vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
I
II
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xvi
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General Introduction
1
1.2
Problem Statement
4
1.3
Objectives
6
1.4
Scope
6
1.5
Significance of the Study
7
1.6
Area of Study
8
1.7
Thesis Structure
9
FOREST FIRE MODEL
2.1 Introduction
11
viii
2.2 Terminology of Forest Fires
12
2.3 Influencing Factors
13
2.4 Causes of Forest Fires
14
2.5 Types of Forest Fires
15
2.5.1
Ground Fire
15
2.5.2
Surface Fire
16
2.5.3
Crown Fire
16
2.6 Fire Potential Measurement Components
19
2.6.1
Changes in Fuel Load
20
2.6.2
Fuel availability
20
2.6.3
Weather Variables
21
2.7 Evaluation of Fire Risk
21
2.7.1
Structural Fire Indices
22
2.7.2
Dynamic Risk Indices
23
2.7.3
Advanced Forest Fire Indices
24
2.8 Phases of forest fire development
24
2.8.1
Pre-ignition
25
2.8.2
Flaming phase
26
2.8.3
Glowing phase
26
2.8.4
Smouldering phase
26
2.9 Review of Forest Fire Models
27
2.10
31
Review of Existing Computer Code and Running
Application for Forest Fire
2.10.1 BEHAVE
32
2.10.2 FireLib
33
2.10.3 FARSITE
33
2.10.4 FORFAIT
34
2.10.5 FOMFIS
34
2.11 Review of Fire Detection Techniques Using Remote
35
Sensing
2.11.1 GOES Fire Detection
36
ix
2.11.2 Defense Mapping Satellite Program (DMSP) Fire
37
Detection
2.11.3 Landsat Fire Detection
37
2.11.4 NOAA AVHRR Fire Detection
38
2.12
III
Summary
39
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
41
3.2 Data Acquisition
43
3.2.1 Satellite Data
43
3.2.1.1 MODIS
43
3.2.2 Ancillary Data
46
3.2.2.1 Topographic Map
46
3.2.2.2 Vector Data
47
3.2.2.3 Forest Fire Occurrences Data
48
3.2.2.4 Fire and Rescue Department Distribution
48
3.3 Data Pre-processing
3.3.1 Geometric Correction
3.4 Data Processing
48
48
50
3.4.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
50
3.4.2 Vegetation Condition Index (VCI)
51
3.4.3 Brightness Temperature (BT)
52
3.4.4 Temperature Condition Index (TCI)
53
3.4.5 Vegetation Health Index (VH)
53
3.4.6 Fire Risk Map
54
3.4.7 Hot Spot of MODIS
54
3.4.8 Proximity Analysis
58
3.4.9 Development of Forest Fire Interface
59
3.5 Accuracy Assessment
59
3.6 Summary
59
x
IV
V
FOREST FIRE INTERFACE
4.1. Introduction
61
4.2. System Development Life Cycle
62
4.3. Overview of Forest Fire Interface
64
4.4. Forest Fire Interface
68
4.5. Summary
76
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
5.1. Introduction
77
5.2. Hot Spots Detected From MODIS
78
5.3. Comparison of Temperatures Extracted From MODIS
86
With Temperature Data From MMS
5.4. Generating A Fire Risk Map
5.4.1. Daily Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
88
89
(NDVI)
5.4.2. Smoothed Weekly Normalized Difference
89
Vegetation Index (NDVI)
5.4.3. Minimum and Maximum Normalized
90
Difference Vegetation Index
5.4.4. Brightness Temperature (BT)
95
5.4.5. Smoothed Weekly Brightness Temperature
95
(BT)
5.4.6. Minimum and Maximum Brightness
95
Temperature
5.4.7. Vegetation Condition Index (VCI)
100
5.4.8. Temperature Condition Index (TCI)
100
5.4.9. Vegetation Health Index (VH)
100
5.5. Fire Risk Map
101
5.6. Vegetation Index Analysis
105
5.7. Fire Risk Map Analysis
109
5.8. Summary
109
xi
VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1. Introduction
111
6.2. Conclusions
111
6.3. Recommendation
112
REFERENCES
114
Appendices A-C
125-164
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Area of forest type burned in 1998 in Malaysia
3
1.2
Costs of the damage caused by smoke haze in Malaysia.
