FACULTY FORUM
Grade Point Average and Changes
in (Great) Grade Expectations
Craig A. Wendorf
Wayne State University
This study examined students’ grade expectations over the course
of a semester. Students provided their expectations at 3 times:
within the first week of the semester, midway through the semester,
and within the week just prior to the final exam. Results demonstrate that expected grades decreased over the semester and that the
rate of change interacted with students’ cumulative grade point average. Neither the course nor the section of the course (instructor)
had a significant influence on grade expectations. Relative to their
grade point average, the majority of students maintained rosy grade
expectations despite regular feedback on coursework.
Considerable research on student evaluations of teaching
and instruction has involved, in some manner or another, a
focus on grades. Most notably, some researchers (e.g., Greenwald & Gillmore, 1997) have contended that grading leniency has a direct and positive influence on evaluations of
instructors, such that higher grades lead directly to higher
evaluations. The intention, however, is not to focus directly
on that issue here—Marsh and Roche (2000) addressed the
controversy over grading biases and leniency—but rather on
the measure of students’ expected grades, which is arguably
the most commonly used index in studies involving students’
grades. The goal of this study was to examine changes in expected grades over the course of a semester, particularly as a
function of students’ prior performance in other college
courses (i.e., GPA [grade point average]).
Typically, researchers and educators use expected grades
as a measure of students’ actual performance against instructors’ standards. The implicit assumption in the use of this
measure is that students’ perceptions are reasonable
summative statements about their performance. When asked
at the beginning of the semester, the single best prediction a
student could make about his or her future performance
would be his or her mean performance in the past. Therefore,
one might expect that, all other things held constant, students’ initial expected grades should be roughly equivalent to
their GPAs. Similarly, one might expect that students’ expected grades at the end of the semester should be systematically (but not necessarily perfectly) related to their GPAs.
However, an expected grade, as a measure of a student’s
actual grade, is fallible. An expected grade is a subjective
measure of a student’s performance in the class from the student’s point of view and, as such, it is prone to biases.
Landrum (1999), for example, showed that students may
have expectations of grade inflation. That is, despite full
knowledge that his or her performance in the class is likely to
136
be merely average, a student may expect to receive an A or B.
Thus, the grades students expect to receive may not be systematically accurate.
These issues beg this question: To what extent are students’ grade expectations aligned with their GPAs? Furthermore, do these expectations change over the course of the
semester as students learn more about their actual performance in the course?
Method
As part of a larger study at a major urban Midwestern university, undergraduates from 24 different sections of eight
courses—Introductory Psychology, Psychology of Adjustment, Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Introductory Statistics, Perception, Personality Theory, and
Industrial/Organizational Psychology—completed surveys.
A total of 388 students participated in all three assessments.
Sometime within the first week of classes, students indicated the grade they expected to receive in the course. Students estimated their expected course letter grades using a
5-point scale— ranging from 0 (expectation of an F) to 4 (expectation of an A)—designed to match the scaling most often
used in the calculation of GPA. Students responded to an
identical question midway through the semester (Week 7 or
8 during a 15-week semester) after having taken at least one
exam in the course. Finally, students provided their expected
grades again in the last week of the semester before final exams. Students’ responses were matched using a unique identifying code that students provided at all three time points.
Within the first assessment, students provided other demographic and personal history information. Most important, students indicated, within set ranges, their GPA.
Students fell into five self-reported GPA categories: (a) no
GPA or GPA unknown (26%), (b) 3.50 to 4.00 (27%), (c)
3.00 to 3.49 (25%), (d) 2.50 to 2.99 (18%), and (e) 2.00 to
2.49 (4%). Students also noted their gender and ethnicity;
however, preliminary analyses showed no significant differences involving these variables.
Results
The relationship between GPA and changes in grade expectations was examined using a mixed within-subjects design (Keppel, 1991), with time representing the
within-subjects effect and GPA range representing the between-subjects factor. Additionally, course and section represented between-subjects factors; note, however, that the
effect of class section is nested within the effect for course.
Although these effects may not be entirely interesting in
themselves, they control for any biasing influences of instruc-
Teaching of Psychology
tors (e.g., effectiveness and grading standards) and courses
(e.g., course difficulty and course level; for more on nested
structures and nonindependent raters, see Kenny, Kashy, &
Bolger, 1998.)
Although there were no significant effects involving
courses or sections within courses, ps > .05, students with
different GPA ranges showed significantly different expected
grades, F(4, 303) = 6.31, p < .001. More important, students
showed significant change in their grade expectations over
the course of the semester, F(2, 606) = 31.99, p < .001, and
the extent to which change occurred varied as a function of
GPA, F(8, 606) = 2.26, p < .05 (see Figure 1).1
Analyses of the simple effects and pairwise comparisons
(cf. Keppel, 1991) were consistent with the differences apparent in Figure 1. For example, at the first assessment only,
significant differences in grade expectations emerged between GPA ranges, F(4, 303) = 5.54, p < .001; this finding
was due to the differences between the lowest GPA range and
the others. At the second assessment, the simple effect for
GPA range was again significant, F(4, 303) = 3.51, p < .05;
students who had the highest GPA and those who did not
know their GPA showed significantly higher expected grades
than the other three groups. Finally, significant differences
among the groups existed at the last assessment, F(4, 303) =
9.87, p < .001. Students with the highest GPA showed
higher grade expectations than all others.
Discussion
In general, students’ grade expectations were not consistent with their GPA level. All categories of students—except
those with the highest GPAs (i.e., 3.50 to 4.00)—initially estimated their future grade at a higher level than their GPAs.
Although students’ grade expectations tended to regress toward their GPAs, this same pattern of high estimation was
true of expected grades at the end of the semester. Here again
students’ grade expectations were considerably above the
grades they had received in the past.
Perhaps these findings indicate students erring on the side
of optimism; despite previous course performance, students
are initially extremely optimistic about the grades they expect to receive. If such early optimism is the result of students’ trust in their ability to overcome past performance, it
may indeed be commendable. However, if such early optimism is instead a result of students’ expectation of a favorable
“curve” or grade inflation (Landrum, 1999), then perhaps
there is cause for concern.
However, students do not appear completely oblivious to
important baseline information (e.g., GPA) in determining
their expectations. Disregarding the students who did not
know their GPA, the relationship between expected grades
and GPA was invariant with respect to rank order. Students
with higher GPAs had higher grade expectations, whether
1
This interaction persisted even if the students who did not know
their grade point average were omitted. Thus, the rates of change in
grade expectation still varied as a function of grade point average
range.
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Figure 1. Changes in students’ mean grade expectations as a function of grade point average.
measured at the beginning of the semester or just prior to the
final exam. This finding suggests that, although the overall
level of GPA may be a bad indicator of expected grade,2 GPA
may be an adequate predictor of expected grade variance or
differences.
With regard to changing their grade expectations over the
semester, students who did not know their GPAs represent a
particularly interesting group. They were largely, although not
entirely, first-semester college freshmen taking Introductory
Psychology. It seems theoretically possible that these freshmen
could have different grade expectations than upper level students who do not know their GPAs; additional analyses demonstrated that, although they had slightly lower expectations,
freshmen did not have significantly different grade expectations from those upperclassmen. Thus, for all students who did
not know their GPAs, grade expectations remained particularly high through midsemester, only to regress to the overall
(optimistic?) mean in the final week of the semester.
Informal polling of the students’ instructors during the semester following survey administration suggests that the expected grade distributions from the third assessment did not
match the actual final grade distributions for the classes, despite the fact that all classes received regular feedback on papers and exams in the form of grades. This discrepancy may
be due to two possible causes. First, the lack of match may be
due to a biased sample; perhaps those students who were expecting low grades stopped attending the course or simply
were not present for the final assessment, thereby producing
decreased heterogeneity in the students surveyed. Second,
perhaps students improperly gauge their grades; they may
largely fail to or simply can not properly estimate the grades
they will receive.
2
It should be noted that self-reported and unverified grade point
averages, similar to expected grades, are fallible measures and are
subject to misrepresentations. I thank an anonymous reviewer for
making this point particularly lucid.
137
These findings have direct implications for instructors and
researchers. Instructors may be concerned with unrealistically high grade expectations because “one way to ensure dissatisfaction is to have expectations that one can not easily
meet” (Gaultney & Cann, 2001, p. 86). One might speculate
that students who, for whatever reason, do not accurately estimate their expected grades may be more likely to suffer disillusionment following the receipt of the actual grade, more
likely to misunderstand the content of the course, and less
likely to base their evaluations of the instructor on the quality
of instruction. Perhaps an increase in both the frequency and
the amount of course-related information and feedback given
to students at all points throughout the semester may help to
decrease the magnitude of students’ rosy grade expectations.
However, from a researcher’s standpoint, such bias in expected grades does not necessarily discount the utility of expected grades as a measure. If research focuses on students’
perceptions, such as satisfaction with grades or satisfaction
with the instructors, then expected grades—an inherently
subjective index—may prove to be the most valid and useful
correlate.
References
Gaultney, J. F., & Cann, A. (2001). Grade expectations. Teaching of
Psychology, 28, 84–87.
Greenwald, A. G., & Gillmore, G. M. (1997). Grading leniency is a
removable contaminant of student ratings. American Psychologist,
52, 1209–1217.
Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.),
The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 233–265).
Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Keppel, G. (1991). Design and analysis: A researcher’s handbook (3rd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Landrum, R. E. (1999). Student expectations of grade inflation. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 32, 124–128.
Marsh, H. W., & Roche, L. A. (2000). Effects of grading leniency
and low workload on students’ evaluations of teaching: Popular
myth, bias, validity, or innocent bystanders? Journal of Educational
Psychology, 92, 202–228.
on the exam; we identified 7 distinct reasons. Test performance
was significantly related to the total number of writing marks, the
total number of reasons identified, and 3 specific writing strategies:
highlighting key terms, marking questions that needed further examination, and drawing figures or diagrams. Survey results indicated that the majority of students strongly supported the
opportunity to write on tests and that they believed the strategy
leads to better performance. We discuss the implications of these results in terms of modern testing formats that preclude the use of
writing strategies.
Recognizing the widespread use of objective tests, many
universities offer testing skills courses to help students improve their performance on multiple-choice examinations.
Through these classes and through various test-taking handbooks (e.g., ACT, 1997; College Entrance Examination
Board, 2000), students learn several strategies, some of which
require them to write directly on their exams. For example,
students learn to highlight important words, eliminate incorrect alternatives, and mark questions that need further review. Given the increasing popularity of computerized testing
formats that preclude writing on examinations, it is important to understand why students write on tests to determine if
nontraditional evaluation methods are likely to impact performance negatively.
Although researchers have investigated various aspects of
test taking, such as answer changing (e.g., Benjamin, Cavell,
& Shallenberger, 1984; Shatz & Best, 1987), guessing (Shatz,
1985), and the effectiveness of test-taking skills programs
(e.g., Bowering & Wetmore, 1997), only one study has explored the reasons why students write on exams. Kim and
Goetz (1993) examined the marks students made on test
booklets and determined that students wrote on the test for a
variety of reasons. Only one strategy, option elimination, was
significantly related to test performance.
The purpose of this study was to further investigate writing
strategies on tests. In contrast to Kim and Goetz (1993), students (vs. the researchers) identified their reasons for writing
on test booklets. Furthermore, students completed a survey
to assess their attitudes toward writing on tests and their general use of the strategy.
Note
Method
Send correspondence to Craig A. Wendorf, Department of Psychology, D241 Science Center, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point,
WI 54481; e-mail: cwendorf@uwsp.edu.
Participants
Students’ Reasons for Writing
on Multiple-Choice Examinations
Participants were 142 students (39 men and 103 women;
M age = 21.2 years, SD = 6.09) enrolled in five different introductory psychology classes. All students participated voluntarily for extra credit.
Frank M. LoSchiavo
Mark A. Shatz
Ohio University–Zanesville
Introductory psychology students (N = 142) identified their reasons for writing on a 50-item multiple-choice test and completed a
test-taking strategies questionnaire. The majority of students wrote
138
Procedure
We collected data from the first of five multiple-choice
examinations administered during the term. We administered a similar 50-item multiple-choice test in two sections
taught by the first author and in three sections taught by
the second author.
Teaching of Psychology
Students completed the exam during the first hour of a
145-min class. Written instructions directed students to “use a
pencil to record answers on the computerized answer sheet”
and to “do as you please with the test booklet.” On completion
of the exam, the instructor scored the computerized answer
sheets during a 15-min break. The instructor returned the test
materials and reviewed the exam on an item-by-item basis.
The instructor then gave students the opportunity to participate in the study (two students declined). The students
reviewed their test booklets, and for each instance of writing
on the test, they explained their reason on a separate form.
Students who did not write on the test explained why they
chose not to use the strategy. Afterward, all students completed a brief survey. To assess their attitudes regarding writing on tests, students responded to four items using a 5-point
Likert scale. To assess how frequently they wrote on other
tests, students responded to one item using the following
scale: never, seldom, occasionally, frequently, and always.
