Onion
Off-site processing
110
9/4/02
AF
HUNT
Deer
Harvesting
110
1/9/03
AF
HUNT
Deer
On-site processing
110
1/9/03
AF
HUNT
Deer
Off-site processing
Search for bush, looking for a bright green bush, bush don't grow in patches;
singular bush. Breaking parts of the branches off, ones with a large clump of
sprouts, placed in bags or flour sacks, best when it's dry easier to gather.
Picked whenever in area.
Dry out tea, ( 1 to 2 weeks to dry properly), hang them upside down outside
somewhere, so not to be bothered. Then broken into one inch sections. Only
green parts are used. Rinsed off and boiled for ten minutes. Strained and put
into ice tea jar.
Kneel in stream to pick and stream side just picking the tops. Search for along
stream side , same area gone to every trip to gather watercress. A place in the
Leviathan Mine area called the "Loop".
The washing process similar to lettuce. Place in sink and wash off mud and
other foreign things. Cut up for salad. Must weed through, pick out weeds
etc…
Lots found by aspen trees and never picked the roots. Always picked just the
tops. Search for onion patch most of the times same places gone to first.
Crawling around on ground, pick tops of onion. Paper bags or flour sacks used
to gather onions as container. Must get in early spring, otherwise it starts to
flower and then not picked.
Picked weeds out of onions, then put in storage place. Used to eat with all
meals until gone. Handfuls are made into balls then eaten, salt added.
Wake up still at dark and take a bath in cold water. Then, say prayer
(traditional) and go out and hunt. Walk over and through grass, trees, streams,
rock, and shrubs. Use of springs during hunt.
When gutting deer, remove heart and the liver. Place the entrails by burying
(not just discarded) as tradition. If water was near by, used for washing.
Process deer either outside at home or inside if weather is very cold. Deer
skinned, butchered, cut into meat size portions, and used water to clean from
stream or spring.
C.30
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
111
112
112
1/9/03
1/16/03
1/10/03
CS
PT
PT
OTH
BASK
BASK
Pine Nut DanceActivity
Send out the word to all tribal members of the pine nut dance at open flat at
Double Springs Flat for one week in September. All ages would attend from
the very old to the very young. Camped on site and utilized water from springs,
also vegetation for cooking. Small shelters (Gado) used for windbreaks. At
opening ceremony the blessing of the pine nuts took place where the pine nut
cones would be buried in mud and usually performed by a headsmen. Dancing
during the night (all night), tha shishi (a slow round dance) performed in same
spot every night which kicked up a lot of dust; a large gathering. During the
day, getting tools ready for harvest like poles, baskets, stocking up on food and
hunting or gathering medicines. After one week the group would disperse to
family gathering sites for the harvest. All day harvesting and sometimes a
month at a time. Collecting and store cones by knocking seeds from cones; a
couple hundred pounds. Maintain constant contact with environment. All
activities performed by all family members young and old, benefitting the
family.
Large Burden Harvesting
Large Burden On-site processing
After rising in the morning, prepare a lunch to take with us and drive to
location. Sometimes driving a 100 mile or more looking for good willows. We
must get close to the willow to examine them. We look for new growth, healthy
willow, and straight willow. It's getting more and more difficult to find good
willow. We go in the winter months after it freezes, sometimes in the sun or
rain. Finding willow one season doesn't mean the willow will be ther the
following year. Usually, new areas have to be found. We are very fortunate if
we find good basket willows. Willow always grows near water. The willow
quality depends on higher elevation plants. In and amongst the native
vegetation all the time. 400 willow stems needed for a large burden basket.
Bundle the willows for transport and storage.
C.31
APPENDIX C. QUALITATIVE DATA FROM LEVIATHAN PROJECT INTERVIEWS
112
1/10/03
PT
BASK
Large Burden Off-site processing
113
1/10/03
PT
BASK
Bracken Fern Harvesting
113
1/23/02
PT
BASK
Bracken Fern Off-site processing
114
1/23/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit Drive
Harvesting
114
10/3/02
AF
HUNT
Rabbit Drive
Off-site processing
Store willow in a cold place, so that they don't dry out; outside in winter is
good. To make our threads, the actual weaving material, we split the willow
into three sections. Starting at the smaller end and splitting all the way down.
Each willow makes three threads. We hold one section in our mouths and split
with our hands. The inner core is then removed holding with our teeth and
removing with our hands. The willow (thread) has to be made while the willow
is still fresh as it has to be wet or damp. Once the willow dries, it cannot be
used and has to be discarded. After the thread is prepared, bark is left on and
coiled and dried. The thread and willow rods can sit for years as long as bark is
off. Soaking the willow takes place after the thread is prepared. After the bark
is removed from thread, it must remain in water so it won't break.
A native plant for adornment of baskets. Found in the spring in damp climate
area. Traveling to site and at upper elevation locating plant and digging up.
Bracken fern was and has been found in the Monitor Pass area. After the fern is
found, dig up, and the root is the only part of the plant that is used. . Harvested
in a five gallon bucket. The root is buried in black mud for approximately for
three weeks. This material never loses its color. This material is also dried and
used at anytime after that. When the weaver is ready to use bracken fern, it is
also placed in water and kept wet.
The bracken fern is woven into the basket. It makes the basket more beautiful.
A weaver is also able to be recognized as many weavers used certain favorite
designs. It's difficult to say what amount is used in a basket. It depends on the
design and size of basket.
Went in groups of 6 per family and met up with other family groups. A line
formed of men, then they would walk towards the enclosed area. Shooting
rabbits as they go along. Walking about one mile through brush.
Hides taken off and gutted. After which, they are washed. Skins sared, rolled
up and placed into sacks. Rabbit deep fried with flour or baked, (prepared like
duck). Skins to be used for various purposes.
C.32
APPENDIX D.
QUANTITATIVE DATA FROM INTERVIEWS
Appendix D data are organized into sixteen sheets which may be printed and attached
according to the schematic illustrated below:
D.1
D.4
D.7
D.10
D.13
D.2
D.5
D.8
D.11
D.14
D.3
D.6
D.9
D.12
D.15
KEY
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.1 of 15
HARVESTING
Form
Activity
Season Resource
Date of
#
Interview
102
1/31/03
OTH
OTH
70
12/3/02
AF
FISH
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
FA
FI
Brook Trout
W
FC,R
1575-1890
IU
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
Brook Trout
W
CS,R
4000-6000
IU
82
11/12/02
AF
FISH
ALL
FI
Brook Trout
W
RI
750
IU
CS,R
N/R
Type
Resource
Gathering
Consump.
