THE OBSTACLES OF IMPLEMENTING CRIME
PREVENTION POLICIES AND REDUCING RACIAL INEQUALITY
Roger J. Chin
School of Social Science, Policy & Evaluation
Abstract
The objective of this research was to examine the
paradox between reducing crime rates and racial inequality in
community policing. The implementation of the Stop-andFrisk policy by the New York City Police Department (NYPD)
has been a contentious policing initiative, causing unease
between the police department and the public they are sworn
to protect. The objective of the Stop-and-Frisk policy is to
stop, question, and frisk people in order to take a proactive
approach to preventing crimes. Despite the noble intentions
of being more proactive, this policy has tended to alienate
minorities, particularly African-American and Hispanic males.
This study differs from previous research in that it
examined whether police officers frisked an individual during
stops from 2003 through 2012. To the author’s knowledge,
this is one of the largest studies of the Stop-and-Frisk policy
to date. Through the use of logistic and probit regression
analysis, this research will examine if the race or ethnicity of
an individual being stopped by the police had a significant
role in whether an individual was frisked by the police during
that same stop. The results found that the race or ethnicity of
an individual being stopped was a significant factor, and it
was revealed that Black, Black Hispanics, and White Hispanic
males were frisked more than White males.
Descriptive Statistics
2003-2012
Methodology
• This research supports the alternative hypothesis that the
race or ethnicity of an individual being stopped by the police
in the city of New York is a significant factor for an individual
being frisked during that stop.
Figure 1
NYPD Stop-and Frisk Line Graph: Total Stops from 2003
through 2012
• Logit and probit regression analyses were used to examine
over four million stops that were conducted by the NYPD.
• This research explored the relationship between the race
or ethnicity of individuals who were stopped by the police
in the city of New York and whether they were frisked from
2003 through 2012.
• Dependent Variable- 1: Individual was frisked 0: Individual
was only stopped and not frisked (NYPD, 2014).
• Independent Variables- Black, Black Hispanic, White
Hispanic, male, weight, and height (NYPD, 2014). Base
Groups: Race or Ethnicity- White; Sex- Female
Figure 2
Total Stops, Frisks, Arrests, and Summons
Issued Based on Race or Ethnicity
Research Results
Table 2
Logit and Probit Regression Results
NYPD Stop-and-Frisk Policy
• This concept and initiative was implemented by the NYPD,
building upon the broken windows theory developed by
James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling (1982).
• There is a need to reevaluate this policy in order to
determine the policy’s effectiveness of lowering crime rates
and preventing illegal proclivities. New York City officials
and the policies implemented needs to continue to evolve,
develop, and adapt to changing environments and
communities.
• The process of repairing the relationship with, and trust
between, the NYPD and the community at large requires the
involvement of all stakeholders. The ability of police officers
to work with the community that they are sworn to protect
begins with building trust, transparency, and accountability.
• The community must be receptive to understanding police
procedures and training, and the police officers should be
able to sympathize with the mistrust some members of the
community have of the police.
A major negative consequence of the NYPD Stop-andFrisk policy is the barrier and mistrust that has developed
between the police and the minority community. This
negative consequence could influence the residents’
perception about law enforcement and bring into question
the legitimacy of the police force. The ability of the NYPD to
strengthen trust and equality could lead to more residents
supporting the police and viewing the NYPD as a legitimate
law enforcement agency.
Table 1
Total Stops and Frisks Based on Race or Ethnicity
Logit Regression Model Odds Ratio Interpretation
• Black: On average, Blacks that are stopped by the police are subject to a
74% increase in the odds of getting frisked over individuals who are
White, ceteris paribus.
• Black Hispanic: On average, Black Hispanics that are stopped by the
police are subject to a 100% increase in the odds of getting frisked over
individuals who are White, ceteris paribus.
• White Hispanic: On average, White Hispanics that are stopped by the
police are subject to a 76% increase in the odds of getting frisked over
individuals who are White, ceteris paribus.
• Male: On average, males that are stopped by the police are subject to a
208% increase in the odds of getting frisked over individuals who are
females, ceteris paribus.
• Weight: On average, a one-pound increase in the weight of an individual
is associated with a 3.9% decrease in the odds of getting frisked, ceteris
paribus.
• Height: On average, a one-inch increase in the height of an individual is
associated with a 6% increase in the odds of getting frisked, ceteris
paribus.
• Wilson and Kelling argued that social disorder and minor
offenses that are ignored will send a message to the
criminals that the police and residents do not care about
the crime, and this can open the door for criminals to
commit more serious crimes in the future.
Source: New York Daily News
• In general, all the minorities were frisked at a higher rate
compared to individuals who are White. All regression
models that were tested and analyzed support this
conclusion.
Conclusion
• The NYPD Stop-and-Frisk policy’s objective is to preclude
transgression and thereby keep the residents in the city of
New York safe. This policy allows police officers to stop,
question, and potentially frisk an individual who is
suspected of committing a crime, about to commit a crime,
or may be in possession of an illegal weapon.
• According to numerous studies and research, this policy
causes police to unfairly target and harass minorities
without leading to more arrests or summons being issued
(Gelman, Fagan, and Kiss, 2007).
Policy Implications
Source: New York Post
Even though the focus of this study has been on New
York City, this research may prompt other police departments
to reexamine their own policy on crime prevention methods,
tactics, and strategies. The ability of police officers in the
United States to work with the community rather than against
the community is pertinent for positive future interactions
and effective protection.
References
Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007). An analysis of the New
York City Police Department’s “Stop-and-Frisk” policy
in the context of claims of racial bias. Journal of the
American Statistical Association, 102(479), 813-823.
New York Police Department (2014) UF-250 Forms Stop-andFrisk Data [data file]. Http://www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/html/
analysis_and_planning/stop_question_and_frisk_
report.shtml [Accessed 20 August 2014].
Wilson, J. & Kelling, G. (1982). Broken windows. Atlantic
Monthly, 249(3), 29-38.