Results
Overall, 56% of students wrote on the exam, with women
(63%) more likely than men (36%) to do so, χ2(1, N = 142)
= 8.49, p < .01. When listing their reasons for writing, students often used different phrasing to describe the same basic
reason. For example, one student may have stated that he or
she “crossed out wrong answers,” whereas another student
may have stated that he or she “eliminated incorrect options.” To address this issue, we examined a subset of the responses and developed categories for classifying students’
reasons. We identified seven student-generated reasons for
writing on the exam. Two coders then worked independently
to classify each response. Interrater reliability was high, as
coders agreed on 99% of the cases.
On average, writers wrote on 17.95 (SD = 19.46) items,
made 26.25 (SD = 33.30) separate writing marks, and identified 2.73 (SD = 1.75) unique reasons. As predicted, the total
number of writing marks was significantly related to test performance, r(140) = .15, p < .05, one-tailed. Furthermore, performance was significantly related to the number of unique
reasons students reported using, r(140) = .20, p < .05.
Table 1. Reasons for Writing and
Correlations With Test Performance
Reason
Highlighted key
terms
Marked question
Drew
figure/diagram
Answer indication
Elaboration
Option elimination
Data dump
Correlation With
a
Test Performance
Writers Who
Reported Reasonb
.22**
.19*
20.3
53.2
.19*
.11
.11
.10
.07
19.0
57.0
26.6
68.4
21.5
Note. Correlations represent the relationship between test
performance and the number of times each strategy was used.
a
N = 140. bn = 79; given in percentages.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Each reason and its relation with test performance appears
in Table 1. Although the effects were relatively small, three
reasons were significantly related to performance: highlighting key terms, marking questions that needed further examination, and drawing figures or diagrams. Additional reasons
for writing were to indicate correct answers, elaborate on the
questions, eliminate incorrect options, and write down additional information (“data dump”).
Of those who chose not to write on the test, most stated that
writing was not necessary (76%). Although students could do
as they pleased with the test booklet, more than half of the
nonwriters stated that they refrained from writing because instructors asked them not to write on exams in the past (52%).
Students also stated that they chose not to write because they
have become accustomed to it (14%), they never thought of
doing it (11%), and they wanted to keep the exam neat (8%).
Survey results indicated that students view writing as a
valuable strategy and that they attach great importance to it.
The majority of students reported that they write on multiple-choice exams at least occasionally in their other classes
(57%), and they either somewhat agreed or strongly agreed
that “writing on a test booklet is a valuable test-taking strategy” (72%). Furthermore, they either somewhat agreed or
strongly agreed that “students should be allowed to write on a
test booklet” (84%), “test performance improves when students are allowed to write on a test booklet” (62%), and “test
performance suffers when students are not allowed to write
on a test booklet” (47%).
Discussion
Results indicated that writing on test booklets was pervasive, perceived by students as important, and positively associated with test performance. Writing strategies appear to fall
in one of two categories. The first category includes strategies
that address the mechanics of completing a test, such as indicating correct answers and marking questions that need further examination. The second category includes strategies
that help test takers mentally organize complex information,
such as eliminating incorrect options, highlighting key terms,
drawing figures or diagrams, and writing additional information that is relevant in answering test questions.
Correlational analyses indicated that both categories were
positively related (albeit weakly) to test performance.
Our findings suggest that the desire to write on a test and
the impact writing has on performance may be mediated by
test content and test-taker characteristics. For example, 95%
of students in an upper level educational psychology class
chose to write on their test booklets (Kim & Goetz, 1993),
whereas in our sample of introductory psychology students,
only 56% chose to write. Although the two studies differed in
terms of which specific writing strategies were related to test
performance, both studies demonstrated that most students
chose to write on test booklets, there was a common set of
reasons for writing, and that writing was positively related to
test performance. However, given the correlational nature of
both studies, we cannot draw firm conclusions about causality. An experimental manipulation would be necessary to determine if writing on a test booklet directly influences test
performance.
139
Because writing on a test booklet appears beneficial and
most students attach great importance to it, instructors should
carefully consider any testing formats that preclude its use.
The most obvious implications involve computerized tests. Although many features make computerized tests attractive
(e.g., automatic scoring), test takers may be unable to clerically
and cognitively organize the test as they have become accustomed to doing with more traditional testing formats. As
Internet-based courses become more popular and computerized testing becomes the norm, experimental research will be
necessary to determine if testing formats that preclude writing
may negatively influence performance and misrepresent the
abilities of test takers who like to write on tests.
References
ACT. (1997). Getting into the ACT: Official guide to the ACT assessment (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace.
Benjamin, L. T., Jr., Cavell, T. A., & Shallenberger, W. R., III.
(1984). Staying with initial answers on objective tests: Is it a myth?
Teaching of Psychology, 11, 133–141.
Bowering, E. R., & Wetmore, A. A. (1997). Success on multiple
choice examinations: A model and workshop intervention. Canadian Journal of Counseling, 31, 294–304.
College Entrance Examination Board. (2000). 10 real SATs (2nd
ed.). New York: Author.
Kim (Yoon), Y. H., & Goetz, E. T. (1993). Strategic processing of
test questions: The test marking responses of college students.
Learning and Individual Differences, 5, 211–218.
Shatz, M. A. (1985). Students’ guessing strategies: Do they work?
Psychological Reports, 57, 1167–1168.
Shatz, M. A., & Best, J. B. (1987). Students’ reasons for changing answers on objective tests. Teaching of Psychology, 14, 241–242.
Notes
1. We reported preliminary findings at the seventh annual American Psychological Society Institute on the Teaching of Psychology in Miami, FL, June 2000.
2. Send correspondence to Frank M. LoSchiavo, Department of
Psychology, Ohio University–Zanesville, 1425 Newark Road,
Zanesville, OH 43701; e-mail: loschiav@oak.cats.ohiou.edu.
The Teaching of Psychology Course:
Prevalence and Content
William Buskist
Rachel S. Tears
Auburn University
Stephen F. Davis
Karen M. Rodrigue
Emporia State University
We present the results of a national survey on the prevalence and
content of courses on the teaching of psychology for graduate teaching assistants (GTAs). Ninety-eight (67%) of the psychology departments we surveyed have a formal course on the teaching of
psychology. These courses tend to be 1 academic term in length, in140
volve observation of GTAs’ teaching and feedback, and vary moderately in content. Our results prompt several suggestions for designing and implementing new courses on the teaching of
psychology or revising extant ones.
Large colleges and universities frequently employ graduate
teaching assistants (GTAs) to assist faculty or to serve as
teachers of record in introductory level courses. Many of
these institutions provide training to their GTAs in an attempt to prepare them for the responsibilities inherent in
teaching (e.g., Eckstein, Boice, & Chua-Yap, 1991;
Lumsden, Grosslight, Loveland, & Williams, 1988; Mueller,
Perlman, McCann, & McFadden, 1997). Such efforts are important because they introduce GTAs to the basic principles
of effective teaching, which in turn, may enhance the learning experiences of the undergraduates they teach.
In an extensive study of doctoral-granting schools that include GTA training programs, Meyers and Prieto (2000a)
found that most GTAs at these schools received teacher
training through the department, another unit of the university, or a combination of these. In some cases, though, GTA
participation in the training program is voluntary, and in others GTAs may not participate in all training activities. They
also found that the extent of training varied considerably
across schools, ranging from none to extensive training.
Some GTA training programs provide formal instruction
on teaching (Benassi & Fernald, 1993; Grasha, 1978) and
combine GTAs enrolling in a course or seminar on teaching
with actual classroom teaching (Rickard, Prentice-Dunn,
Rogers, Scogin, & Lyman, 1991). Unfortunately, little is
known about the extent and nature of such courses. We conducted a national survey to address this important issue. Our
study differed from Meyers and Prieto’s (2000a) research in
that we focused exclusively on the teaching of psychology
course.
Method
Participants and Procedure
We mailed a cover letter, informed consent information,
and questionnaire to chairs of psychology departments at 365
U.S. colleges and universities. We selected these departments based on the availability of teaching assistantships for
graduate students as described in the American Psychological Association’s (APA; 1998) Graduate Study in Psychology.
We asked department chairs to have the faculty member responsible for supervising or training GTAs complete and return the survey. We did not send a follow-up request to those
departments who failed to respond.
A total of 236 (65%) departments responded to the survey; 146 (62%) of these departments offered teacher training
for their GTAs. Ninety-eight (67%) of these 146 departments reported offering a course on the teaching of psychology. These 98 departments represent 42% of the 236
departments that responded to the survey. This percentage is
almost identical to the 43% reported by Meyers and Prieto
(2000a). Twenty-nine respondents indicated that they did
not employ GTAs.
Teaching of Psychology
Our sample of 98 respondents represented Doctoral/Research Universities–Extensive (68%), Doctoral/Research
Universities–Intensive (16%), and Master’s Colleges and
Universities I (15%). Geographically, this sample represented the following regions: West (29%), Midwest (27%),
South (24%), and Northeast (20%). Although all of the graduate programs included in this study claimed that they employed GTAs (APA, 1998), only 87% reported such in
response to our survey.
The 109 respondents who returned surveys but indicated
that they did not offer the teaching of psychology course represented Doctoral/Research Universities–Extensive (56%),
Doctoral/Research Universities–Intensive (21%), and Master’s Colleges and Universities I (23%). Geographically, these
109 respondents represented the following regions: West
(21%), Midwest (20%), South (23%), and Northeast (36%).
Survey Instrument
The survey contained items that inquired about basic aspects of the teaching of psychology course. Specifically, we
queried respondents about the following: (a) whether respondents’ departments offer a course (i.e., a class or seminar); (b) the number of academic terms that GTAs enroll in
the course; (c) the topics addressed in the course; (d)
whether faculty leading the course observe GTAs teaching;
(e) whether GTAs are videotaped during the observation; (f)
whether GTAs receive written or verbal feedback or both
from the faculty observer; (g) whether GTAs observe each
other teaching; (h) whether the course requires GTAs to
read a text, original research reports, or other writings regarding teaching; and (i) whether GTAs write a paper on the subject of teaching or more generally on the topic of higher
education. We selected these items because they tapped a variety of elements that might be used for classroom instruction
in the teaching of psychology course.
Results and Discussion
Rather than report data in terms of both raw numbers and
percentages, we report only percentages because including
both would be essentially redundant. Sixty-seven percent of
the respondents reported their course is taught for a single academic term, 10% reported it lasts two terms, 3% last three
terms, 14% are offered each term that GTAs are teaching,
and 8% are offered optionally. Two respondents left this item
blank. Table 1 shows the topics respondents reported covering in the course.
Ninety-four percent of the respondents reported that their
course involves observation of GTAs’ teaching and feedback.
Nineteen percent observe GTAs giving microlectures during
the course, 30% observe GTAs while teaching in the undergraduate classroom, and 45% do both. In addition, 48% of
the respondents reported that they videotape GTAs during
these observational sessions. Fifty-one percent of the respondents reported that the primary means of providing feedback
to GTAs about their teaching involved both written and oral
feedback, 31% said that they use verbal feedback alone, and
5% reported using only written feedback. Sixty-six percent of
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Table 1. Topics Covered in the Teaching
of Psychology Class and the Percentage
of Respondents Reporting Covering
Those Topics
Topics
%
Delivering lectures
Asking/answering questions
Classroom management skills
Encouraging student participation
Ethical situations in teaching
Academic honesty
Grading
Holding office hours
Leading class discussions
Construction of test items
Organization of class time
Doing in-class activities
Preparation of handouts
The first day of class
The teaching of critical thinking skills
College/university academic policies
Diversity issues
Social skills in teaching
Use of audio/visual equipment
Use of electronic technologies
95
94
92
91
91
90
88
87
87
87
83
83
83
82
78
75
73
72
72
67
the respondents also noted that GTAs received feedback
from their peers who observed them teaching.
Sixty-one percent of the respondents said that the course
involves reading a text or articles on teaching, although respondents did not identify specific texts or articles they used.
However, only 18% reported that students write an essay on
the topic of teaching or higher education in their course. We
encourage the addition of written assignments as a means of
stimulating GTA thinking about how to design, implement,
and assess various teaching tools, such as demonstrations or
problem-based learning activities. Useful topics for written
assignments might include a statement of students’ philosophy of teaching, a journal of insightful teaching experiences,
an interview with a local master teacher, or an essay centering on general issues in college and university teaching. Such
writing assignments provide opportunities for reflecting and
clarifying GTAs’ thinking about their teaching and provide
opportunities for supervisors to include additional feedback,
insight, and encouragement to their GTAs. Meyers and
Prieto (2000b) recently suggested ways to incorporate active
learning into the teaching of psychology course through written assignments (as well as other exercises; e.g., in-class activities, modeling, observation).