Names
Setting
Setting
Total Amount Harvested
Record
Fish/Game
SP,FA
FI
Big Trout
W, St,CF,Me
Recorded
N/A
N/A
FC,RI
15-20
Converted
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
CutthroatTrout
W
82
11/12/02
AF
FISH
ALL
FI
CutthroatTrout
W
750
IU
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
FA
FI
CutthroatTrout
W
FC,R
855-1125
IU
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
German Trout
W
CS,R
N/R
98
12/30/02
AF
FISH
SU
FI
German Trout
W
RI
600-1200
IU
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
FA
FI
German Trout
W
FC,R
855-1125
IU
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
Lake Trout
W
CS,R
N/R
70
12/3/02
AF
FISH
SP,FA
FI
Little Trout
W, St,CF,Me
FC,RI
N/R
40
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
Minnows
W
R
10000-15000
IU
105
1/31/03
AF
FISH
FA
FI
RainbowTrout
W
FC,R
855-1125
IU
98
12/30/02
AF
FISH
SU
FI
RainbowTrout
W
RI
600-1200
IU
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
FI
RainbowTrout
W
CS,R
N/R
82
11/12/02
AF
FISH
ALL
FI
RainbowTrout
W
RI
750
IU
98
12/30/02
AF
FISH
SU
FI
River Trout
W
RI
600-1200
IU
41
8/22/02
AF
FISH
SP,SU
45
8/15/02
AF
HUNT
23
10/30/02
CS HUNT,CERE
21
10/30/02
AF
HUNT
89
10/11/02
AF
HUNT
81
11/12/02
AF
71
11/15/02
99
12/30/02
64
Lb
106.5
Lb
FI
Salmon
W
CS,R
N/R
LG,SG
Meat
N/R
N/R
N/R
FA
LG
Deer Hunt
ALL
HC,RI, RO
N/R
FA
LG
Deer
ALL
HS,HC,RI,RO
1-2
FA
LB
Deer
St,Me,PJ,SS
RI
1
IU
150
Lb
HUNT
SU/FA
LG
Deer
St,PJ,C,Me,SS
RI
10-20
IU
2250
Lb
AF
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer
St,CF,PJ,SS
HC,RI
2-3
IU
AF
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer
PJ,CF
R
300
IU
110
1/9/03
AF
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer
PJ,CF,SS
R
3
IU
300
Lb
64
8/23/02
AF
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer
St,Me,PJ,SS,CF
RI
1
IU
150
Lb
26
8/15/02
AF
HUNT
FA-WI
LG
Deer
PJ,SS
HS, PN,BS
2
IU
200
Lb
104
1/31/03
AF
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer
PJ,SS
R
1460
20
11/6/02
AF
HUNT
SU
SG,RD
Marmot
Me,RA
RC,RI,RO
3-4
IU
12
Lb
92
12/30/02
AF
HUNT
SU
RD
Porcupine
PJ,CF,SS
RI
1
IU
30
Lb
20
11/6/02
AF
HUNT
SU
SG,RD
PrairieDog
Me, RA
RC,RI,RO
15
IU
39
8/22/02
AF
HUNT
SU
SG
PrairieDog
Me,RA
R
22-33
IU
25
Lb
101
12/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Woodchuck
Me,Hl,Cn
R
35-40
R
39
8/22/02
AF
HUNT
SU
SG
Woodchuck
Me,RA
72
11/15/02
AF
HUNT
SU
SG
Woodchuck
Me
94
12/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Jack Rabbit
SS
65
8/12/02
AF
HUNT
FA,WI
SG
Jack Rabbit
PJ,SS
28
8/20/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Rabbit
SS
2-3
IU
25
Lb
2-3
IU
22.5
Lb
RI
90-120
IU
420
Lb
RI
35
IU
134.75
Lb
R
80-240
IU
616
Lb
114
10/3/02
AF
HUNT
FA/WI
SG
Rabbit
SS
RI
96
IU
370
Lb
67
12/11/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Rabbit
CF,SS
PN,RI
12-15
IU
52
Lb
85
10/11/02
AF
HUNT
FA
BI
Goose
W,Me
RI
32
IU
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Dove
SS, Me
RI
20-60
IU
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA / WI
SG
Chukkar
RI
20-60
IU
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Mtn. Quail
SS, Me
RI
20-60
IU
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA
SG
Valley Quail
SS, Me
RI
20-60
IU
5
8/30/02
AF
HUNT
FA / WI
SG
Sagehen
Mt, W
RI
20-60
IU
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.2 of 15
HARVESTING
Record
Date of
Form
Activity
Season Resource
Resource
Gathering
Consump.
Type
Names
Setting
Setting
NU
Acorn
Total Amount Harvested
#
Interview
88
10/4/02
PF
GATH
FA
63
8/12/02
PF
GATH
FA
Acorn
PJ
47
8/15/02
PF
GATH
FA
Acorn
CF
2
8/30/02
PF
GATH
FA
Acorn
Mt, Hl
R
300
200
RI
RI
Recorded
Converted
100
2
GS
60
G
GS
1260
G
7.5
G
30
G
400
9
8/30/02
PF
GATH
FA
Pine Nuts
PJ
GS. R
55
8/12/02
PF
GATH
FA
Pine Nuts
PJ
PN,RI
42
25
8/20/02
PF
GATH
FA
Pine Nuts
PJ
PN, R
1000-1500
44
8/22/02
PF
GATH
FA
Pine Nuts
PJ
PN
500
61
8/14/02
PF
GATH
FA
Be
Blueberry
St,Me,PJ
RI
2
G
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Buckberries
St
R
15
G
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Chokecherry
Cn
R
15
G
57
8/6/02
PF
GATH
SU,FA
Be
Chokecherry
PJ,Me
RI
4
G
15
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Chokecherry
RB, St
R
10
G
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Chokecherry
CF
PN,RC,RI,RO
4
G
76
10/3/02
PF
GATH
FA
Be
Chokecherry
St,PJ,Me
RI
1.5
Bb
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Currants
Me
R
15
G
4
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SU / FA
Be
Elderberry
PJ, CF, St
GC, RI, RO
50
G
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Elderberry
Cn
R
15
G
91
10/4/02
PF
GATH
FA
Elderberry
PJ,CF
RI
1
GS
4
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SU / FA
Be
Elderberry
PJ, CF, St
GC, RI, RO
50
G
77
8/7/02
PF
GATH
FA
Be
Elderberry
PJ,SS
RI
12
LG
360
G
54
8/6/02
PF
GATH
SU,FA
Be
Elderberry
PJ,Mt,Hl
RI
3
GS
90
G
17
9/30/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Elderberry
St, SS, PJ, Hl
R
5
G
4
G
G
86
10/4/02
PF
GATH
SU
Elderberry
PJ
RI
100
G
19
10/22/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Elderberry
CF
PN,RC,RI,RO
1
Bo
4
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SU / FA
Be
Elderberry
PJ, CF, St
GC, RI, RO
50
G
18
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Gooseberry
CF
R
20
G
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Gooseberry
Me
R
15
G
13
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Serviceberry
Me,Hl
R
N/R
60
8/14/02
PF
GATH
FA
Be
Strawberries
St,Me
GS,RI
2
32
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Strawberries
Me
R
N/R
11
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SU
Be
Strawberry
N/R
N/R
53
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Se
Wild Mustard
SS
RI,RO
20
52
8/15/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Se
Sand Seed
SS
RI,RO
25
106
1/3/03
PF
GATH
Se
Mustard Seeds
SS
RI
6-9
96
1/3/03
MT
GATH
SU
Ro
Arrowroot
PJ,SS
RI
8-10
58
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SU
Ro
Sweet Potato
Me
RI
N/R
37
8/15/02
PF
GATH
FA
Ro
Sweet Potato
Me
RI,RO
25
8
8/30/02
PF
GATH
SP
Ro
Potatoes
Me
R
2.5
24
8/15/02
PF
GATH
FA
Ro
Potatoes
PJ,SS
RI
75
58
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SU
Ro
Potatoes
Me,Hl
RI
N/R
59
8/14/02
PF
GATH
SP
Ro
Potatoes
St,Me
RI
1
G
78
8/7/02
PF
GATH
FA
Ro
Potatoes
PJ,SS
RI
9
G
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Bu/Ro
Sego Lily
St,PJ,CF,Me,SS
38
10/15/02
PF
GATH
SP
Bu
Lily
SS
GS
74
10/10/02
PF
GATH
FA
Bu
Wild Garlic
PJ,SS
58
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SU
Ro
Onion/Garlic
SS
58
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SU
Bu
Green Onion
Me
RI
5
33
8/22/02
PF
GATH
SP/SU
Gr
Swamp onion
Me
R
12
Gr
54
90
10/4/02
PF
GATH
SP/SU
Bu
Wild Onion
PJ,SS
R
2
GB
4
G
80
11/5/02
PF
GATH
SP
Bu
Wild Onion
St,PJ,Me,SS
RI
9
PC
103.5
G
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Gr
Wild Onion
St,PJ,CF,Me,SS
RO,GC
7.5
GS
225
G
G
IU
300
400-1200
Bu
GS,RI
12
Bu
RI
N/R
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.3 of 15
HARVESTING
Record
Date of
#
Interview
Form
Activity
Season Resource
Type
Resource
Gathering
Consump.
Names
Setting
Setting
Total Amount Harvested
Converted
Recorded
56
8/6/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Onion
PJ,Me
RI
12
10
8/30/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Gr
Wild Onion
St, CF
RI
460
G
G
36
8/15/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Onion
PJ,SS,CF
R
1
Gr
79
8/7/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Onion
St,PJ,Me,SS
G,RI,RO
144
G
75
10/10/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Onion
PJ,Me
GS,RI
2
Gr
35
10/15/02
PF
GATH
SP-SU
Gr
Wild Onion
SS
GS
40-80
Bu
109
9/4/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Onion
Me,SS
RI
4
49
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Gr
Wild Rhubarb
Me,CF
RO,GC
40
29
8/15/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Rhubarb
Me
R
20
14
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Wild Rhubarb
Me
R
50-100
97
1/3/03
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Tule Shoots
W
GS
60
12
9/6/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Watercress
W
RI
5
G
30
8/15/02
PF
GATH
ALL
Gr
Watercress
W, St
R
15
48
7/25/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Gr
Watercress
W
RO,GC
10
108
9/4/02
PF
GATH
SP/SU/FA
Gr
Watercress
W
RI
5
9
G
GS
450
G
Bo
20
G
128
G
IU
1
8/6/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Watercress
W, SS
RI
3
G
100
1/3/03
PF
GATH
SP/SU
Gr
Wyethia Stems
PJ,SS
GS
16-48
IU
50
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SP
Gr
Big Lupine
51
8/1/02
PF
GATH
SP,SU
Mu
Mushrooms
103
1/3/03
MT
MED
N/R
Bu
107
9/4/02
PF
GATH
ANY
Gr
16
9/6/02
CS
GATH
FA
34
9/6/02
CS
GATH
83
11/5/02
PT
83
11/5/02
PT
73
10/10/02
69
RI,RO,CS
16
Bs
PJ
RO,GC
24
G
LomatiumTea
PJ,SS
RI
2-3
IU
Ephredra Tea
PJ,CF,SS
RI
1
Fw
Firewood
CF
N/A
6
Co
ALL
Fw
Sagebr./Cotnwd
SS
N/A
500-1000
FB
GATH
FA
WI
FishTrap
St,Me
N/A
N/A
GATH
FA
WI
FishTrap
St,Me
N/A
N/A
PT
ARROW
FA
St
Rose Shafts
St,PJ,Me
12
IU
11/25/02
AT
HUNT
FA
LG
Deer Tools
St,Me,PJ,SS,CF
N/A
1
IU
84
11/12/02
AT
OTH
ANY
LG
Deerhide
CF,SS
N/A
N/A
27
8/20/02
AT
HUNT
FA
SG
RabbitBlanket
SS
N/A
150
IU
22
10/22/02
AT
HUNT
FA
SG
RabbitBlanket
SS
N/A
100-150
IU
68
12/11/02
AT
HUNT
FA
SG
RabbitBlanket
SS
N/A
100-120
IU
94
12/30/02
AF
OTH
FA
SG
Rabbit Coat
SS
N/A
100+
IU
3
9/6/02
CS
OTH
N/A
Rocks
Flat Rocks
N/A
N/A
7
8/23/02
PT
UTNS
FA
St
Stirring Stick
PJ,SS
N/A
1
83
11/5/02
PT
GATH
FA
WI
Basketry
St,Me
N/A
N/A
Basketry
St,SS
N/A
N/A
OTH
93
1/3/03
PT
BASK
113
1/23/03
PT
BASK
SP
WI
6
8/30/02
PT
BASK
SP , FA
66
8/23/02
PT
BASK
SP,FA
Willow
SS,Me
46
8/28/02
PT
BASK
FA
Willow
43
8/15/02
PT
BASK
SP,FA
112
1/10/03
PT
BASK
W
83
11/5/02
PT
GATH
FA
87
10/4/02
CS
CERE
83
11/5/02
PT
GATH
BrackenFern W,St,PJ,CF,Me,SS
Willow
B
IU
5
G
N/A
200
WB
5
WB
St,CF,Me
N/A
1200
IU
Willow
St
N/A
N/A
Willow Sticks
Me, St
N/A
400
WI
Whistle. etc.
St,Me
N/A
N/A
ANY
Other
Elderberry Stalk
PJ, SS
FA
WI
ShadeShelter
St,Me
N/A
N/A
I
62
8/14/02
CS
CERE
FA
Dance
Pine Nut Dance
SS
N/A
N/A
111
1/16/03
CS
OTH
FA
Dance
Pine Nut Dance
SS
N/A
N/R
95
12/30/02
CS
OTH
Dance
SS
N/A
N/A
42
8/15/02
CS
OTH
31
9/6/02
CS
OTH
SP,SU,FA
2
N/A
St
N/A
Scouts/Runners
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Children Playng
N/A
N/A
N/A
Varies
IU
IU
G
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, KEY
Key to Abbreviations Found in Appendix D:
FORM TYPE: PF-Plant Food Activity; AF-Animal Food Activity; PT-Plant-Based Technology;
CS-Ceremonial and Social Activity; AT-Animal-Based Technology; MT-Medicinal Technology
ACTIVITY: GATH-Gathering; HUNT-Hunting; FISH-Fishing; CERE-Ceremonial / Social; MED-Medicinal: BASK-Basketry; OTH-Other
SEASON: SP-Spring; WI-Winter; SU-Summer; FA-Fall
RESOURCE TYPE: Gr-Greens; Ro-Root; Be-Berry; Nu-Nut; Se-Seed; Wi-Willow sticks; LG-Large Game; SG-Small Game;
RD-Rodent; Bi-Bird; FI-Fish; WU-Wooden Utensil; Fw-Firewood; Bu-Bulb; St-Stalk; Mu-Mushroom
GATHERING SETTING: W-in Water; ST-Stream Side; PJ-Pinyon Juniper; CF-Conifer Forest; Me-Meadow;
SS-Sagebrush Scrub; MT-Mountain; HL-Hillside; CN-Canyon
CONSUMPTION SETTING: GS-Gathering Site; PN-PIne Nut Camp; CS-Ceremonial/Social Camp; HC-Hunting Camp; FC-Fishing Camp;
RI-Residence Indoor; RO-Residence Outside; RA-Rocky Area; BS-Butchering Site; GC-Gathering Camp; RC-Recreational Camp
AMOUNTS: G-Gallon; Cu-Cup; GS-Gunny Sack; LG-Large Garbage Bag; Lb-Pound; WB-Willow Bundle; Co-Cord; FB: Firewood Bundle;
Ja-Jar; Gr-Grocery Sack (paper); GB-Grocery Bag (plastic); Oz-Ounce; Bo-Bowl; Pt-Pint; Fi-Fish; PC-Pillow Case;
Bs-Bushel; Bk-Bucket; Hf-Handful;Bb-Burden Basket; GB-Grocery Bag; IU-Individual Unit (i.e. Bird, Tree, Fish, Deer)
INTENSITY(relative to gardening): 1-Less; 2-Equal; 3-More; 4-Much More
GENERAL: N/A-Not applicable; N/R-Not Recorded
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, pg. 4 of 15
Shared
Record
Activity
#
On-Site
Resource
Names
HARVESTED
EATEN
Amount
Amount
102
OTH
Fish/Game
N/A
N/A
70
FISH
Big Trout
N/R
1-2
105
FISH
Brook Trout
Varies
7-10
41
FISH
Brook Trout
0
26-38
82
FISH
Brook Trout
300
41
FISH
Cut.Trout
N/R
82
FISH
Cut.Trout
300
105
FISH
Cut.Trout
41
FISH
98
FISH
105
At Home (fresh & stored) Per Person/
# Fed Days/Yr Amount
# Fed
Days/Yr
Per Annuum
TOTAL AMOUNT
Recorded
Converted
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
6
2-3
17.5
6
20
3
15-20
5-6
45
30
1-5
100+
32
0
0
0
450
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
0
0
0
450
IU
Varies
4-5
5-6
45
17,5
IU
Germ.Trout
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
Germ.Trout
0
0
0
0
30
IU
FISH
Germ.Trout
Varies
4-5
5-6
45
17.5
IU
41
FISH
Lake Trout
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
70
FISH
Little Trout
N/R
1-2
6
2-3
40
FISH
Minnows
0
0
0
0
105
FISH
Rain.Trout
Varies
4-5
5-6
45
98
FISH
Rain.Trout
0
0
0
41
FISH
Rain.Trout
N/R
N/R
N/R
82
FISH
Rain.Trout
300
0
0
0
450
98
FISH
River Trout
0
0
0
0
30
41
FISH
Salmon
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
45
HUNT
Meat
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
5
7
8
5
60
30
1-2
0
0
0
50-75
5
N/R
17.5
1
IU
150
0
0
1688
7
10
240
10-20
IU
2250
12
21
0.21
2-3
IU
10
120-180
30
300
5-6
100
34
3
IU
6
N/R
25
1
IU
150
IU
200
IU
IU
IU
IU
8
45
168.5
1-5
100+
6.3
7
150
64.3
N/R
N/R
N/R
7
150
64.3
IU
750
IU
8
45
98.5
IU
855-1125
IU
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
10
30
90
600-1200
IU
8
45
98.5
855-1125
IU
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
6
20
106.3 IU
10
100
10.6
10000-15000
17.5
IU
8
45
98.5
0
30
IU
N/R
N/R
IU
IU
IU
1575-1890
IU
4000-6000
IU
750
IU
64
N/R
IU
N/R
IU
IU
IU
10
30
90
600-1200
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
IU
7
150
64.3
IU
10
30
90
IU
IU 106.5
855-1125
750
IU
600-1200
IU
N/R
N/R
21
HUNT
Deer
0
6
89
HUNT
Deer
1
81
HUNT
Deer
1125
0
71
HUNT
Deer
0
1
3-4
7
2-3
99
HUNT
Deer
0
0
0
0
300
110
HUNT
Deer
Varies
3
1-3
2
187.5
64
HUNT
Deer
0.5
0
0
0
0.5
26
HUNT
Deer
2
2
2-3
1-2
125
10
All WInter
12.5
2
104
HUNT
Deer
Varies
0
0
0
1460
8
All Year
182.5
1460
20
HUNT
Marmot
0
0
0
0
21
5
12
4.8
3-4
IU
12
92
HUNT
Porcupine
0
0
0
0
30
10
1
3
1
IU
30
20
HUNT
PrairieDog
0
0
0
0
3
5
16
3
15
IU
39
HUNT
PrairieDog
0
0
0
0
25
10
2-3
2-3
22-33
IU
101
HUNT
Woodchuck
0
0
0
0
37.5
10
1