Although two thirds of the departments that offer teacher
training to GTAs had a course on the teaching of psychology,
one third did not. Thus, a genuine need exists both to expand
GTA training so that more GTAs receive appropriate instruction and to develop and refine courses on the teaching
of psychology.
Most teaching of psychology courses were one academic
term in length, although some institutions offered such
courses for two or three terms. Courses longer than one academic term provide opportunities to expose GTAs to a wider
and deeper range of content than in a single term course. Extended coursework or supervision would also likely produce
pedagogical benefits that cannot be gained over shorter train141
ing periods (e.g., sustained coaching and practice of the skills
required for effective teaching).
Although most respondents reported observation of GTA
teaching and feedback, only about half reported using videotaping procedures. We encourage videotaping because it provides an accurate record of all aspects of GTA classroom
performance. It is also a useful method to preserve GTAs’
classroom performances for future class discussion, feedback,
and critique.
We discovered that respondents addressed certain important topics less frequently than other important issues (e.g.,
how to teach critical-thinking skills, institutional academic
policies, diversity issues, social skills essential to effective
teaching). Failure to cover such issues is unadvisable for two
reasons. First, as some authors have argued (e.g., Nummedal
& Halpern, 1995), teaching critical-thinking skills to undergraduates is essential to their development as independent
and effective problem solvers. Second, GTAs who are unaware of institutional policies, insensitive to diversity issues,
or deficient in the social skills necessary to establish rapport
risk misinforming or offending their students.
We also urge more faculty who offer the teaching of psychology course to include content related to the use of electronic technologies. Such content may range from simple
tasks, such as learning how to use an overhead projector, to
more complex tasks, such as learning how to prepare and use
a PowerPoint® presentation or developing Web-based resources. Learning to use electronic technologies may be useful in developing more effective, integrated, and thorough
class presentations.
The teaching of psychology course must include content
focusing both on the basic techniques of sound teaching and
“people skills” to maximize chances that it will fully prepare
GTAs for their first classroom teaching experiences (cf.
Mueller et al., 1997). Indeed, such content, combined with
exposure to the teaching literature, constructive feedback,
and writing assignments, seems likely to maximize chances
that the new psychology professorate will develop the skills
and self-efficacy necessary to meet the challenges that await
them (Prieto & Meyers, 1999).
References
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Benassi, V. A., & Fernald, P. S. (1993). Preparing tomorrow’s psychologists for careers in academe. Teaching of Psychology, 20,
149–155.
Eckstein, R., Boice, R., & Chua-Yap, E. (1991). Teaching assistant
development. The Journal of Staff, Program, and Organizational Development, 9, 163–180.
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Lumsden, E. A., Grosslight, J. H., Loveland, E. H., & Williams, J. E.
(1988). Preparation of graduate students as classroom teachers
and supervisors in applied and research settings. Teaching of Psychology, 15, 5–9.
Meyers, S. A., & Prieto, L. R. (2000a). Training in the teaching of
psychology: What is done and examining the differences. Teaching
of Psychology, 27, 258–261.
142
Meyers, S. A., & Prieto, L. R. (2000b). Using active learning to improve the training of psychology teaching assistants. Teaching of
Psychology, 27, 283–284.
Mueller, A., Perlman, B., McCann, L. I., & McFadden, S. H. (1997).
A faculty perspective on teaching assistant training. Teaching of
Psychology, 24, 167–171.
Nummedal, S. G., & Halpern, D. F. (1995). Introduction: Making
the case for “psychologists teach critical thinking.” Teaching of
Psychology, 22, 4–5.
Prieto, L. R., & Meyers, S. A. (1999). Effects of training and supervision on the self-efficacy of psychology graduate teaching assistants. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 264–266.
Rickard, H. C., Prentice-Dunn, S., Rogers, R. W., Scogin, F. R., &
Lyman, R. D. (1991). Teaching of psychology: A required course
for all doctoral students. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 235–237.
Notes
1. We thank members of the EDGE group for research on the teaching of psychology at Auburn University for their criticisms on an
earlier version of this article. We also thank Randolph A. Smith
and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an
earlier version this article.
2. Send correspondence to William Buskist, Psychology Department, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608; e-mail:
buskistw@appstate.edu.
Using Case Studies in Introductory
Psychology
Julie A. Leonard
Kirsten L. Mitchell
Steven A. Meyers
Jacqueline D. Love
Roosevelt University
The case study is an active learning strategy that allows introductory psychology students to grapple with course content. To promote the successful development and use of case studies in
introductory psychology courses, we present guidelines for implementing this technique as well as an illustration. Steps involved in
using case studies include (a) determining the goals for the exercise,
(b) selecting and narrowing a topic, (c) developing case material,
(d) creating an inquiry component, and (e) assessing the effectiveness of the exercise.
The case study is one active learning strategy that allows
introductory psychology students to grapple with course
content. In psychology and other disciplines, its use correlates with positive learning outcomes such as increased student engagement, problem-solving abilities, and
decision-making skills (e.g., Fisher & Kuther, 1997;
Sudzina, 1999; Vernon & Blake, 1993). Moreover, analyzing case studies promotes critical thinking, broadens students’ perspectives on psychological issues, and fosters
independent learning (McDade, 1995).
Case studies may be particularly well-suited for introductory psychology courses. Analyzing and discussing case mateTeaching of Psychology
rial provides students with a change of pace in a
lecture-dominated survey class. In a course that often focuses
on breadth of knowledge (Sternberg, 1997), wrestling with
case matter can facilitate in-depth understanding of material
(McDade, 1995).
Although several illustrations of case studies for psychology classes exist in the literature, few resources have consolidated suggestions about how to develop or implement them.
As such, we integrate past work by presenting the steps involved in creating and using case studies for the introductory
psychology course. We concisely describe the process of using
case studies so that instructors can tailor such cases to meet
their curricular needs; our focus is to build on previous literature by providing an organizational scheme toward this end.
We recommend that psychology instructors determine
their goals for the case study exercise before selecting a topic.
Case studies can provide students with opportunities to evaluate data, identify important concepts, develop hypotheses,
and create or defend arguments (McKeachie, 1999). These
objectives contrast with goals best accomplished by lectures,
such as acquiring factual information (Davis, 1993;
McKeachie, 1999). Thus, the particular student competencies that instructors want to develop will shape the instructions for the activity as well as the case details.
After reflecting on their instructional objectives, psychology faculty must select a topic area. Instructors often use case
studies to teach ethics (e.g., Costanzo & Handelsman, 1998)
and abnormal psychology (e.g., Perkins, 1991). However,
faculty can incorporate case studies when teaching many
other subjects within introductory psychology, such as
neuropsychology (Morris, 1991), child development
(McManus, 1986a), or research methods (McBurney, 1995).
More important, instructors need to narrow the topic area
to appropriately address it in the case study. Student feedback may provide instructors with valuable information
about potential topics. Which areas typically prompt many
student questions? What generates the most discussion or debate in class? Topics for case studies often address controversies (e.g., Ford, Grossman, & Jordan, 1997) and generally do
not have one correct answer (McBurney, 1995).
To exemplify, our introductory psychology students often
have difficulty objectively examining the topic of prejudice
within the social psychology unit. Our goals for the case study
exercise described subsequently include allowing students to
(a) apply the course concepts of stereotypes, prejudice, and
attribution to case material; (b) examine the interrelation between attitudes and behaviors; and (c) examine a societal implication of prejudiced attitudes. The focus of our case study
is sufficiently broad to permit simultaneous analysis of several
related topics (e.g., attribution, attitude formation, attitude
change). However, it is appropriately narrow to permit
in-depth exploration (i.e., we exclude other social psychological topics; e.g., social influence or cognitive dissonance).
Instructors need to construct the case study itself. Successful cases are accounts of realistic situations (Hoover, 1980).
They can be actual or fictitious scenarios, vary in length, and
focus on one or more problems. Instructors can develop cases
themselves; find case material in scholarly publications, newspaper articles, films, or literature (e.g., Chrisler, 1990; Logan,
1988); use those contained in ancillary materials for introductory psychology textbooks (e.g., Bolt, 1996); or encourage stuVol. 29, No. 2, 2002
dents to write their own cases (e.g., McManus, 1986b;
Ortman, 1993). Cases can also include actual or simulated
data to supplement narrative text (e.g., Witte, 1998).
Instructors should use a well-written story that contains important details so that students can engage substantively with
the problem. It should be multilayered, with both obvious and
subtle parts. The case study should be challenging and allow
for student questioning. It should not, however, be overly complex such that students become confused when trying to follow
the story line. Excessive intricacy detracts from the exercise
and results in students feeling overwhelmed. Instructors need
to be cognizant of students’ abilities and construct the case
study to match this level. In our brief illustration, we present
students with the following case:
You are a high school instructor who has been teaching
for the past five years at a predominantly White, affluent high school. Because someone with more seniority
has bumped you, you have been transferred to another
school. It is located in the inner city, and virtually all its
students are African Americans; it is on academic probation due to low achievement scores on standardized
tests. You fear that some of your current students may
be gang members because of the way that they are
dressed. Frankly, you are concerned about your safety.
Not only are you scared of being challenged by your students, but also of traveling to the neighborhood in
which you now work. You have requested a transfer to a
school in a “better neighborhood,” but the administration has told you that reassignment is unlikely before
the school year is over.
Instructors need to add an inquiry section to allow students to apply their knowledge to the case. These questions
should not only assess students’ ability to recall, comprehend, and apply relevant concepts, but questions should
also focus on developing critical thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Moreover, questions should
follow a logical sequence and should appear in an order of
increasing difficulty. An appropriate number of questions
proportional to the amount of time allocated for the exercise should follow the case study. Students may complete
these questions individually, in small groups, or through
class-wide discussion. Faculty may further assign written
analysis of the case outside of class.
To illustrate the points described previously, we pose the
following questions to students in our sample case study.
Using Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives,
we include a parenthetical note after each question to clarify
what skill that question fosters.
• What are the stereotypes and prejudices that the
teacher in this example holds? (comprehension)
• According to attribution theory, how might a person
with these ideas and feelings categorize the behaviors of
the students in the school? (comprehension and application)
• How might this teacher’s attitudes affect his or her behavior in this school setting? (application)
• What are some ways in which this teacher’s stereotypes
and prejudices could be changed? (application)
143
• Should teachers with subtle prejudices be allowed to
work in predominantly minority schools? Why or why
not? (synthesis and evaluation)
The last step involves assessing the effectiveness of the case
study. Instructors can periodically use classroom assessment
techniques (Angelo & Cross, 1993) to gauge students’ reactions to these exercises or to determine whether using case
studies accomplishes their instructional objectives for the
class. We further recommend that instructors provide students with feedback and assign grades at the end of case study
exercises. This process (a) communicates to students that case
analyses are an important part of class, (b) allows students to
progressively refine their inductive and deductive abilities,
and (c) increases students’ motivation.
Our students provided us with written feedback to
open-ended questions about our use of case studies. They indicated that case studies help them comprehend abstract
course material by providing concrete illustrations and opportunities to verify their understanding of core concepts.
Moreover, our students emphasized that analyzing case studies increases their involvement, interest, and attention in introductory psychology. Finally, our students frequently
underscored how case studies are both a welcome contrast
and complement to lecture and discussion methods. More
specifically, they enjoyed applying and integrating course material using real-life situations. However, our students also
believed that lectures help them understand important concepts and better prepare them to examine case material.
They similarly reported that class-wide discussions after they
analyze cases are useful to verify the accuracy and thoroughness of their conclusions. In sum, the use of case studies not
only allows instructors to teach material in a novel manner,
but it also can provide students with a meaningful and enjoyable learning experience.
McBurney, D. H. (1995). The problem method of teaching research
methods. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 36–38.
McDade, S. A. (1995). Case study pedagogy to advance critical
thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 9–10.
McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers (10th ed.). Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
McManus, J. L. (1986a). “Live” case study/journal record in adolescent psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 70–74.
McManus, J. L. (1986b). Student composed case study in adolescent
psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 92–93.
Morris, E. J. (1991). Classroom demonstration of behavioral effects
of the split-brain operation. Teaching of Psychology, 18, 226–228.
Ortman, P. E. (1993). A feminist approach to teaching learning theory with educational applications. Teaching of Psychology, 20,
38–40.
Perkins, D. V. (1991). A case-study assignment to teach theoretical
perspectives in abnormal psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 18,
97–99.
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (1997). Teaching introductory psychology: Survival tips from the experts. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Sudzina, M. R. (Ed.). (1999). Case study applications for teacher education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Vernon, D. T. A., & Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluative research. Academic Medicine, 68, 550–563.
Witte, R. H. (1998). Use of an interactive case study to examine
school learning problems. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 224–226.
Notes
1. An earlier version of this article was presented at the annual
meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago,
IL, May 2000.
2. Send correspondence to Steven A. Meyers, School of Psychology, Roosevelt University, 430 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL 60605; e-mail: smeyers@roosevelt.edu.