3.75
35-40
39
HUNT
Woodchuck
0
0
0
0
72
HUNT
Woodchuck
N/R
0
94
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
0
0
0
0
100
65
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
0
0
0
0
35
23
HUNT,CERE Deer Hunt
IU
IU
cut/ea
IU
Oz
G
Oz
IU
IU
IU
25
2-3
IU
IU
IU
IU
IU
300
25
10
2-3
2-3
2-3
IU
25
N/R
N/R
N/R
2-3
IU
22.5
10
All Year
42
90-120
IU
420
6
7
22.5
35
IU 134.8
28
HUNT
Rabbit
0
0
0
0
616
10
All Year
61.6
80-240
IU
616
114
HUNT
Rabbit
185
0
0
0
185
8
8
23
96
IU
370
67
HUNT
Rabbit
0
0
0
0
15
IU
5
30
10.4
12-15
IU
52
85
HUNT
Goose
1
0
0
0
31
IU
5
16
6.2
32
IU
5
HUNT
Dove
0
0
0
0
2
IU
1
20
40
IU
20-60
IU
5
HUNT
Chukkar
0
0
0
0
2
IU
1
20
40
IU
20-60
IU
5
HUNT
Mtn. Quail
0
0
0
0
2
IU
1
20
40
IU
20-60
IU
5
HUNT
Valley Quail
0
0
0
0
2.5
IU
1
20
40
IU
20-60
IU
5
HUNT
Sagehen
0
0
0
0
2
IU
1
20
40
IU
20-60
IU
IU
IU
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.5 of 15
Shared
Record
Activity
#
Names
88
GATH
Acorn
63
GATH
47
GATH
2
Amount
Amount
# Fed Days/Yr Amount
Lbs
Acorn
1
G
0
0
0
2
Acorn
200
0
0
0
200
GATH
Acorn
0
0
0
0
300
9
GATH
Pine Nuts
0
GATH
Pine Nuts
5
25
GATH
Pine Nuts
50-100
44
GATH
Pine Nuts
0
61
GATH
Blueberry
1
32
GATH
Buckberries
0
32
GATH
Chokecherry
0
57
GATH
Chokecherry
1
15
GATH
Chokecherry
0
19
GATH
Chokecherry
76
GATH
32
GATH
G
0
At Home (fresh & stored) Per Person/
25
55
0
0
75
2
Cu
10
20
200
5
G
6
1
1250
210-280 Cu
10
7
1250
80
G
HARVESTING
EATEN
On-Site
Resource
Cu
GS
G
Total Amount Harvested
# Fed
Days/Yr
3
1
25
6
1
9.8
10
40
20
400
10
6 weeks
30
300
10
All WInter
20
6
1
208
10
10-15
125
Per Annuum
Recorded
Converted
100
G
2
GS
42
GS 1260
8
500
10
30
50
0
0
1
G
6
2
0.16
G
500
2
G
0
0
0
24
Ja
10
All Year
1.5
G
15
G
0
0
0
24
Ja
10
All Year
1.5
G
15
G
G
0
0
0
3
G
6
2
0.5
G
4
G
0.8
G
1.5
Chokecherry
0.5
Bb
Currants
0
G
G
1000-1500
10
0
0
10
G
10
All WInter
1
G
10
G
1
2
4
G
5
7
6.4
Cu
4
G
0
0
0
3.75
G
8
3
0.46
G
1.5
Bb
0
0
0
24
Ja
10
All Year
1.5
G
15
G
0
0
0
25
G
10
10
2.5
G
50
G
0
0
0
24
Ja
10
All Year
1.5
G
15
G
Cu
G
200
G
0
0
60
7.5
G
30
G
4
GATH
Elderberry
25
32
GATH
Elderberry
0
91
GATH
Elderberry
12
Ja
0
0
0
12
Ja
5
1
2.4
Ja
1
GS
4
GATH
Elderberry
25
G
0
0
0
25
G
10
10
2.5
G
50
G
77
GATH
Elderberry
180
G
0
0
0
180
G
4
45
G
12
LG
360
G
54
GATH
Elderberry
30
G
0
0
0
60
G
6
All Year
10
G
3
GS
90
G
17
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
0
12
Pi
10
All WInter
1.2
Pi
5
G
86
GATH
Elderberry
10
G
0
0
0
90
G
3
4
30
G
100
G
19
GATH
Elderberry
0.8
G
0
0
0
4
G
5
60
12.8
Cu
1
Bo
4
G
4
GATH
Elderberry
25
G
0
0
0
25
G
10
10
2.5
G
50
G
18
GATH
Gooseberry
0
0
0
0
24
Pi
10
All WInter
2.3
Pi
20
G
32
GATH
Gooseberry
0
0
0
0
24
Ja
10
All Year
1.5
G
15
G
13
GATH
Serviceberry
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
60
GATH
Strawberries
1
3
Cu
6
2
32
GATH
Strawberries
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R N/R
11
GATH
Strawberry
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
53
GATH
Wild Mustard
10
0
0
0
10
52
GATH
Sand Seed
12.5
0
0
0
12.5
106
GATH
Mustard Seeds
0
0
0
0
3
96
GATH
Arrowroot
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
58
GATH
Sweet Potato
0
0
0
0
N/R
N/R
37
GATH
Sweet Potato
0
0
0
0
25
10
10
2.5
25
8
GATH
Potatoes
0
0
0
0
2.5
10
1
0.25
2.5
24
GATH
Potatoes
0
75
10
15
58
GATH
Potatoes
0
0
0
0
N/R
N/R
59
GATH
Potatoes
0.5
G
0
0
0
0.5
G
6
1
1.3
Cu
1
G
78
GATH
Potatoes
4.5
G
0
0
0
4.5
G
4
9
1.13
G
9
G
49
GATH
Sego Lily
150
0
0
0
150
10
10
15
38
GATH
Lily
0
1
20-30
400
Bu
1
20-30
800
IU
74
GATH
Wild Garlic
6
0
0
0
6
Bu
8
1
0.75
Bu
58
GATH
Onion/Garlic
0
0
0
0
N/R
58
GATH
Green Onion
0
0
0
0
5
33
GATH
Swamp onion
0
Few Bites
N/R
12
1
Gr
10
12
5.4
G
12
Gr
54
G
90
GATH
Wild Onion
1
G
0.25
GB
3
1
3
G
3
1
1
G
2
GB
4
80
GATH
Wild Onion
34.5
G
12
Cu
4
3
69
G
4
3
17.25
G
9
PC 103.5
G
49
GATH
Wild Onion
112.5
G
0
0
0
112.5 G
10
15
11.25
G
7.5
GS
G
G
200-600 Bu
Bu
1
G
6
N/R
2
2.6
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
10
5
1
20
10
1
1.25
25
10
2-3
0.75
6-9
N/A
N/A
N/A
8-10
N/A
N/R
N/R
Cu
7.5
75
N/A
N/R
G
IU
300
N/A
N/R
2
400-1200
Bu
12
Bu
N/R
N/A
5
225
G
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.6 of 15
Shared
Record
Activity
#
EATEN
On-Site
Resource
Names
Amount
Amount
56
GATH
Wild Onion
2
G
0
10
GATH
Wild Onion
225
G
9-13
36
GATH
Wild Onion
0
79
GATH
Wild Onion
72
G
1EA
Hf
75
GATH
Wild Onion
4.5
G
8
HARVESTING
At Home (fresh & stored) Per Person/
# Fed Days/Yr Amount
# Fed
Days/Yr
Per Annuum
Total Amount Harvested
Converted
Recorded
0
0
10
G
6
6
1.7
G
12
G
10
5
225
G
10
5 weeks
22.5
G
460
G
N/R
12
1
Gr
10
12
5.4
G
1
Gr
8
9
72
G
4
9
18
G
144
G
Hf
8
7
4.5
G
8
7
9
Cu
2
Gr
Bu
40-80
Bu
G
Few Bites
9
G
35
GATH
Wild Onion
0
2-4
Bu
1
20
0
0
60
109
GATH
Wild Onion
2
2.5
Cu
5
2
2
5
2
0.4
4
49
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
20
0
0
0
20
10
4
2
40
29
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
20
10
2
2
20
14
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
0
75
10
All WInter
7.5
50-100
97
GATH
Tule Shoots
0
2-3ea
1
14-21
0
0
0
60
IU
60
12
GATH
Watercress
0
0
0
0
0.5
G
10
1-2
0.8
Cu
5
G
30
GATH
Watercress
0
150
10
15
450
G
10
15
45
G
15
GS
450
G
48
GATH
Watercress
5
0
0
0
5
10
8
0.5
108
GATH
Watercress
13.4
G
0
0
0
6.6
G
5
5
1.3
G
5
Bo
20
G
1
GATH
Watercress
1
G
0
0
0
2
G
6
3
0.5
G
3
G
100
GATH
Wyethia Stems
0
16-48
1
8-16
0
0
0
32
IU
16-48
IU
50
GATH
Big Lupine
64
G
0
0
0
64
G
10
4
12.8
G
16
Bs
128
G
51
GATH
Mushrooms
12
G
0
0
0
12
G
10
12
1.2
G
24
G
103
MED
LomatiumTea
0
0
0
0
2.5
Cu
1
Varies
Varies
2-3
IU Varies
107
GATH
Ephredra Tea
,67
0
0
0
0.3
Gr
5
6
Varies
1
16
GATH
Firewood
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
6
Co
FB
34
GATH
83
GATH
Sagebr./Cotnwd N/A
FishTrap
N/A
Gr
Cu
IU
10
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
500-1000
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
2
83
GATH
FishTrap
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
73
ARROW
Rose Shafts
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
12
IU
69
HUNT
Deer Tools
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1
IU
84
OTH
Deerhide
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
27
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
150
IU
22
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
100-150
IU
68
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
100-120
IU
94
OTH
Rabbit Coat
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
100+
IU
3
OTH
Flat Rocks
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
7
UTNS
Stirring Stick
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1
83
GATH
Basketry
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
IU
93
BASK
Basketry
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
113
BASK
BrackenFern
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
5
G
6
BASK
Willow
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
200
WB
66
BASK
Willow
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
5
WB
46
BASK
Willow
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1200
IU
43
BASK
Willow
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
112
BASK
Willow Sticks
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
400
83
GATH
Whistle. etc.
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
87
CERE
83
GATH
Elderberry Stalk N/A
ShadeShelter
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
I
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
62
CERE
Pine Nut Dance N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
111
OTH
Pine Nut Dance N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/R
95
OTH
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
42
OTH
Scouts/Runners N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/R
N/A
31
OTH
Children Playng N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Dance
IU
IU
G
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.7 of 15
HARVESTING
Record
Activity
#
Resource
Names
Total Amount Harvested
Recorded
Converted
HOURS / DAY
Intensity
Score
102
OTH
Fish/Game
N/A
N/A
70
FISH
Big Trout
15-20
2
105
FISH
Brook Trout
1575-1890 IU
41
FISH
Brook Trout
4000-6000 IU
82
FISH
Brook Trout
750
41
FISH
Cut.Trout
N/R
Cut
Dig
Pick Shoot Beat Search Hike
Other Total DAYS
N/A
3-4
4
64
IU
3/4
4
X
X
X
14
45
X
2
100
X
4
N/R
82
FISH
Cut.Trout
750
IU
4
105
FISH
Cut.Trout
855-1125
IU
4
41
FISH
Germ.Trout
N/R
14
150
N/R
X
X
X
X
X
X
4
14
N/R
150
45
N/R
98
FISH
Germ.Trout
600-1200
IU
4
105
FISH
Germ.Trout
855-1125
IU
4
X
8
30
14
45
41
FISH
Lake Trout
N/R
N/R
70
FISH
Little Trout
N/R
2
40
FISH
Minnows
105
FISH
Rain.Trout
855-1125
IU
4
98
FISH
Rain.Trout
600-1200
IU
4
41
FISH
Rain.Trout
N/R
82
FISH
Rain.Trout
750
IU
4
98
FISH
River Trout
600-1200
IU
4
41
FISH
Salmon
N/R
N/R
N/R
45
HUNT
Meat
N/R
N/R
N/R
23
HUNT,CERE
Deer Hunt
N/R
21
HUNT
Deer
1-2
89
HUNT
Deer
1
81
HUNT
Deer
10-20
71
HUNT
Deer
2-3
99
HUNT
Deer
300
110
HUNT
Deer
3
IU
64
HUNT
Deer
1
IU
IU
N/R
3-4
10000-15000 IU 106.5
X
14
45
8
30
N/R
N/R
X
X
X
X
X
4
IU
IU
4
150
4
IU 2250
4
IU
14
100
X
X
X
X
4
X
4
X
300
3
X
150
4
200
4
X
4
X
X
4
150
8
30
7
7
6
7-14
8-12
1
X
3
10
X
4-5
3
X
8
3
X
X
30
3
X
X
12
1
26
HUNT
Deer
2
104
HUNT
Deer
1460
X
20
HUNT
Marmot
3-4
IU
12
4
92
HUNT
Porcupine
1
IU
30
4
20
HUNT
PrairieDog
15
IU
39
HUNT
PrairieDog
22-33
IU
25
2/3
101
HUNT
Woodchuck
35-40
39
HUNT
Woodchuck
2-3
IU
25
2/3
72
HUNT
Woodchuck
2-3
IU
22.5
4
94
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
90-120
IU
420
4
65
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
35
28
HUNT
Rabbit
80-240
114
HUNT
Rabbit
67
HUNT
Rabbit
85
HUNT
Goose
32
IU
5
HUNT
Dove
20-60
IU
4
X
4
4
20
5
HUNT
Chukkar
20-60
IU
4
X
4
4
20
5
HUNT
Mtn. Quail
20-60
IU
4
X
4
4
20
5
HUNT
Valley Quail
20-60
IU
4
X
4
4
20
5
HUNT
Sagehen
20-60
IU
4
X
4
4
20
X
X
8
1-2
14
8
X
4
X
4
X
4
X
X
X
X
X
4
2
.5-4
2-3
1-2
1
.5-4
X
X
X
X
IU 134.8
4
IU
616
4
X
96
IU
370
3
X
12-15
IU
52
3
X
4
X
2
1
Drive
2-3
3-4
3
8-12
2-3
X
X
8
7
X
X
8
4
8
X
X
8
8
5
1-2
4
16
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.8 of 15
HARVESTING
Record
Activity
#
Resource
Names
Total Amount Harvested Intensity
Recorded
88
GATH
Acorn
100
63
GATH
Acorn
2
47
GATH
Acorn
2
GATH
Acorn
Converted Score
HOURS / DAY
Cut
Dig
Pick Shoot Beat Search Hike
Other Total DAYS
3
GS
60
G
4
4
400
4
X
300
4
X
4
X
8
1
1
1
2
8
1
8
20
9
GATH
Pine Nuts
200
55
GATH
Pine Nuts
42
25
GATH
Pine Nuts
1000-1500
44
GATH
Pine Nuts
500
61
GATH
Blueberry
2
G
4
X
4
2
32
GATH
Buckberries
15
G
4
X
8
2
32
GATH
Chokecherry
15
G
4
X
8
2
57
GATH
Chokecherry
4
G
4
X
8
2
15
GATH
Chokecherry
10
G
3
X
8
1
19
GATH
Chokecherry
4
G
4
X
6-8
2
76
GATH
Chokecherry
1.5
Bb
4
X
2
3
32
GATH
Currants
15
G
4
X
4
GATH
Elderberry
50
G
4
2
32
GATH
Elderberry
15
G
4
91
GATH
Elderberry
1
GS
4
4
GATH
Elderberry
50
G
4
2
GS 1260
G
4
X
4
X
5
7
4
X
9
10-15
6
30
4
7.5
30
G
G
X
4
8
X
8
2
4
10
X
8
2
X
2
1
2
4
10
8
12
3
3
6
3
X
X
2
77
GATH
Elderberry
12
LG
360
G
N/R
54
GATH
Elderberry
3
GS
90
G
4
17
GATH
Elderberry
5
G
4
86
GATH
Elderberry
100
G
2
19
GATH
Elderberry
1
Bo
6-8
0
4
GATH
Elderberry
50
G
4
2
2
4
10
18
GATH
Gooseberry
20
G
4
X
X
8
1
32
GATH
Gooseberry
15
G
4
X
13
GATH
Serviceberry
N/R
N/R
X
60
GATH
Strawberries
2
3
X
4
2
32
GATH
Strawberries
N/R
4
X
8
2
4
G
G
X
X
X
4
2-3
2
8
4
8
X
2
N/R
11
GATH
Strawberry
N/R
N/R
53
GATH
Wild Mustard
20
4
X
4
N/R
5
52
GATH
Sand Seed
25
4
X
4
1
106
GATH
Mustard Seeds
6-9
8
2-3
96
GATH
Arrowroot
8-10
2-5
0.5
58
GATH
Sweet Potato
N/R
N/R
37
GATH
Sweet Potato
25
4
X
8
GATH
Potatoes
2.5
4
3
24
GATH
Potatoes
75
4
X
58
GATH
Potatoes
N/R
59
GATH
Potatoes
1
G
78
GATH
Potatoes
9
G
49
GATH
Sego Lily
300
38
GATH
Lily
400-1200
Bu
74
GATH
Wild Garlic
12
Bu
58
GATH
Onion/Garlic
N/R
N/R
58
GATH
Green Onion
5
N/R
33
GATH
Swamp onion
12
Gr
54
90
GATH
Wild Onion
2
GB
4
G
2
X
80
GATH
Wild Onion
9
PC 103.5
G
4
X
49
GATH
Wild Onion
7.5
GS
G
4
X
4
IU
4
X
8
X
1
3-4
1
3.5-4
1
3-4
15
4
1
N/R
1
4
X
4
X
4
225
G
X
3
2/3
X
2
X
4
10
8-9
3
X
8
9
1
10
1-2
20-30
2
1
1
1
X
.5-1
X
X
3
12
6
1
4
18
1
15
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.9 of 15
HARVESTING
Record
Activity
#
Resource
Names
Total Amount Harvested Intensity
Recorded
Converted Score
HOURS / DAY
Cut
Dig
Pick Shoot Beat Search Hike
Other Total DAYS
56
GATH
Wild Onion
12
G
4
X
10
GATH
Wild Onion
460
G
4
6
36
GATH
Wild Onion
1
Gr
4
79
GATH
Wild Onion
144
G
4
75
GATH
Wild Onion
2
Gr
2
X
4
35
GATH
Wild Onion
40-80
Bu
109
GATH
Wild Onion
4
3
49
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
40
4
29
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
20
4
X
14
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
50-100
4
4-6
97
GATH
Tule Shoots
60
IU
4
X
12
GATH
Watercress
5
G
4
0.5
30
GATH
Watercress
15