References
Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers (2nd ed.). San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives (Vol.
1). New York: McKay.
Bolt, M. (1996). Instructor’s resources to accompany Myers Exploring
Psychology. New York: Worth.
Chrisler, J. C. (1990). Novels as case-study materials for psychology
students. Teaching of Psychology, 17, 55–57.
Costanzo, M., & Handelsman, M. M. (1998). Teaching aspiring professors to be ethical teachers: Doing justice to the case study
method. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 97–102.
Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fisher, C. B., & Kuther, T. L. (1997). Integrating research ethics into
the introductory psychology course curriculum. Teaching of Psychology, 24, 172–175.
Ford, T. E., Grossman, R. W., & Jordan, E. A. (1997). Teaching
about unintentional racism in introductory psychology. Teaching
of Psychology, 24, 186–188.
Hoover, K. A. (1980). Analyzing reality: The case method. In K. A.
Hoover (Ed.), College teaching today: A handbook for post-secondary
instruction (pp. 199–223). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Logan, R. D. (1988). Using a film as a personality case study.
Teaching of Psychology, 15, 103–104.
144
In Search of Introductory Psychology’s
Classic Core Vocabulary
Richard A. Griggs
Montserrat C. Mitchell
University of Florida
Given the finding that current introductory psychology textbooks
do not share a substantial common core vocabulary, we examined
2 related questions. First, was there a substantial core a half century ago before introductory texts became so lengthy and encyclopedic? Second, is there a classic core vocabulary (terms in the core
vocabularies of both contemporary texts and those from the
1950s)? We did not find a substantial common core for the 1950s
texts and conclude that it is highly unlikely one has ever existed.
However, a classic core vocabulary of over 100 terms does exist,
and we discuss the importance of covering these terms in the introductory course.
In the last decade, three studies (Landrum, 1993;
Quereshi, 1993; Zechmeister & Zechmeister, 2000) atTeaching of Psychology
tempted to identify the core vocabulary (the common language) for introductory psychology. Methodology varied
somewhat across the three studies in that Landrum did a
page-by-page text analysis for “important” terms, Quereshi
analyzed text indexes, and Zechmeister and Zechmeister examined text glossaries. Regardless of these methodological
differences, the general finding of all three studies was the
same: Only a small percentage of the key terms were common
to many texts. For example, Zechmeister and Zechmeister
found that only 64 of 2,505 terms (< 3%) were common to all
10 texts in their sample, and approximately half (49%) appeared in only 1 text glossary. Landrum’s conclusion summarized this general finding quite well: “From these data, it
appears that Introductory Psychology textbooks are much
more different from one another than similar” (p. 663).
This finding does seem at odds with Matarazzo’s (1987)
claim that the core content of introductory psychology textbooks has remained the same since 1890, but it is totally consistent with Griggs and Marek’s (2001) recent analysis
showing that today’s introductory psychology texts are more
dissimilar than similar. At the same time, Griggs and Marek’s
results are consistent with Matarazzo’s claim because they
found introductory textbooks to be highly similar with respect to their chapter topics and organization, which was the
dimension Matarazzo used in his analysis. Griggs and Marek,
however, discovered that this similarity disappeared as soon
as the analysis moved past such global textbook dimensions.
Historical content analyses of introductory psychology
textbooks (Griggs & Jackson, 1996; Webb, 1991; Weiten &
Wight, 1992), moreover, have shown substantial changes in
percentage of text coverage for the various chapter topics
and a consistent increase in text length (in terms of text
pages) over the past half century. According to Weiten and
Wight, these changes have a natural explanation—“psychologists have been expanding their domain of inquiry and increasing their production of research” (p. 481). Thus,
introductory textbook authors have been increasingly forced
to accommodate both more domains of research and increasing amounts of research into a relatively stable set of standard
chapter topics.
Given the large and ever-increasing research base within
each of the various areas, textbook authors have differed
greatly in how they have chosen to cover each of these domains. Such variance has led to introductory textbooks being
more dissimilar than similar. Therefore, it is a reasonable hypothesis that before the expansion of these textbooks in the
past half century, a more substantial common core vocabulary may have existed. In this study we tested this hypothesis
by comparing the glossaries of a sample of 1950s introductory
texts. If a substantial common core did not exist for these
texts, one has probably never existed.
We also wanted to determine if a classic core vocabulary
exists (terms that are in the core vocabularies of both contemporary texts and those from the 1950s). Identifying such a
vocabulary is important to psychology teachers because these
terms would comprise the “core” of the core vocabulary for
introductory students. These terms will have stood the test of
time and remained in introductory textbooks for almost a
half century. Because introductory teachers have to make
difficult decisions on what to present due to limited course
time, we hope to aid them in this task via the identification of
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
this classic core vocabulary. Introductory teachers should
definitely include these terms in their courses.
Method
Sample of Textbooks
To choose our sample, we used Weiten and Wight’s
(1992) text samples as a guide, but we also considered
whether a text had a glossary. We examined glossaries in our
analysis because Zechmeister and Zechmeister (2000) analyzed glossaries, and we used their data for our classic term
identification procedure. In addition, similar to Zechmeister
and Zechmeister, we believe that glossaries are preferable to
indexes because a glossary identifies what the textbook author considered essential to the textbook’s message.
We chose three 1950s textbooks used in the Weiten and
Wight (1992) study that had text glossaries: Hilgard (1953),
Krech and Crutchfield (1958), and Morgan (1956). All were
first editions and had been selected by Weiten and Wight following their nominations as leading texts for their time period by a sample of fellows of Division 26 (History of
Psychology) of the American Psychological Association and
surviving past presidents of Division 2 (Society for the
Teaching of Psychology). Although our sample is small, we
are confident, as were Weiten and Wight about their small
text samples, that it constitutes a reasonably representative
sample of the leading texts from that time period.
Identification of Core and Classic Core Vocabularies
We compared the glossaries two at a time, thereby identifying unique terms, terms in any two of the three texts, and
terms in all three texts. As is well documented in previous
core vocabulary studies, we found variability in labeling the
same concept (e.g., difference threshold and differential
threshold). To decide whether two terms were the same, we
compared the two definitions and worked together to make
the judgment. We also checked definitions to ensure that
terms that were literally the same described the same concept. The average number of glossary items in the three textbooks was 606.3 (range = 531 to 676).
We used the criterion that a term had to be in two or three
of the three glossaries to be included in the core vocabulary
list. Once we compiled this list, we compared it to the list of
terms included in 7 or more of the 10 textbook glossaries in
Zechmeister and Zechmeister’s (2000) textbook sample. We
obtained these data from Jeanne Zechmeister (J. S.
Zechmeister, personal communication, October, 2000). Any
term appearing on both lists qualified as a classic core vocabulary term.
Results and Discussion
We found 1,819 glossary terms in the 3 textbooks before
we eliminated duplications. The mean glossary size of 606.3
was less than that for the 10 textbooks in the sample used by
145
Table 1.
Introduction
Behaviorism
Functionalism
Introspection
Psychology
Research methods/statistics
Correlation coefficient
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Mean
Median
Mode
Naturalistic observation
Standard deviation
Physiological psychology
Autonomic nervous system
Central nervous system
Cerebral cortex
Endocrine glandular system
Frontal lobe
Homeostasis
Hormones
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Motor cortex
Motor neuron
Occipital lobe
Parasympathetic nervous system
Pituitary gland
Sensory neuron
Sympathetic nervous system
Temporal lobe
Thalamus
Developmental psychology
Chromosome
Embryo
Fetus
Fraternal twins
Gene
Identical twins
Puberty
Sensation/perception
Absolute threshold
Accommodation
Basilar membrane
Cochlea
Cone
Difference threshold
Fovea
Gestalt psychology
Hue
Optic nerve
Perception
Pitch
Psychophysics
Retina
Rod
Saturation
Consciousness
Hypnosis
Classic Core Vocabulary Terms
Learning
Classical conditioning
Conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Discrimination
Extinction
Generalization
Instrumental conditioning
Latent learning
Law of effect
Learning
Partial reinforcement
Punishment
Reflex
Reinforcement
Spontaneous recovery
Unconditioned response
Memory
Retroactive interference
Thought/language
Concept
Image
Insighta
Intelligence
Factor analysis
IQ
Mental age
Reliability
Validity
Motivation/emotion
Drive
Emotion
Motivation
Personality
Defense mechanism
Ego
Id
Personality
Projective test
Repression
Superego
Temperament
Trait
Disorders
Anxiety
Anxiety disorder
Hallucination
Phobia
Schizophrenic disorder
Therapies
Client-centered therapy
Free association
Group therapy
Insighta
Psychoanalysis
Psychotherapy
Resistance
Transference
Social Psychology
Aggression
Attitude
Norm
Prejudice
Social psychology
Stereotype
Note. These terms appeared in at least 67% of the glossaries in this study and at least 70% of the glossaries in Zechmeister and Zechmeister (2000). The terms are grouped in accordance with the
chapter topics and organization of contemporary introductory textbooks.
a
This term appears under both thought/language and therapies because two definitions (one relevant to each topic) were always given for this term. Thus, we considered it as two different terms in
this table.
Zechmeister and Zechmeister (2000; M = 691.1). However,
if you extrapolate terms per chapter, this difference of about
85 terms is not much given the number of chapters in the
texts (M = 24.3 for our sample and M = 17.9 for the
Zechmeister & Zechmeister, 2000, sample). Therefore, the
difference amounts to only 3 to 5 terms per chapter regardless
of which mean is used for the calculation.
After eliminating duplicate terms, 1,287 terms remained.
As observed by Zechmeister and Zechmeister (2000), most
were unique to one text. There were 1,048 (75.7%) unique
terms, 246 (17.6%) terms appearing in two glossaries, and only
93 terms (6.9%) appearing in all three glossaries. Thus, as with
contemporary introductory textbooks, no truly substantial
common core vocabulary existed in these 1950s textbooks.
Given that we chose texts from the 1950s to maximize the likelihood of finding a substantial common core, our failure to find
one indicates that such a core has likely never existed.
We did, however, find 109 classic core vocabulary terms.
These terms appear in Table 1. To facilitate their use by introductory psychology teachers, we grouped them in accordance with the chapter topics and organization of
contemporary introductory psychology textbooks. These
terms comprise about one third of the core vocabularies observed for both the 1950s and 1990s textbooks.
We next considered how these classic terms were distributed across the major topic areas within introductory psychology. As we expected, few were in areas that have grown
and gained prominence since the 1950s, especially cognitive
psychology. Only 4 (3.7%) of the 109 terms are cognitive in
nature. Most of the terms come from older research areas—sensation/perception (16; 14.7%), learning (16;
14.7%), and physiological psychology (18; 16.5%). This latter percentage would be even greater if we had included the 7
developmental psychology terms, which all concerned genetics or physical development, in the physiological category. It
is also interesting to note that both the personality and therapies topics were dominated by Freudian or psychoanalytic
terms (5 out of 9 and 5 out of 8, respectively).
In conclusion, it appears that a substantial core vocabulary
in introductory textbooks does not presently exist and probably has never existed. However, a classic core vocabulary of
over 100 terms does exist. As Zechmeister and Zechmeister
(2000) pointed out, the American Psychological Association’s
Committee on Undergraduate Education (McGovern,
Furumoto, Halpern, Kimble, & McKeachie, 1991) recommended that psychology teachers use the principle that “less is
more” in their courses. In response, Zechmeister and
Zechmeister (2000) asked with respect to the introductory
course, “If less is more, then what should that less be?” (p. 7).
Although we agree with Zechmeister and Zechmeister that exactly what that “less” should be is unclear, we believe that the
classic core vocabulary should definitely be a part of it.
References
Griggs, R. A., & Jackson, S. L. (1996). Forty years of introductory
psychology: An analysis of the first 10 editions of Hilgard et al.’s
textbook. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 144–150.
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Griggs, R. A., & Marek, P. (2001). Similarity of introductory psychology textbooks: Reality or illusion? Teaching of Psychology, 28,
254–256.
Hilgard, E. R. (1953). Introduction to psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
Krech, D., & Crutchfield, R. A. (1958). Elements of psychology. New
York: Knopf.
Landrum, R. E. (1993). Identifying core concepts in introductory
psychology. Psychological Reports, 72, 659–666.
Matarazzo, J. D. (1987). There is only one psychology, no specialties,
but many applications. American Psychologist, 42, 893–903.
McGovern, T. V., Furumoto, L., Halpern, D. F., Kimble, G. A., &
McKeachie, W. J. (1991). Liberal education, study in depth, and
the arts and sciences major—Psychology. American Psychologist,
46, 598–605.
Morgan, C. T. (1956). Introduction to psychology. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Quereshi, M. Y. (1993). The contents of introductory psychology
textbooks: A follow-up. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 218–222.