GS
450
G
4
20
G
3
9
G
5
6
8
5
X
.5-1
12
X
8
9
2
2/3
48
GATH
Watercress
10
108
GATH
Watercress
5
Bo
4
1
GATH
Watercress
3
G
100
GATH
Wyethia Stems
16-48
IU
50
GATH
Big Lupine
16
Bs
51
GATH
Mushrooms
24
G
103
MED
LomatiumTea
2-3
IU Varies
107
GATH
Ephredra Tea
1
16
GATH
Firewood
6
Co
4
FB
4
8
3
G
4-6
1+
2
X
6-8
2
1
4
1
2
4-6
1
0.5
14-21
5
2
1
15
1
8
1
X
0
1
3
8-16
4
X
0.12
4
X
3
4
1
12
X
4
G
2.5+
2
X
3
2
1+
X
4
128
1
20
X
Varies
3
0
X
8
8
6
34
GATH
Sagebr./Cotnwd
500-1000
8
50-100
83
GATH
FishTrap
N/A
4
X
8
5
83
GATH
FishTrap
N/A
4
X
8
5
73
ARROW
Rose Shafts
12
IU
4
3-4
2
69
HUNT
Deer Tools
1
IU
4
6
84
OTH
Deerhide
N/A
27
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
150
IU
4
22
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
100-150
IU
4
4
68
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
100-120
IU
3
94
OTH
Rabbit Coat
100+
IU
4
3
OTH
Flat Rocks
N/A
4
X
X
5
5
7
6
2-3
N/A
IU
1
N/R
0
N/A
1
7
UTNS
Stirring Stick
1
2
0.25
0.25
83
GATH
Basketry
N/A
4
X
8
93
BASK
Basketry
N/A
N/A
113
BASK
BrackenFern
5
G
3
6
BASK
Willow
200
WB
4
1
66
BASK
Willow
5
WB
4
X
46
BASK
Willow
1200
IU
4
43
BASK
Willow
N/A
112
BASK
Willow Sticks
400
83
GATH
Whistle. etc.
N/A
87
CERE
Elderberry Stalk
I
83
GATH
ShadeShelter
N/A
4
62
CERE
Pine Nut Dance
N/A
3
111
OTH
Pine Nut Dance
N/R
4
8
95
OTH
Dance
N/A
N/A
N/A
42
OTH
Scouts/Runners
N/A
N/A
N/A
31
OTH
Children Playng
N/A
N/A
N/A
X
1.5
0.5
8
2
3
2-3
8
2
N/R
12-15
N/A
IU
IU
5
N/A
N/A
4
6
6
4
X
8
5
N/R
N/R
2
X
90
8
5
10-12
1
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.10 of 15
ON-SITE PROCESSING
Record
Activity
#
Resource
Amount
Intensity
Names
On-Site
Score
102
OTH
Fish/Game
N/A
70
FISH
Big Trout
4-5
105
FISH
Brook Trout
ALL
3
41
FISH
Brook Trout
26-38
2-3
82
FISH
Brook Trout
ALL
2
41
FISH
CutthroatTrout
N/R
IU
4
82
FISH
CutthroatTrout
ALL
2
FISH
CutthroatTrout
ALL
3
41
FISH
German Trout
N/R
98
FISH
German Trout
ALL
4
FISH
German Trout
ALL
3
41
FISH
Lake Trout
N/R
70
FISH
Little Trout
4-5
40
FISH
Minnows
0
105
FISH
RainbowTrout
ALL
3
98
FISH
RainbowTrout
ALL
4
41
FISH
RainbowTrout
N/R
82
FISH
RainbowTrout
ALL
2
98
FISH
River Trout
ALL
4
41
FISH
Salmon
N/R
HUNT
Meat
N/R
UNT,CER
Deer Hunt
ALL
21
HUNT
Deer
1
89
HUNT
Deer
N/R
81
HUNT
Deer
71
HUNT
99
HUNT
110
64
3
X
0.75
X
X
Other
X
X
Total DAYS
N/A
N/A
5.75
14
1
45
X
0.5
100
Skewer
1
150
X
X
X
X
1
1
150
45
N/R
105
23
2
Boil Dry
N/R
105
45
HOURS / DAY
Wash Clean Cut/Peel Gut Winnow Roast
X
X
X
X
0
0
1
45
N/R
IU
4
2
3
X
0.75
X
X
X
X
X
5.75
14
0
0
1
45
0
0
N/R
X
X
1
0
150
0
N/R
N/R
4
IU
4
X
X
X
10-20
IU
3
Deer
1
IU
Deer
ALL
HUNT
Deer
ALL
HUNT
Deer
1
IU
4
X
X
26
HUNT
Deer
1
IU
4
X
X
104
HUNT
Deer
ALL
20
HUNT
Marmot
2
IU
92
HUNT
Porcupine
0
0
20
HUNT
PrairieDog
15
IU
X*
4
X
4
3
4
4
N/R
7
2
7
N/R
N/R
1
10-20
1
3
X
4-6
3
3
1.5
3
X
0.5
1
1
X
1
8-9
4
X
X
0.25
8
2
2
0
0
2
2
39
HUNT
PrairieDog
0
101
HUNT
Woodchuck
ALL
39
HUNT
Woodchuck
0
72
HUNT
Woodchuck
2-3
94
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
0
65
HUNT
Jack Rabbit
35
28
HUNT
Rabbit
0
0
0
114
HUNT
Rabbit
0
0
0
67
HUNT
Rabbit
0
85
HUNT
Goose
32
5
HUNT
Dove
4
X
1
20
5
HUNT
Chukkar
4
X
1
20
5
HUNT
Mtn. Quail
4
X
1
20
5
HUNT
Valley Quail
4
X
1
20
5
HUNT
Sagehen
4
X
1
20
4
IU
IU
IU
1
4
X
1
X
4
X
X
0.3
0
0
1
1
1
3
0
0
0.5
7
0
0
0.3
16
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.11 of 15
ON-SITE PROCESSING
Record
Activity
#
Resource
Amount
Intensity
Names
On-Site
Score
HOURS / DAY
Wash Clean Cut/Peel Gut Winnow Roast
Boil Dry
Other
Total DAYS
88
GATH
Acorn
0
0
0
63
GATH
Acorn
0
0
0
47
GATH
Acorn
0
0
0
2
GATH
Acorn
0
0
9
GATH
Pine Nuts
25
G
4
55
GATH
Pine Nuts
1
Bl
3
25
GATH
Pine Nuts
210-280 Cu
4
44
GATH
Pine Nuts
61
GATH
Blueberry
32
GATH
Buckberries
32
GATH
Chokecherry
57
GATH
15
X
X*
0
0
8
20
X
0.5
7
X
1
10-15
X
.5-.75
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Chokecherry
0
0
0
GATH
Chokecherry
0
0
0
19
GATH
Chokecherry
0
0
0
76
GATH
Chokecherry
0
0
0
32
GATH
Currants
0
0
0
500
X
4
4
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
32
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
91
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
4
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
77
GATH
Elderberry
N/R
N/R
N/R
54
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
17
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
86
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
19
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
4
GATH
Elderberry
0
0
0
18
GATH
Gooseberry
0
0
0
32
GATH
Gooseberry
0
0
13
GATH
Serviceberry
N/R
60
GATH
Strawberries
0
0
32
GATH
Strawberries
0
0
11
GATH
Strawberry
N/R
53
GATH
Wild Mustard
10
3
X
1
2.5
2
X
0
N/R
0
0
N/R
52
GATH
Sand Seed
25
4-6
1
106
GATH
Mustard Seeds
N/A
0
0
96
GATH
Arrowroot
0
0
0
58
GATH
Sweet Potato
N/R
N/R
1
37
GATH
Sweet Potato
0
0
0
8
GATH
Potatoes
0
0
0
24
GATH
Potatoes
0
X
0
0
58
GATH
Potatoes
N/R
N/R
1
59
GATH
Potatoes
0
0
0
78
GATH
Potatoes
0
0
0
49
GATH
Sego Lily
0
0
38
GATH
Lily
74
GATH
Wild Garlic
0
0
58
GATH
Onion/Garlic
N/R
N/R
1
58
GATH
Green Onion
5
8
1
33
GATH
Swamp onion
N/R
90
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
80
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
49
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
0
200-600 Bu
2-3
4
X
X
X
X
0.12 20-30
0
N/R
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.12 of 15
ON-SITE PROCESSING
Record
Activity
Resource
Amount
Intensity
Names
On-Site
Score
56
GATH
Wild Onion
0