Webb, W. B. (1991). History from our textbooks: Boring, Langfeld,
and Weld’s introductory texts (1935–1948+). Teaching of Psychology, 18, 33–35.
Weiten, W., & Wight, R. D. (1992). Portraits of a discipline: An examination of introductory psychology textbooks in America. In A.
E. Puente, J. R. Matthews, & C. L. Brewer (Eds.), Teaching psychology in America: A history (pp. 453–504). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Zechmeister, J. S., & Zechmeister, E. B. (2000). Introductory textbooks
and psychology’s core concepts. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 6–11.
Notes
1. We thank Jeanne Zechmeister for providing us with the core concept data from Zechmeister and Zechmeister (2000), three anonymous reviewers, and Randolph Smith for valuable comments on
an earlier version of this article.
2. Send correspondence to Richard A. Griggs, Department of Psychology, PO Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611; e-mail: rgriggs@ufl.edu.
Classroom Demonstrations of Auditory
Perception
LaDawn Haws
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
California State University, Chico
Brian J. Oppy
California State University, Chico
Many faculty who teach a psychology class with a sensation and
perception component present a variety of demonstrations of visual
perception, but few about audition. Demonstrations using inexpensive materials can illustrate some of the basic concepts related to
auditory perception. In this article we describe simple and inexpensive demonstrations of sound localization, wave cancellation, frequency/pitch variation, and the influence of different media on
sound propagation.
147
Faculty who teach courses in sensation and perception
and classes in introductory psychology commonly present
demonstrations of visual perception phenomena (Goldstein,
1999). However, they seldom present demonstrations of auditory perceptual phenomena. In this article we present several simple inexpensive activities involving audition that give
students concrete experiences to complement the abstract
concepts presented in texts.
Localization Demonstration 1
Each pair of students needs a 30-in. length of 3/8-in. outer
diameter flexible plastic hose, available from any hardware
store. The exact length is not important, but the midpoint
should be marked clearly and accurately. The Listener holds
the hose with one end at each ear, eyes closed. The Tapper
taps the hose gently with a pencil, and the Listener must determine if the tap was closer to the left ear or the right ear.
The Tapper should tap at different distances, ranging from 12
in. to 1 in. away from the center mark. The Tapper must be
careful to not tap too vigorously, which would give the Listener a tactile directional clue. After several trials, the Listener and Tapper exchange roles.
This demonstration gives students an appreciation of the
accuracy with which people can determine the location of a
sound source. Most people are able to distinguish the tapping
direction even when the tap is only 1 in. away from the center
mark of the hose. Listeners locate sound sources largely due
to the interaural time difference (Goldstein, 1999), defined as
the minute differences in time for the sound waves to reach
one ear before the other: The sound source is closer to the ear
that received the input first. Interaural intensity differences
also provide a significant cue to location: The stimulus is
slightly more intense (louder) for the closer ear.
Localization Demonstration 2
This demonstration is done in two parts and requires a
“clicker” (the type used by children on Halloween works
well) and a 12-in. length of 3-in. diameter plastic pipe or a
heavy cardboard tube. For Part 1, the Listener sits facing the
class, eyes closed. The Clicker stands behind the Listener and
makes a “click” in the same plane as the listener, parallel to
the front wall. The Listener must point to the direction of the
click. The Clicker clicks 2 to 3 ft from the Listener, in several
positions including left, right, and directly overhead, but not
in front or back. The Listener will be very accurate in detecting the direction of the click.
For Part 2, the Listener holds the pipe firmly up to one ear
and the Clicker repeats the demonstration. The Listener is
likely to perceive an overhead click to be closer to the ear
without the pipe because the sound waves must travel farther
to reach the “pipe ear” due to the interaural time difference.
This demonstration illustrates two basic points. First, Listeners are quite accurate in locating a sound stimulus in
three-dimensional space. Second, sound localization is very
“bottom up”; even though Listeners are aware of the tube,
they are quite confident of their impression of direction—a
misplaced confidence when the tube is in place.
148
Frequency and Pitch
The Demonstrator pours water into a 4-ft length of 1-in.
diameter metal pipe with the bottom end plugged. As the water fills the pipe, the vibrations generated by the moving water produce an audible roar. The pitch of the roar will
increase as the pipe fills. Once the pipe is full, the Demonstrator empties the pipe and repeats the demonstration, but
this time while the Demonstrator pours the water, an assistant taps the lower part of the pipe continuously. The pitch of
the tapped pipe will get lower as the pipe fills. This demonstration works well even in a large auditorium—simply hold a
microphone near the top opening of the pipe.
The two versions of this demonstration produce opposite
effects because different media are vibrating. In both cases, a
shorter span of media produces higher frequency sound
waves. In the first demonstration, the vibrating column of air
becomes shorter as the pipe fills, and the increasingly shorter
column produces an increasingly higher frequency (and
higher pitch). In the second demonstration, the tapping
causes the water to vibrate. The column of water grows longer as the pipe fills, producing an increasingly lower pitched
sound. Of course there are other demonstrations of the relationship between length and pitch (e.g., wind chimes and xylophones) but this experiment is interesting because there are
two columns changing length and pitch continuously in opposite directions.
Sound Cancellation
When two waves of the same frequency and same phase
combine, the resulting wave retains the common frequency,
but the amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the combining waves, as in Figure 1. People perceive the increased amplitude of sound waves as a louder
sound. Conversely, if two waves of the same frequency but
half a wavelength out of phase combine, the two waves annihilate each other—the amplitude is zero, as in Figure 2. In
theory, two sound waves of the same pitch but half a wavelength out of phase should combine to produce silence. In
practice, it is difficult to achieve total cancellation, but this
demonstration makes it possible to verify that cancellation
does indeed occur.
Figure 1.
phase.
The result of adding two waves of the same frequency, in
Teaching of Psychology
one string around each index finger, then sticks those fingers
into his or her ears, letting the hanger dangle loosely. The
Tapper strikes the hanger with a pen. The Listener will hear
what sounds like church bells ringing in his or her ears, but a
nearby observer hears nothing more than a dull thud.
Sound waves are affected by the different media through
which they travel. In this case, sound waves traveling
through air dissipate much faster than waves traveling
through bones and string, so the Listener receives virtually all
of the tones and overtones that are produced when the
hanger is struck by the pen, whereas a nearby observer receives only the dissipated tones. Lowery (1997) described this
and other activities.
Figure 2. The result of adding two waves of the same frequency, out
of phase.
The equipment required for this demonstration is a stethoscope that has been dismantled and refitted with Y connectors and rubber hoses as in Figure 3; a 440-A tuning fork is
also required. The upper hose on the modified stethoscope is
1.25-ft long between the Y connectors, and the bottom hose
is 2.5 ft. The lengths of the hoses are related to the frequency
of the tuning fork and should be measured carefully.
The listener dons the modified stethoscope, putting the earpieces into both ears. The Tapper raps a 440-A tuning fork and
holds it close to (but not touching) the open end of the hose.
When the sound waves reach the first Y connector, roughly
half will enter the top hose and half the bottom hose (remember, the bottom hose is one full wave length, and the top hose is
half a wavelength). The sound waves traveling along the bottom hose will reach the second Y connector after completing
one full cycle—the waves will be starting the positive arch as
they enter the Y. The sound waves traveling along the top hose
will reach the second Y connector after completing half a cycle—the waves will be starting the negative arch as they enter
the Y. The two kinds of waves entering the Y look just like the
waves in Figure 2. The Listener hears a very soft sound because
many of the waves cancel as they meet at the Y.
If the Listener pinches one of the tubes, the volume of the
sound will increase! Most listeners will be surprised at the
counterintuitive increase in volume that results from cutting
off one of the hoses. When both hoses are open, sound cancellation occurs. When the Listener pinches one of the hoses,
the sound waves travel directly down the open hose with no
cancellation—that is why the sound is louder.
The phenomenon of cancellation has a practical application: A jackhammer operator wearing a set of earphones that
produce waves that cancel the jackhammer waves can greatly
reduce the damage done to his or her inner ears. A physics
text (Halliday, Resnick, & Walker, 1996) gave a rigorous exposition of the physics behind sound phenomena; a discussion aimed at readers with less technical background is also
available (Hewitt, 1998).
Conclusions
We have used these simple activities with learners from different disciplines and at different age levels. Although we have
done no formal study to evaluate the pedagogical effectiveness
Figure 3. Apparatus for sound cancellation demonstration.
Sound Traveling Through Different Media
The apparatus for this demonstration is a metal clothes
hanger suspended from two 20-in. lengths of string (exact
length is not important) as in Figure 4. The Listener wraps
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Figure 4. Apparatus for sound waves traveling through different media demonstration.
149
of these activities, students’ efforts on homework problems indicate that learning has indeed occurred—students use language correctly and explain concepts in their own words.
Perhaps most important, in course evaluations, students comment on how much they enjoyed the “toys” and that they had
learned so much because of the hands-on approach.
students have been briefly introduced to Piaget’s work. The
goal of this activity is to introduce students to these concepts
and to encourage a dialogue among university instructors and
students that explores appropriate instructional techniques.
Description
References
Goldstein, E. B. (1999). Sensation and perception (5th ed.). Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Halliday, D., Resnick, R., & Walker, J. (1996). Fundamentals of physics: Extended. New York: Wiley.
Hewitt, P. G. (1998). Conceptual physics (8th ed.). Glenview, IL:
Prentice Hall.
Lowery, L. (1997). The everyday science sourcebook. Palo Alto, CA:
Dale Seymour.
Note
Send correspondence to LaDawn Haws, Department of Mathematics and Statistics, California State University, Chico, CA
95929–0525. E-mail: lhaws@csuchico.edu.
Schema Theory: A New Twist Using
Duplo™ Models
Joe D. Nichols
School of Education
Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne
I describe a classroom demonstration for teaching and discussing
Piaget’s concepts of schemata, assimilation, accommodation, and
equilibration. One student (“teacher”) describes an asymmetrical
construction built from children’s Duplo™ blocks such that another
student (“learner”) can build an identical model. The teacher and
learner cannot see each other, and the learner may not speak. Following the classroom demonstration, students discuss the Piagetian
concepts in relation to the teacher’s and learner’s behaviors.
Piaget’s classic theoretical model describing how people
gather, organize, and adapt to new information from the environment is a standard in most current educational or developmental psychology courses and texts. Piaget’s (1937/1954)
theory suggested that some activities are quite simple for
adults and more complicated for children depending on their
current developmental level. As the thinking process slowly
changes from birth to maturity, Piaget (1983) identified four
factors that serve to influence cognitive development: biological maturation, activity, and social and equilibration experiences. Piaget’s (1937/1954, 1983) concepts of schemata,
assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration can be challenging ideas for undergraduate students. The following
classroom demonstration designed for undergraduates in educational or developmental psychology classes occurs after
150
Before class, I construct an asymmetrical structure using
25 to 30 components made of children’s Duplo™ blocks.
These blocks are in various shapes and colors of hard plastic, larger than LEGOs™, to facilitate every class member’s
view of the demonstration. I bring the construction in a
closed box and bring in a separate bag of 25 to 30 identical
components unassembled. Two student volunteers sit back
to back at desks in front of the class. One student (designated the teacher) receives the preassembled construction
and the other student (designated the learner) receives the
matching unassembled pieces. The task is for the teacher to
describe the model and give instructions so that the learner
can build a matching model. The learner is not allowed to
speak. The teacher must use verbal instructions only to
guide the construction of the model. Because the students
are seated back to back, the learner cannot see and the
teacher cannot see how well the learner is following the instructions. At its completion, the learner’s structure may resemble the model but the two can be quite different. After
this demonstration, students analyze how Piaget’s theory relates to this situation.
Observations
In the role of the teacher, few students describe the model
as a whole before beginning their instructions; thus denying
the learner an opportunity to conceptualize the model. The
lack of an advanced organizer or visual schema for the final
model forces the learner into a state of disequilibrium from
the onset. The learner must accommodate all incoming directions as new, rather than assimilating the teacher’s input
with an existing knowledge structure. Few teachers describe
the Duplo components by size, shape, or color because they
assume that the learner has previous experience or schemata
in place that will allow for the easy assimilation of new information. In addition, many learners assume that the model is a
symmetrical structure unless the teacher tells them that the
finished product will be an asymmetrical structure with unequal leg or tower sizes.
Most students start with the simplest portion of the structure, such as a tower, because it appears to be the easiest component to construct and then describe adjoining extensions of
the tower, therefore moving from the simplest form to the
more complex. Others will describe the model in layers as in
tiers or floors, again demonstrating their desire to move from
simple component pieces to a more complete complex structure. Some teachers describe each of the pieces (e.g., a blue
block with six bumps), and others begin by taking inventory of
their components and turning the structure 360º to determine
the best viewing angle before beginning their instruction.
Teaching of Psychology
In the description of the model, the teacher’s terminology
is critical. In one instance, a student used words such as “parallel,” “perpendicular,” and “flush against” to describe the relationship of two Duplo pieces. My students observed the
learner pause to reflect on the difference in meaning in these
concepts. They described this as a moment of
disequilibration in which the learner had to accommodate
rather than efficiently assimilate information into existing
schemata. As a result, the learner fell behind the teacher’s
pace of instructions and became disoriented.
An example of assimilation leading to a faulty conclusion
occurred on one occasion when one Duplo piece had an “eyeball” imprinted onto the side of the block and the teacher described a “crescent piece” (similar to a half moon Duplo
block) in her verbal directions. The learner’s familiarity with
Duplo led him to look for a crescent shaped piece that is often
found in Duplo sets rather than a crescent shaped decal imprinted on the side of a square block.
Educational psychology students typically focus their observations on the learner rather than teacher, but as future
educators, they should also attend to a teacher’s descriptions;
instructions; use of advanced organizers; and the techniques
to aid assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. This
demonstration also relates to Gestalt theory’s central concept
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. If learners
do not have a complete visual or advance representation of
the model, then their ability to gain information may be limited by descriptions focused on the component parts.
By not allowing the learner to ask any questions, this demonstration actually sets the stage for cognitive disequilibrium
to occur. Learners can become frustrated that the teacher’s
directions are unclear or that vocabulary is uncommon. They
can become bored by the slow pace of directions or agitated if
instructions are too fast. When learners assimilate information incorrectly, the error affects the structure exponentially,
as one piece of information is crucial for each component
that follows.
Effectiveness
Students enjoy the demonstration and make several appropriate connections to the teaching environment as a
whole; to Piaget’s classic theories; and to concepts such as advanced organizers, Gestalt theory, verbal dialogue, and pace
of instruction. Students also experience a practice they
should use in the future when they become teachers: converting theoretical concepts into real-world applications to
promote intellectual engagement and motivation for learning. The real key is that students come to realize that instruction and learning are interactive activities involving both the
teacher and learner.
lieved was necessary for learning to occur. Others (Burch,
1999; Grant, 1995; Hill, 2000) also recognized the importance of reflective practice as a means to understanding not
only behavior but also cognitive development in the classroom. This self-reflective thought encourages a deeper
self-understanding, which is an impetus to self-confidence,
both of which are important traits for novice and seasoned
teachers to understand and develop throughout their professional careers (Burch, 1999).
In conclusion, the classroom activity described in this article allows students to experience disequilibrium in a safe atmosphere and to explore Piaget’s concepts of schemata,
assimilation, and accommodation in a practical setting. At
the same time, it encourages the discussion of several additional important concepts that preservice and even current
teachers should experience. As university instructors, we
need to continually strive to develop classroom demonstrations and models that effectively assist our students to bridge
the gap between theory and practice.
References
Burch, C. (1999). When students (who are preservice teachers)
don’t want to engage. Journal of Teacher Education, 50, 165–172.
Grant, G. (1995). Interpreting text as pedagogy and pedagogy as
text. Teachers and Training: Theory and Practice, 1, 87–100.
Hill, L. (2000). What does it take to change minds? Intellectual development of preservice teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 51,
50–62.
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child (M. Cook,
Trans.). New York: Basic. (Original work published 1937)
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of
child psychology (4th ed., pp. 117–120). New York: Wiley.
Notes
1. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Teaching
Educational Psychology Symposium annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA,
April 2000.
2. Send correspondence to Joe D. Nichols, School of Education, Indiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Wayne,
IN 46805; e-mail: nicholsj@ipfw.edu.
Using Student Scholarship to Develop
Student Research and Writing Skills
Mark E. Ware
Amy S. Badura
Creighton University
Conclusions
Stephen F. Davis
Emporia State University
This exercise in the discovery and application of Piaget’s
cognitive theory encourages a reflective attitude in students
who see and experience the disequilibrium that Piaget beVol. 29, No. 2, 2002
We illustrate the use of psychology student publications for teaching (a) principles in experimental methodology, (b) the use and in151
terpretation of statistical tests, and (c) the quality and format of
American Psychological Association (APA) writing style. We
present several exercises for each of these topical areas using published examples of student scholarship as teaching tools. We also
identify published instances of errors in design, statistical use, and
APA style. We contend that using students’ scholarly publications
can promote and reinforce development of research and writing
skills that combine active participation and critical thinking.
Several issues confronted participants at the 1991 National Conference for Enhancing the Quality of Undergraduate Education in Psychology (McGovern, 1993). Two of the
major themes for improving education emphasized increasing
students’ active participation in learning (Mathie et al.,
1993) and critical thinking skills (Halpern et al., 1993). Since
then, several authors have discussed strategies for improving
active learning and critical thinking (Halonen, 1995;
Henderson, 1995; Hubbard & Ritchie, 1995; Perry, Huss,
McAuliff, & Galas, 1996; Seegmiller, 1995; Wade, 1995).
Yet another strategy combining active participation and critical thinking consists of in-class exercises using published student scholarship.
Several educators have reported on the value of professional literature as a teaching device. Suter and Frank (1986)
used published literature to illustrate core concepts to students. Hubbard and Ritchie (1995) stimulated critical thinking through the assessment of scholarly work, and Carkenord
(1994) motivated students through the reading of professional literature. At a more fundamental level, Pennington
(1992) had students read an abstract or parts of a method
section to understand concepts such as independent and dependent variables.
Although the use of published articles as teaching tools in
the classroom is not new, this article’s emphasis on the value
of student publications is relatively uncommon. One of the
few examples presenting this technique is a research methods
text (Smith & Davis, 2001). A review of student journals indicates a high degree of similarity between student and professional publications in terms of variety of topics, variables,
and statistical analyses. However, student research reports
tend to be shorter, more simplistic, and easier to comprehend
than traditional professional articles. All these benefits allow
educators to illustrate core concepts directly and efficiently.
In addition to providing stimuli for engaging class exercises,
published student articles also meet undergraduates’ desires
for models of excellent student work to guide them in developing new skills. Therefore, student literature meets instructors’ needs to engage students in active learning and critical
thinking and, at the same time, meets students’ needs to have
instructors provide clear examples of outstanding undergraduate performance.
Student articles can be effective teaching aids for a variety
of research and writing skills. Published student articles are
readily available as adjuncts to traditional reading assignments. Educators have established several journals devoted to
the publication of undergraduate student research, such as the
Journal of Psychological Inquiry (JPI), Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research (PCJUR), and The Journal of Psychology and
the Behavioral Sciences (JPBS). In this article, we illustrate how
instructors can use published student scholarship for teaching
principles of experimental methodology, the use and interpre152
tation of statistical tests, and the quality and format of
American Pyschological Association (APA) writing style.
Exercises
Using articles appearing in the student journals listed previously, we developed exercises for each of three types of
courses: research methods; statistics; and topical, content-based psychology courses. Instructors can use some exercises, particularly those involving writing assignments, for
more than one course. Students can complete each of the exercises in this article within 10 to 25 min, making them ideal
for use throughout the semester.
Research Methods or Experimental Psychology
An instructor can conduct this exercise when students are
learning the fundamentals of research including independent, dependent, and extraneous variables. The instructor can
assign an article as required reading one class period before
conducting the exercise or require students to read the article
during class; students need read only the introduction and
method sections. Independently or in small groups, students
can identify manipulated as well as measured variables. A
group discussion about the identified variables would follow.
We used Sheets (1999) to illustrate identification of independent variables (extraverted or introverted behavior; sex
of participant), dependent variables (several Likert-type
scales), control procedures (identical stimuli across conditions), and experimental design (2 × 2 ANOVA).
Statistics
For statistics, we found Bleeker, Evans, Fisher, and
Miller’s (1998) article particularly helpful. We had students
(a) determine one of the primary statistical tests (3 × 2
ANOVA), (b) determine the appropriate number of degrees
of freedom, and (c) compare the calculated statistic with the
appropriate tabled statistic. With the information available
in Bleeker et al. (1998), students can confirm the accuracy of
the reported ANOVA degrees of freedom and the decision to
reject the null hypothesis.
Students may also discover that reviewers and editors
failed to find mistakes in reported results. Verbeck (1996)
contained one error in the degrees of freedom because one
student’s data were excluded. Recognizing such errors can inform students about the importance of developing their own
critical thinking and copyediting skills as well as educating
them about degrees of freedom.
Instructors can also use Bleeker et al. (1998) to help understand another difficult concept: interaction. Instructors
can ask students to identify, evaluate, and explain the main
effects and interaction findings for the self-esteem two-factor
ANOVA. Neither main effect was significant; however, the
interaction between Gender × Group Participation was significant. Examining Figure 1 (Bleeker et al., 1998, p. 36),
which showed the mean self-esteem scores, may help students understand the meaning of an interaction, as can an
Teaching of Psychology
examination of the discussion section that presented the statistical findings concretely.
Topical Courses with Writing Assignments
When students complain about difficulty in writing psychology manuscripts, they usually complain about writing fundamentals and about APA format. Other educators have
described strategies for improving the quality of student’s literature reviews (Froese, Gantz, & Henry, 1998) and experimental reports (Ault, 1991; Dunn, 1996, 1999; Peden, 1994;
Sternberg, 2000). Web sites list common violations in writing
style among undergraduates (e.g., http://puffin.creighton.
edu/psy/journal/freqerr.html) and offer self-tests that incorporate many of the more common errors in style and language
(e.g., http://www.lemoyne.edu/OTRP/otrpresources/otrp_
sciwriting.html). Dunn et al. (2001) offered a checklist of common formatting errors for manuscripts submitted to the
PCJUR.
Expression of ideas. This exercise focuses on avoiding
students’ common grammatical errors. Instructors can direct
students to examine published articles for examples of proper
use of difficult grammatical rules. For example, students often
have particular difficulty grasping the difference between active and passive voice. APA style experts generally prefer active voice. Peluso (2000) appropriately used active voice
throughout the introduction, clearly identifying the actors in
the sentence as the researchers. Students can also examine
Peluso’s method section to identify examples of acceptable
use of passive voice when the focus of the sentence is “on the
object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor”
(APA, 2001, pp. 41–42).
Mechanics of format: Title and abstract. Two simple
in-class exercises involve asking students to check for APA
format by counting the number of words in an article’s title
and its abstract. According to the Publication Manual (APA,
2001), title length should be 10 to 12 words, and abstract
length of a review article should be from 75 to 100 words.
West and Berning’s (1999) JPBS article closely approximated
both criteria.
Mechanics of format: References. In this exercise, instructors can direct students to count the number of times
each item in the references is cited in the article. Although
the exercise has nothing to do with the frequency with which
authors cite items, students can determine whether the article
conforms to the APA requirement that all references cited in
the text should appear in the reference list and vice versa.
West and Berning (1999) cited all reference list items in the
article.
In another, more advanced APA-format exercise, instructors can give groups of students an article and direct
them to produce the manuscript version for various sections, such as the title or the references. Many students are
surprised at the differences between the published and
manuscript versions.
With respect to referencing, students seem to have great
difficulty mastering the proper use of “et al.” and page numVol. 29, No. 2, 2002
bers when referencing in the text. Students can examine the
West and Berning (1999) article and discover on the first
page an example of a proper use of “et al.” after all the authors
have been cited once. Students can also note that page numbers were used with direct quotes.
On the second page, students will find a correct citation
of “Zametkin et al. (1990)” denoting the first reference to
that work in the article. Instructors can use this example to
illustrate the proper use of et al. when a published work has
six or more authors. However, the six or more author rule
was violated on the third page of the article, in which West
and Berning (1999) incorrectly cited “(Rounsaville, Anton,
Carroll, Budde, Prusoff et al., 1991)” as well as omitted the
comma that belongs between the last author’s name and et
al. This erroneous citation demonstrates the difficult nature
of mastering complicated citation rules and instructs students to identify and avoid format pitfalls before they complete major writing assignments. Finally, this example also
illustrates that editors, reviewers, and copyeditors can overlook such errors.
Conclusions
The exercises and specific student reports outlined in this
article are only a sample of the possible exercises and published
student work available to educators. Instructors can purchase
individual journals for classroom use, obtain copyright permission very inexpensively for use of published articles from JPI
and PCJUR, or encourage students to view past issues of JPBS
online. Further information about student research publications is readily available at Web sites for the three journals discussed in this article (JPI, http://puffin.creighton.edu
/psy/journal/JPIhome.html; PCJUR, http://www.mercyhurst.
edu/UPD/UPDdescriptions.htm#PsiChi; JPBS, http://alpha.
fdu.edu/psychweb/JPBS. htm). Additionally, a Society for the
Teaching of Psychology Web site (http://www.lemoyne.edu/
OTRP/otrpresources/otrp_undergrad.html) contains information about those and other publication opportunities for
undergraduate students.