10
GATH
Wild Onion
9-13
36
GATH
Wild Onion
79
GATH
75
#
HOURS / DAY
Wash Clean Cut/Peel Gut Winnow Roast
Boil Dry
Other
Total DAYS
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Wild Onion
0
0
0
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
35
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
109
GATH
Wild Onion
0
0
0
49
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
29
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
14
GATH
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
97
GATH
Tule Shoots
0
0
0
12
GATH
Watercress
0
0
0
30
GATH
Watercress
150
<.25
15
48
GATH
Watercress
0
0
0
108
GATH
Watercress
0
0
0
1
GATH
Watercress
0
0
0
100
GATH
Wyethia Stems
0
0
0
50
GATH
Big Lupine
4
0.5
4
51
GATH
Mushrooms
0
0
0
103
MED
LomatiumTea
0
0
0
107
GATH
Ephredra Tea
0
16
GATH
Firewood
6
34
GATH
Sage/Cotnwd
N/R
83
GATH
FishTrap
N/A
N/A
N/A
83
GATH
FishTrap
N/A
N/A
N/A
73
ARROW
Rose Shafts
12
N/R
2
69
HUNT
Deer Tools
Varies
G
Cu
Bs
Co
4
4
X
X
4
X
0
0
8
6
N/R
IU
3
2
2-3
1-2
Varies 10-15
84
OTH
Deerhide
N/R
N/R
27
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
0
0
0
22
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
N/R
N/R
N/R
68
HUNT
RabbitBlanket
0
0
0
94
OTH
Rabbit Coat
0
0
0
3
OTH
Flat Rocks
N/A
0
N/A
7
UTNS
Stirring Stick
1
83
GATH
Basketry
N/A
Tree
3
N/R
N/R
1
N/A
N/A
93
BASK
Basketry
N/A
113
BASK
BrackenFern
0
N/A
6
BASK
Willow
0
0
0
66
BASK
Willow
0
0
0
46
BASK
Willow
N/R
43
BASK
Willow
N/A
112
BASK
Willow Sticks
0
0
0
83
GATH
Whistle. etc.
N/A
N/A
N/A
87
CERE
Elderberry Stalk
N/R
N/R
N/R
83
GATH
ShadeShelter
N/A
N/A
N/N
62
CERE
Pine Nut Dance
N/R
N/R
N/R
111
OTH
Pine Nut Dance
N/R
N/R
N/R
95
OTH
Dance
N/A
N/A
42
OTH
Scouts/Runners
N/A
N/A
31
OTH
Children Playng
N/A
N/A
3
0
N/R
N/A
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.13 of 15
OFF-SITE PROCESSING
Record
Resource
Amount
Intensity
#
Names
Off-Site
Score
102
Fish/Game
70
Big Trout
105
Brook Trout
ALL
41
Brook Trout
26-38
1-2
82
Brook Trout
750
4
41
Cut. Trout
HOURS / DAY
Wash Soak
Clean
Cut/ Peel
But./Skin
Roast
Total
Fry
Boil
Dry
Other
0.12
1
24-48
6*
N/A
24-48 IU
4
X
82
Cut. Trout
750
4
105
Cut. Trout
ALL
3
41
Germ. Trout
98
Germ. Trout
ALL
2
105
Germ. Trout
ALL
41
Lake Trout
70
Little Trout
40
Minnows
12500
105
Rain. Trout
ALL
98
Rain. Trout
ALL
2
41
Rain. Trout
82
Rain. Trout
750
4
98
River Trout
ALL
2
41
Salmon
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
24-48 IU
4
0.12
1-2
X
1
45
Meat
N/R
23
Deer Hunt
ALL
21
Deer
1
4
89
Deer
N/R
N/R
81
Deer
71
Deer
X
X
X
10-20 IU
4
X
1
99
Deer
300
2
110
Deer
ALL
2
1
64
Deer
1
4
X
IU
26
Deer
75
4
104
Deer
ALL
4
20
Marmot
2
IU
92
Porcupine
1
IU
20
PrairieDog
15
IU
4
39
PrairieDog
24-36 IU
4
4
X
X
X
1
150
1
45
N/R
N/R
N/R
1
45
X
.5-.75/fish
30
N/R
N/R
X
1.25
150
X
.5-.75/fish
30
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
7
X
2
4
6
7
N/R
N/R
1
10
X
9
21
Season
2
3
1/4 jerked, rest eaten fresh
2
6
3 hunters?
2
1
X
1
1-2
X*
1
4
9
2
Gut
N/R
1
9
2
X
X
2.5
2-3
X
X
X
Woodchuck
ALL
4
X
4
2*
6
1
2-3
IU
4
X
X
X
2.5
2-3
72
Woodchuck
2-3
IU
1
4
N/R
94
Jack Rabbit 90-120 IU
4
8.75
Varies
4-6
65
Jack Rabbit
35
4
28
Rabbit
80-240
114
Rabbit
96
IU
4
X
X
X
67
Rabbit
15
IU
2
1
1
1
85
Goose
32
IU
4
X
4
5.8
X
X
X
X
X
0.5
7
X
X
1
4
X
2
0.5
1
2
1Wk
1.5
8
1*
2-4
7
X*
2.5
16
5
Dove
4
X
0.12 IU
X
X
X
0.5
0.45
20
5
Chukkar
4
X
0.12 IU
X
X
X
0.5
0.45
20
5
Mtn. Quail
4
X
0.12 IU
X
X
X
0.5
0.45
20
5
Valley Quail
4
X
0.12 IU
X
X
X
0.5
0.45
20
5
Sagehen
4
X
0.12 IU
X
X
X
0.5
0.45
20
ALL
onsite other* is bleeding
Tanning
Woodchuck
X
Rabbit/Deer
X
39
4
Innards hand squeezed
X
8-9
X
Skewer: willow sticks
2
101
IU
other*- scaling
X
3
X
X
1.25
N/R
6
8-9
1
N/R
14
2
X
N/R
100
.25-.33
X
100
150
30
X
8
0.5
1.25
45
X
4
45
0.12
X
4
ALL
14
1
1
4
X
N/A
3.5
3.5
X
24-48
N/A
.5-.75/fish
X
Other
(Specified)
Total
*- draining blood(3 days)
*-Dig Pit
"other" is gutting
*- gutting
*-draining blood
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.14 of 15
OFF-SITE PROCESSING
#
Resource
Amount
Names
Off-Site
Score Wash Clean
Cut/Peel
Grind/Pnd
Winnow Shell
Roast
Other
Total
HOURS / DAY
Intensity
Boil
Dry
(Specified)
Can Other Total
88
Acorn
100
4
X
8
3
X
63
Acorn
ALL
4
X
X
X
X
X
47
Acorn
200
4
6
4
6
8
4
2
Acorn
300
4
36
18
18
72
12
9
Pine Nuts
200
4
60-80
55
Pine Nuts
42
25
Pine Nuts
44
Pine Nuts
61
Blueberry
ALL
3
X
0.5
2
32
Buckberries
15
G
2
X
X
X
X
X
12
1-2
can or jelly; dry
32
Chokecherry
15
G
2
X
X
X
X
X
12
1-2
can or make jelly
57
Chokecherry
3
G
2
X
0.5
2
15
Chokecherry
10
G
4
X
N/R
2-4
19
Chokecherry
4
G
4
1
8
14
76
Chokecherry
0.5
Bb
1
X
32
Currants
15
G
2
X
4
Elderberry
50
G
3
32
Elderberry
15
G
2
GS
80
80
4
X
1250
4
X
500
4
4
X
Varies
1.5
X
8
1
2
6
6
36
192
32
Not in Leviathan
60
290
30-40
*-digging pit
X
4-6
7
X
X
.5-.75
X
X
X
X
X
X
5
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
X
X
3
X
3
Elderberry
23
4
Elderberry
50
77
Elderberry
N/R
54
Elderberry
90
G
3
X
17
Elderberry
5
G
3
X
86
Elderberry
40
Ga
2
X
X*
7
X
91
G
X
X
X
X
X
X
3
1-2
12
2
12
1-2
1
X
8
X
12
2
N/R
N/R
X
X
5
5
12
X
X
X
X
20
100
X
X
2-4
X
4
7
X
3
2
*-straining
X*
6
4
*- destemming
8
14
12
2
Elderberry
4
G
4
1
50
G
3
X
1.5
18
Gooseberry
10
G
4
X
X
X
X
12*
8
2
32
Gooseberry
15
G
2
X
X
X
X
X
12
1-2
13
Serviceberry
N/R
X
X
X
X
N/R
N/R
60
Strawberries
1
G
2
X
0.12
2
32
Strawberries
N/R
1
X
11
Strawberry
N/R
53
Wild Mustard
10
2-3
0.5
52
Sand Seed
12.5
0.5
4
X
96
Arrowroot
8-10
2
58
Sweet Potato
0
37
Sweet Potato
25
8