As a final encouragement for educators to include some of
the exercises described in their research methods, statistics,
or content-based courses, we summarize some of our students’ observations about these exercises. Students reported
that they learned how to apply experimental concepts and
statistics to research, format statistical analyses in written
text, and improve their writing style. In summary our experience suggests that students can learn concepts, principles,
and writing style from student-generated research. Future research should formally and systematically investigate the
pedagogical opportunities that these and similar exercises offer for developing student research and writing skills.
References
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153
Bleeker, M. M., Evans, S. C., Fisher, M. N., & Miller, K. A. (1998).
The effects of extracurricular activities on self-esteem, academic
achievement, and aggression in college students. Psi Chi Journal of
Undergraduate Research, 3, 34–38.
Carkenord, D. M. (1994). Motivating students to read journal articles. Teaching of Psychology, 21, 162–164.
Dunn, D. S. (1996). Collaborative writing in a statistics and research
methods course. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 38–40
Dunn, D. S. (1999). The practical researcher: A student guide to conducting psychological research. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Dunn, J., Ford, K., Rewey, K. L., Juve, J. A., Weise, A., & Davis, S. F.
(2001). A modified presubmission checklist. Psi Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 6, 142–144.
Froese, A. D., Gantz, B. S., & Henry, A. L. (1998). Teaching students to write literature reviews: A meta-analytic model. Teaching
of Psychology, 25, 102–105.
Halonen, J. S. (1995). Demystifying critical thinking. Teaching of
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(1993). Targeting outcomes: Covering your assessment concerns
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Hubbard, R. W., & Ritchie, K. L. (1995). The human subjects review procedure: An exercise in critical thinking for undergraduate
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Mathie, V. A., Beins, B., Benjamin, L. T., Jr., Ewing, M. M., Hall, C.
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Peden, B. F. (1994). Do inexperienced and experienced writers differentially evaluate Ault’s (1991) “What Goes Where” technique?
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Peluso, E. A. (2000). Skilled motor performance as a function of
types of mental imagery. Journal of Psychological Inquiry, 5, 11–14.
Pennington, H. (1992). Excerpts from journal articles as teaching
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Perry, N. W., Huss, M. T., McAuliff, B. D., & Galas, J. M. (1996). An
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introduction to conducting research in psychology (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.). (2000). Guide to publishing in psychology journals. Boston: Cambridge University Press.
Suter, W. N., & Frank, P. (1986). Using scholarly journals in undergraduate experimental methodology courses. Teaching of Psychology, 13, 219–221.
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154
West, C., & Berning, J. (1999). Self-medication with sucrose in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of Psychology and
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Notes
1. We thank Randolph A. Smith and four anonymous reviewers for
their original ideas and important contributions to this article.
2. Send correspondence to Mark E. Ware, Department of Psychology, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178; e-mail: meware@
creighton.edu.
Coverage of Industrial/Organizational
Psychology in Introductory Psychology
Textbooks: An Update
Douglas C. Maynard
Karen L. Geberth
Todd A. Joseph
State University of New York at New Paltz
Carlson and Millard (1984) found that Introductory Psychology
textbooks provided limited if any coverage of industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology. We examined current Introductory Psychology textbooks (N = 54) for the presence of a section, appendix,
or chapter on I/O psychology. We also coded textbooks for the
number of pages containing I/O content. Results were similar to
those found previously; only about one fourth of textbooks contained an overview of the field in some form. Full-length textbooks
were more likely than brief versions to contain an I/O section, appendix, or chapter. On average, less than 2% of the total number of
textbook pages contained work-related concepts or examples; this
percentage was similar for full-length and brief textbooks. We justify the importance of increased coverage of I/O psychology in future text editions.
Student exposure to industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology in Introductory Psychology courses would be beneficial for several reasons. First, because more psychology
departments are offering I/O courses (Perlman & McCann,
1999), early exposure to the field would help students make
more informed decisions about taking an I/O course. Second,
instructors can use I/O psychology examples to demonstrate
how psychologists apply core psychological concepts (e.g.,
motivation) to real-world problems. Third, psychology undergraduates are more likely to find employment in business
and management than any other occupational area (“A Look
at Recent Baccalaureates in Psychology,” 2000). Fourth, the
general public lacks awareness of the field of I/O psychology
(Gasser et al., 1998); student exposure to I/O in a course as
popular as Introductory Psychology would help to ameliorate
this problem.
Textbook coverage of I/O psychology, which is outside of
the expertise of most instructors, may determine the likelihood that these instructors discuss the field during class time.
Carlson and Millard (1984) conducted a content analysis of
Teaching of Psychology
Introductory Psychology texts and found that only one fourth
of these texts included a section on I/O psychology; another
fourth failed to include any material directly related to the
field.
Several changes have taken place in the Introductory
Psychology textbook market since then (Griggs, Jackson,
Christopher, & Marek, 1999). For example, fewer textbooks exist, but brief versions of full-length texts are now
available. Texts generally feature fewer chapters, partly because fewer topics receive two-chapter coverage. However,
the number of pages per text has increased sharply. These
changes may have allowed authors to devote more text
space to less traditional topics such as I/O psychology
(Griggs et al., 1999). Thus, a reexamination of I/O psychology coverage in Introductory Psychology textbooks seems
appropriate. We examined I/O psychology content in current texts and also compared the coverage of I/O psychology in full-length versus brief versions.
Method
Jackson, Griggs, Koenig, Christopher, and Marek (2000)
identified 57 Introductory Psychology textbooks published
between 1997 and 2000. We did not code 4 textbooks
(Bourne & Russo, 1998; Dworetzky, 1997; Fernald, 1997;
Wallace & Goldstein, 1997) because the publishers of these
textbooks indicated that there were no plans to publish new
editions. We coded each of the remaining 53 textbooks (37
full-length and 16 brief) plus 1 new full-length textbook
(Passer & Smith, 2001) for the presence of an I/O section,
chapter, or appendix by carefully scanning the table of contents. Six of the full-length textbooks and 2 of the brief textbooks we coded were new editions with a 2001 copyright.
We also identified the total number of pages that contained
work-related content by searching textbook indexes for entries related to I/O psychology, using a list of 16 work-related
terms (see Table 1). We counted any index entry that matched
the term or had the term as its root (e.g., job enrichment for the
term job). We then arrived at a percentage of pages with I/O
content by dividing by the total number of pages. When it was
not clear whether an index entry actually referred to I/O content, we checked the actual page or pages indexed. Two separate researchers coded each textbook. We resolved any
discrepancies via joint examination of the textbook.
Results
Only 2 texts contained a full chapter on I/O psychology
(3.8%), and for 1 of these texts (Huffman, Vernoy, &
Vernoy, 2000), the chapter was not part of the bound text
and had to be requested by the instructor as a supplement. At
least 1 text (Baron, 2001) had an I/O psychology chapter in
the previous edition but not in the current one. Fourteen
texts (25.9%) contained some overview of the field of I/O, either as a chapter, appendix, or section; this percentage is almost identical to the 25% found by Carlson and Millard
(1984). References of texts with substantial coverage of I/O
psychology appear in the Appendix with the type of coverage
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Table 1. Terms Used in
Searching Textbook Indexes
Business
Burnout
Conflicta
Discriminationa
Employee/employer
Industrial
Job/job performance
Leadership
Management
Motivationa
Organizations/organizational
Personnel
Stressa
Testinga
Vocation/vocational
Work/workplace
a
Work related.
(section, appendix, or chapter) and the number of pages in
parentheses following the reference.
Texts varied in the percentage of pages that included at
least some I/O content, from 0% to 5.7% (M = 1.6%, Mdn =
1.4%). By comparison, Carlson and Millard (1984) found an
average percentage of 0.4%. Eight textbooks (14.8%) contained no work-related concepts or mentioned I/O psychology only briefly in the introductory chapter.
A comparison of full-length and brief versions reveals
that full-length versions were more likely to contain a chapter, appendix, or section on I/O (12 of 38, 31.6%) than
brief versions (2 of 16, 12.5%). However, the median percentage of pages containing at least some I/O material was
similar for full-length and brief versions (1.4% and 1.3%, respectively).
Discussion
Based on the results of this content analysis, it appears that
the amount of coverage of I/O psychology in Introductory
Psychology textbooks has changed little over the past two decades (cf. Carlson & Millard, 1984). Both studies reveal that
only one fourth of the textbooks contained an overview of
the field of I/O psychology. Many of the current textbooks
that do offer extensive coverage of I/O psychology
marginalize the material by placing it in an appendix or offering it separately from the text.
On the positive side, only three current textbooks (5.7%)
failed to mention I/O psychology at all, as compared to 25%
found by Carlson and Millard (1984). In addition, we found a
slightly higher percentage of textbook pages with I/O related
content than in the previous study (M = 1.6 vs. M = 0.4).
However, the meaning of this increase is not clear because we
do not know how many search terms Carlson and Millard
(1984) actually used in searching the textbook indexes (they
mentioned eight as examples). Furthermore, both studies
overestimated the actual percentage of I/O coverage because
many index entries refer to pages in the text that are only partially devoted to I/O content (e.g., one paragraph).
155
Introductory Psychology instructors can expose students
to I/O psychology by adopting 1 of the 14 texts listed in the
Appendix that do provide substantial coverage of I/O psychology. Instructors who have adopted different texts can invite faculty trained in I/O psychology to present a guest
lecture. Additionally, instructors can use An Instructor’s
Guide for Introducing Industrial-Organizational Psychology
(Bachiochi et al., 1999), a resource developed by the Education and Training Committee of the Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) for instructors with
relatively little exposure to the field (Bachiochi et al., 1999;
Bachiochi & Major, 1999). The Guide consists of
ready-to-present modules that are available on the Internet
in PowerPoint® format, along with suggestions for exercises,
discussions, supplemental readings, and videotapes.
Despite these alternatives, I/O psychology will not receive consistent attention in Introductory Psychology
courses until more authors include sections or chapters in
their texts. Increased coverage of I/O psychology is warranted for several reasons. As mentioned earlier, exposure
to I/O psychology concepts could increase public awareness
of the field and inform student course registration decisions.
Additionally, the field has experienced rapid growth in the
last two decades (Smither, 1998). The employment outlook
for those with graduate degrees in I/O psychology is quite
promising, with varied opportunities in both applied and academic settings (Burnfield & Medsker, 1999; Schultz &
Schultz, 1998). Texts should reflect the fact that I/O psychology is increasingly important and that individuals with
advanced training in the area are currently in demand.
Finally, because most adults spend about one third of their
waking hours at work (Aamodt, 1999), Introductory Psychology texts should illustrate how psychologists apply scientific knowledge to real-world problems in an effort to
improve productivity and maximize the quality of the work
experience. With increased coverage, students will better
appreciate the diversity of psychology and its relevance to
everyday life.
References
Aamodt, M. G. (1999). Applied industrial/organizational psychology
(3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Bachiochi, P. D., Day, D., Kraiger, K., Lowenberg, G., Rentsch, J., &
Stanton, J. (1999). An instructor’s guide for introducing industrial-organizational psychology. Retrieved March 30, 2001, from http://
www.siop.org/Instruct/InGuide.htm
Bachiochi, P. D., & Major, D. (1999). Spreading the good word: Introducing I-O in introductory psychology. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 37, 108–110.
Baron, R. A. (2001). Psychology (5th ed.). Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Bourne, L. E., Jr., & Russo, N. F. (1998). Psychology: Behavior in context. New York: Norton.
Burnfield, J. L., & Medsker, G. J. (1999). Income and employment of
SIOP members in 1997. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist,
36(4), 19–30.
Carlson, S., & Millard, R. J. (1984). The treatment of industrial/organizational psychology in introductory psychology textbooks.
Teaching of Psychology, 11, 243–244.
Dworetzky, J. P. (1997). Psychology (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
156
Fernald, L. D. (1997). Psychology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Gasser, M., Whitsett, D., Mosley, N., Sullivan, K., Rogers, T., &
Tan, R. (1998). I-O psychology: What’s your line? The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 35(4), 120–126.
Griggs, R. A., Jackson, S. L., Christopher, A. N., & Marek, P. (1999).
Introductory psychology textbooks: An objective analysis and update. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 182–189.
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (2000). Psychology in action
(5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Jackson, S. L., Griggs, R. A., Koenig, C. S., Christopher, A. N., &
Marek, P. (2000). A compendium of introductory psychology texts:
1997–2000. Retrieved March 30, 2001, from http://www.
lemoyne.edu/OTRP/introtexts.html
A look at recent baccalaureates in psychology. (2000, January). APA
Monitor, 31, 13.
Passer, M. W., & Smith, R. E. (2001). Psychology: Frontiers and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Perlman, B., & McCann, L. I. (1999) The most frequently listed
courses in the undergraduate psychology curriculum. Teaching of
Psychology, 26, 177–182.
Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (1998). Psychology and work today
(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Smither, R. D. (1998). The psychology of work and human performance
(3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Wallace, P. M., & Goldstein, J. H. (1997). An introduction to psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Appendix
Introductory Psychology Texts With Significant
Coverage of Industrial/Organizational (I/O)
Psychology
Full-Length Texts
Coon, D. (2001). Introduction to psychology: Exploration and application (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (section, 17 pages)
Davis, S. F., & Palladino, J. J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (chapter, 27 pages)
Gerow, J., & Bordens, K. (2000). Psychology: An introduction (6th
ed.). Carrollton, TX: Alliance. (section, 16 pages)
Halonen, J. S., & Santrock, J. W. (1999). Psychology: Contexts of behavior (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (section, 14 pages)
Hockenbury, D. H., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2000). Psychology (2nd
ed.). New York: Worth. (Appendix, 17 pages)
Huffman, K., Vernoy, M., & Vernoy, J. (2000). Psychology in action
(5th ed.). New York: Wiley. (chapter, 37 pages)
Lahey, B. B. (2001). Psychology: An introduction (7th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill. (section, 20 pages)
Lefton, L. A. (2000). Psychology (7th ed.). Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon. (section, 26 pages)
Morris, C. G., & Maisto, A. A. (1999). Psychology: An introduction (10th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (Appendix, 24 pages)
Sdorow, L. N. (1998). Psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
(Appendix, 17 pages)
Smith, B. D. (1998). Psychology: Science & understanding. New York:
McGraw-Hill. (section, 15 pages)
Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology: Themes and variations (5th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (Appendix, 21 pages)
Brief Texts
Coon, D. (2000). Essentials of psychology: Exploration and application
(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (Appendix, 15 pages)
Teaching of Psychology
Rathus, S. A. (2000). Psychology: The core. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt College. (section, 18 pages)
Notes
1. We thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments
on an earlier version of this article.
2. Send correspondence to Douglas C. Maynard, Department of
Psychology, SUNY New Paltz, 75 South Manheim Boulevard,
Suite 6, New Paltz, NY 12477–2440; e-mail: maynardd@
newpaltz.edu.
of the programs to the communities served (Hardy &
Schaen, 2000; Raupp & Cohen, 1992).
This program is a university–community partnership in
which college students obtained field work experience as
auxiliary math teachers in a public elementary school. The
poor showing of U.S. students in cross-cultural comparisons
of mathematics achievement (e.g., National Research Council, 1989; Stevenson, Lee, & Stigler, 1986) fostered my interest in developing a service-learning course that focused on
teaching mathematics. I assessed this program from the point
of view of the major stakeholders.1
Course Design and Implementation
Teaching Psychology in the Context
of a University–Community
Partnership
Kathy Pezdek
Claremont Graduate University and Pomona College
In this article I describe and assess a service-learning project in
which college students, in the context of a psychology course, served
as auxiliary math teachers in a public elementary school. They met
with an assigned group of students 3 hr per week for a semester.
The college students studied and then applied principles from a
broad spectrum of psychology including cognitive, developmental,
and educational psychology. This experience in applying psychology outside the classroom both enhanced their appreciation of psychology and fulfilled their desire for community service. The
elementary school students benefited as well; mean math ability increased over the course of the semester.
Never doubt that a small group of committed people
can change the world. Indeed, it’s the only thing that
ever has.
—Margaret Mead (1964, p. 49)
After 25 years as a psychology professor, I wanted to try
something new. Recognizing that undergraduate students
need to see applications of psychology to maintain their interest in the discipline, I developed a service-learning course in
which students served as auxiliary math teachers in a public
elementary school.
Service learning in higher education dates back to the
1920s when civic education was considered a key factor in
promoting a democratic society (Carver, 1997). Theoretically, the roots of service learning in this country are
grounded in Dewey’s (1938) notion of experiential learning—the idea that there should be a link between students’
education and their lives outside of school. Although this educational philosophy has not always been popular, the number of service-learning college courses has increased in the
last decade (Stukas, Clary, & Snyder, 1999; Underwood,
Welsh, Gauvain, & Duffy, 2000). The success of service-learning courses has been documented both in terms of
college student satisfaction (Chapdelaine & Chapman, 1999;
Clements, 1995; Hardy & Schaen, 2000) and the usefulness
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
I developed a four-unit undergraduate course, “Field
Work in Applied Psychology: Teaching Mathematics.” Fifteen students (maximum enrollment for a field work course)
enrolled. Nine students were psychology majors; most were
second-year students.
Each college student served as an auxiliary math teacher
for a group of 10 or fewer fourth-, fifth-, or sixth-grade students. Each college student maintained the same math group
throughout the semester and met with his or her math group
twice a week for 90 min per session. This math instruction
supplemented the regular math instruction by the classroom
teachers. To promote the autonomy of the college student
teachers, they met their math groups outside the regular
classrooms.
Students maintained field notes for each session taught
and e-mailed them to me after each session. Students organized field notes around the following four subheadings:
1. What topic did you present?
2. What specific teaching strategies did you attempt?
3. How effective were the strategies you attempted to implement?
4. Notable insights. (What did you learn about your students, the teaching of mathematics, or yourself?)
The classroom component of the course focused on the
psychology literature on teaching and learning mathematics.
Readings came from cognitive psychology, developmental
psychology, and educational psychology. Principal texts for
the course were The Learning Gap (Stevenson & Stigler,
1992) and Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics
(Ma, 1999). We also spent several class sessions discussing
the videotapes of sample eighth-grade math classes from the
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (National Center for Education Statistics, 1996).
I required students to conduct an empirical research project on some aspect of teaching mathematics. This assignment gave them experience conceptualizing and conducting
research in a specific applied setting. Ideas for research projects came from assigned readings, class discussions, and is1
The Evaluation Thesaurus (Scriven, 1991) defines stakeholder as,
“One who has substantial ego, credibility, power, futures, or other
capital invested in the program, and thus can be held to be to some
degree at risk with it” (p. 334).
157
sues that occurred to the college students in teaching their
math groups.
Structure and Substance of the Math Instruction
Superordinate goals for the elementary school students
were to increase their mathematical fluency with basic skills
that generalize to real-world problem solving and to enhance
their appreciation of the importance of mathematics. To
achieve these goals, I first provided the college students with
the school district’s upper grade curriculum goals. During initial sessions with their math groups, college students assessed
the competency of their students in terms of these various
goals. They then prioritized topics to include in subsequent
lesson plans. They met regularly with their supervising classroom teachers for input regarding appropriate math topics to
consider.
Weekly meetings of the college class focused on pedagogical techniques and the psychological research from which
they were derived. The two most frequently discussed pedagogical techniques had been identified as best practices from
cross-cultural research on math instruction (Stigler, Lee, &
Stevenson, 1987). I encouraged the college math teachers to
employ a problem-based approach to teaching (e.g., Stigler &
Stevenson, 1991); every lesson was to be motivated by a specific real-world problem. As part of the problem-based approach, the college students used the Exemplars program
(www.exemplars.com). This program includes a large corpus
of teacher-developed and teacher-tested math problems on a
wide range of topics. Based on the second pedagogical technique, I encouraged the college students to focus on teaching
the conceptual process by which solutions are reached rather
than simply whether a correct answer is obtained.
frustrating than teaching a traditional course, it was also
more rewarding. I liked the changes that I observed in the
college students, and it was exciting to watch the change in
the elementary school students’ enthusiasm for math. Students’ comments in class as well as their field notes revealed
that, over the semester, most became more respectful of the
difficult job that teachers face, less externalizing of the problems in schools, more sensitive to the needs of school-age
children, and more aware of the need for research on classroom learning. Four of the 15 students in the class made arrangements to continue working with their math group as
volunteers the following year.
Goals of the College Students and Results
At the end of the course, I asked the college students to
specify their top three personal reasons for enrolling in this
course and to indicate, on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (goal
not satisfied) to 5 (goal satisfied), the fulfillment rating for each.
The most frequently mentioned goal for taking this class is best
expressed in a student’s statement that, “I really love working
with children, so I hoped to form strong relationships with all of
my students. I wanted to feel like I was having some impact on
their lives.” For the 7 students who expressed this goal, the
mean fulfillment rating was 4.57 (SD = .49).
The second most frequently mentioned goal was to explore teaching as a possible career choice. For the 6 students
who expressed this goal, the mean fulfillment rating was 4.67
(SD = .47).
The third most frequently mentioned goal is reflected in
the statement, “I am interested in a change from the intellectual/abstract/classroom basis of learning predominant among
college courses.” For the 3 students who expressed this goal,
the mean fulfillment rating was 5.00 (SD = 0).
Obtaining Buy-In2 From the Participating School
Goals of the Principal and Teachers and Results
The school selected for this program is two blocks from
the Claremont Colleges. I met with the principal and the
five participating teachers several times prior to beginning
the program. The program was optional for the teachers; all
chose to participate. Although each teacher welcomed the
program enthusiastically, much time was necessary to ensure the teachers’ cooperation with the goals and structure
of the program.
Program Goals of the Major Stakeholders
and Results
Goals of the Professor and Results
I developed this program to energize my teaching, and this
goal was more than satisfied. Although setting up and running this program was more effortful, time consuming, and
2
The term buy-in is a common concept in the program evaluation
literature. It refers to the process of obtaining the cooperation of the
major stakeholder.
158
The principal and teachers welcomed this program because they wanted an intervention that increased their students’ math ability. Through this program, every upper grade
student in the school received an extra 3 hr of math instruction each week of the semester, in a group of 10 or fewer students. Fourteen students randomly selected from the
program were interviewed after the program to assess their
perceptions. The modal comments were that the program increased their confidence in math and they found math more
enjoyable.
To assess the effectiveness of the program in terms of the
grade-school students’ math achievement, we compared
performance on the math subtests of the Stanford 9 standardized test in April of the year in which this intervention
program was implemented with performance of the same
students on the same subtests the previous year. Because
Stanford 9 scores are presented as percentile ranks, without
an enhanced instructional intervention, students typically
stay at the same percentile rank from year to year. For the
students in our program, the mean improvements were 5%
for fourth graders, 12% for fifth graders, and 13% for sixth
graders.
Teaching of Psychology
Conclusions
For both the professor and the college students, this course
was more demanding and time consuming than a typical college course. However, the rewards were numerous. It was
gratifying for the college students to watch the metamorphosis of their students from math underachievers to competent
and enthusiastic students of math. Although it is not possible
to draw a causal link between this service-learning program
and the improvement in math scores of the elementary
school students over the course of the semester, the improvements were applauded by the principal and teachers. This
success served to enhance the college students’ appreciation
of psychology by seeing psychological principles effectively
applied. For me, developing this university–community partnership for teaching psychology was far more engaging than
traditional classroom teaching.
Similar opportunities could be developed for teaching reading, science, or other academic disciplines. Within psychology
there is a rich research literature on the principles underlying
teaching and learning within each of these academic domains.
References
Carver, J. (1997). Theoretical underpinnings of service-learning.
Theory into Practice, 36, 143–149.
Chapdelaine, A., & Chapman, B. L. (1999). Using community-based research projects to teach research methods. Teaching
of Psychology, 26, 101–105.
Clements, A. D. (1995). Experiential-learning activities in undergraduate developmental psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 22,
115–118.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: McMillan.
Hardy, M. S., & Schaen, E. B. (2000). Integrating the classroom and
community service: Everyone benefits. Teaching of Psychology, 27,
47–49.
Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002
Ma, L. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Mead, M. (1964). Continuities in cultural evolution. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). Pursuing excellence:
Initial findings from the Third International Mathematics and Science
Study. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
National Research Council. (1989). Everybody counts: A report to the
nation on the future of mathematics education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Raupp, C. D., & Cohen, D. C. (1992). “A thousand points of light”
illuminate the psychology curriculum: Volunteering as a learning
experience. Teaching of Psychology, 19, 25–30.
Scriven, M. (1991). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed.). London: Sage.
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S.-Y., & Stigler, J. W. (1986). Mathematics
achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children. Science, 231, 693–699.
Stevenson, H. W., & Stigler, J. W. (1992). The learning gap. New
York: Simon & Schuster.
Stigler, J. W., Lee, S.-Y., & Stevenson, H. W. (1987). Mathematics
classrooms in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States. Child Development, 58, 1272–1285.
Stigler, J. W., & Stevenson, H. W. (1991, Spring). How Asian teachers polish each lesson to perfection. American Educator, 12–47.
Stukas, A. A., Jr., Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). Service-learning:
Who benefits and why (Social Policy Report Vol. 13, No. 4). Ann
Arbor, MI: Society for Research in Child Development.
Underwood, C., Welsh, M., Gauvain, M., & Duffy, S. (2000, November). Learning at the edges: Challenges to the sustainability of
service-learning in higher education. Journal of Language and
Learning Across the Disciplines, 4, 7–26.
Note
Send correspondence and requests for the complete syllabus and
reading list to Kathy Pezdek, Department of Psychology, Claremont
Graduate University, Claremont, CA 91711; e-mail: Kathy.
Pezdek@cgu.edu.
159