Potatoes
24
Potatoes
75
58
Potatoes
0
59
Potatoes
0.5
G
3
X
78
Potatoes
4.5
G
4
X
49
Sego Lily
ALL
2
0.5
38
Lily
74
Wild Garlic
200-600 Bu
6
58
Onion/Garlic
58
7
X
2-3
X
.25
.25
X
X
0.1
1-2
N/R
N/R
1
1
31
8+
2-3
Burned N/R
3-5
0
0
10
X
X
.5-.75
X
X
0.25
1
2
X
X
8-12
15
0
0
X
0.5
1
X
0.5
9
0.5
10
.5
20-30
0.1
1
0
0
0
Green Onion
0
0
0
33 Swamp onion
12
Gr
<.25
12
90
Wild Onion
3/4
Total
1
X
N/R
0.25
80
Wild Onion
2
PC
1
X
49
Wild Onion
ALL
Bu
1
X
2
X
X
1
2
X
X
X
X
0.1
0.5
*-straining
Canning only,no jelly
10-20 Fix enough for 1 meal
2
9.5
Jam
2
Elderberry
106 Mustard Seed ALL
Canned berries
can or jelly; dry
8
4
.25
*- straining
12*
19
.25
Process times vary
15
Inhaling
off-site days: 1hour each
APPENDIX D. LEVIATHAN QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEW DATA, p.15 of 15
ON-SITE PROCESSING
Total
Record
Resource
Amount
Intensity
#
Names
On-Site
Score
56
Wild Onion
10
10
Wild Onion
0
36
Wild Onion
12
79
Wild Onion
0
0
0
0.5
9
75
Wild Onion
0
0
0
0.33
1
G
Gr
HOURS / DAY
Wash Clean Winnow
Roast
Boil
Dry
Other
1
0
6
0
0
0
<.25
12
1
Other
(Specified)
Total
35
Wild Onion
0
0
0
0
0
109
Wild Onion
0
0
0
0.25
2
49
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
1-1.5
4
29
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
1
4
Delicacy not a staple
14
Wild Rhubarb
0
0
0
8
2
use wood stove
97
Tule Shoots
0
0
0
0
0
12
Watercress
0
30
Watercress
150
48
Watercress
108
0
0
0.25
2
<.25
15
.25-.5
15
0
0
0
1
8
Watercress
0
0
0
0.25
5
1
Watercress
0
0
0
1
3
100
Wyethia Stems
0
0
0
0
0
50
Big Lupine
4
0.5
4
0.5
4
51
Mushrooms
0
0
0
0.5
12
Cu
Bs
4
4
103
LomatiumTea
0
0
0
1
107
Ephredra Tea
0
0
0
1
16
Firewood
6
8
6
5
6
34
Sge/Cotnwd
N/R
N/R
8
50-100
83
FishTrap
N/A
N/A
N/A
8
60
83
FishTrap
N/A
N/A
N/A
8
60
73
Rose Shafts
12
N/R
2
6
2
69
Deer Tools
Varies
Varies
10-15
84
Deerhide
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
27
RbtBlanket
0
0
0
12.5
4
22
RbtBlanket
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
68
RbtBlanket
0
0
0
N/R
60
94
Rabbit Coat
0
0
0
N/R
N/R
3
Flat Rocks
N/A
7
Stirring Stick
1
83
Basketry
N/A
93
Basketry
N/A
113
BrackenFern
0
6
Willow
0
66
Willow
0
46
Willow
N/R
Co
4
X
IU
3
Tree
3
2-3
1-2
N/R
Varies 10-15
off-site "cut/peel" is splitting
See text
See text; but tools used 365 days/year
10
0
N/A
1
1
N/A
1
N/A
N/A
8
60
N/A
Gunny sack volume not weight
Varies Quantity consumed is in tea form
N/R
3
Kids dig bulbs for snack
Rabbit Blanket
off-site amounts are per rabbit
Flat Rocks in Canyon Useful
Proccess "other" is heating over fire
N/A
0
21
21
(Lg.burdenBasket)
0
0
6-8
2-3
harvest "other" is splitting
0
0
8
3-4
N/R
N/R
N/R
43
Willow
N/A
112
Willow Sticks
0
0
N/A
0
35
35
83
Whistle. etc.
N/A
N/A
N/A
8
60
87
Elderb.Stalk
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
83
ShadeShelter
N/A
N/A
N/N
8
60
62
PineN.Dance
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
Dancing gets dusty
111
PineN.Dance
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
N/R
Last 1 week
95
Dance
N/A
N/A
N/A
LgBurdenBasked:1wk-coring,2wk-twining
N/A
42
Scout/Rnrs
N/A
N/A
N/A
31
Children Play
N/A
N/A
N/A
Children playing
APPENDIX E.
CONVERSION TABLE FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
Robert Portwood, Julia E. Hammett and Darla Garey-Sage
APPENDIX E. CONVERSION TABLE FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
Robert D. Portwood, Julia E. Hammett and Darla Garey-Sage
DISCUSSION
During the initial interview process, cultural experts provided information in their own
measurement terminology. In order to convert these measurements to standard volumes, experts
were consulted as to their best estimate for volume for these traditional containers. In some cases,
when no volumes were provided, the researchers measured the volume of these containers through
experimentation.
In the case of animal resources the values are provided in individual units (IU). Where the
information is available, a weight is provided based on information obtained by consultants in
the field. In several cases their estimates of weight have been corroborated with information
from published references. In cases where the only source for the weight is published references
they are noted on the table below.
For purposes of determining per annum consumption the total amount harvested was divided by
the highest number fed, either on-site or off-site. For example, 100 pounds of deer were harvested
(approximately 62.5 pounds of dressed meat). Two to three pounds of meat were consumed on-site
by 2 to 3 people, and 60 pounds were consumed at home by 10 people. Therefore, per annum
consumption would be recorded at 6 pounds per person.
Traditional Measurement
Bucket
Burden Basket, small
Burden Basket, large
Bushel
Bowl
Garbage Bag, large
Grocery Bag
Grocery Sack
Gunny Sack
Handful
Jar
Pillow Cases
Volumetric Conversion
5 gallons
5-10 gallons
15-20 gallons
8 gallons
1 gallon
30 gallons
2 gallons
4-5 gallons
30 gallons
2 cup
1 pint
10-13 gallons
Individual Units (IU)
Brook Trout
Deer
Jack Rabbit
Marmot
Minnows
Porcupine
Woodchuck
Estimated Weight
4- 5 ounces
100 pounds (50-75 Lbs dressed)
3.3- 4.4 pounds 1
6 pounds 0
.0085 pounds 2
22- 39.6 pounds
8- 10 pounds
1 Estimated Weight based upon California Mammals by E.W. Jameson, Jr. and Hans J. Peters (1988).
2Estimated weight based upon average weight of Lahontan Redside and Speckled Dace as published in
Great Basin Fisher Folk by Susan G. Lindstrom (1992).