4
2.1
Existing computer code and running application for forest
fire.
35
2.2
GOES-7 VAS satellite spectral channels
36
3.1
MODIS spectral bands characteristics
44
3.2
Number of datasets processed in this study for each year
from January 2000 to April 2005
46
3.3
Topographic maps used to execute geometric correction
47
3.4
List of maps used to extract vector layers
47
3.5
List of ground control point for MODIS data on 27
January 2005
49
3.6
Attributes generated from the MOD14 data
56
4.1
Explanation of system development life cycle
63
5.1
List of hot spots detected from MODIS from 1 January to
30 April 2005
80
5.2
Peat utilization in Malaysia.
84
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Peninsular Malaysia
9
2.1
(a) Fire fundamentals triangle; and (b) fire environment triangle
13
illustrating the factors of fire combustion and factors controlling
fire propagation, respectively.
2.2
Types of fires; (a) Ground fires, (b) Surface fires, (c) Crown fires.
18
2.3
Proposed approaches for the evaluation of forest fire risk indices
22
2.4
Phases of forest fire development
25
2.5
Structure of Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System
(CFFDRS).
29
2.6
The structure of Fire Weather Index (FWI)
30
2.7
The structure of Fire Behaviour Index (FBP), including the
necessary inputs and the outputs produced by the system
31
3.1
Flow chart of operational methodology
42
3.2
MODIS data on 28 January 2005 with composite of band 1, 2 and
4
43
3.3
Twelve GCP’s were used to geometrically correct the MODIS
49
image of 27 January 2005
3.4
Geometrically corrected image of MODIS on 27 January 2005
50
4.0
Diagram of system development life cycle
62
4.1
Explanation of system development life cycle
63
4.2
Forest fire interface diagram component
64
4.3
Diagram of vegetation index components namely Vegetation
Condition Index (VCI), Temperature Condition Index (TCI),
65
xiv
Vegetation Health Index (VH) and Fire Risk Index
4.4
Flow of NDVI and brightness temperature data as input to carry
out Fire Risk Index
66
4.5
Input data of MOD021KM and MOD03 used to extract the hot
spot
66
4.6
The main window for developed forest fire interface
68
4.7
Vegetation Index window
69
4.8
Information window of the displayed image
69
4.9
NDVI window prompt
70
4.10
VCI window prompt
71
4.11
TCI window prompt
71
4.12
VH window prompt
72
4.13
Fire Risk Map window prompt
73
4.14
Prompt window to set up the number of input weeks to Fire Risk
Map
73
4.15
Hotspot Index window prompt
74
4.16
MS DOS command used to derive the MODIS fire mask using
the MODIS Level 1B Radiances and Geolocation products
74
4.17
MS DOS window prompt to convert hotspot data into shapefile
75
4.18
ArcView function, ‘Closest Feature submenu used to extract
proximity analysis
76
5.1
Distribution of hot spots by land use type
83
5.2
Extreme drought occurrence in (a) Kampong Teluk Jambu
Bintong, Kangar, Perlis; and (b) Firemen battling bush fire
outside the Penang International Airport cargo complex in Bayan
Lepas
85
5.3
Correlation between temperature from Malaysian Meteorological
Services (MMS) and observed temperature from MODIS
87
5.4
NDVI derived from single MODIS dataset on 6 April 2000
91
5.5
Smoothed weekly MODIS datasets from 5th week of 2005
92
5.6
Multi-year maximum MODIS datasets
93
5.7
Multi-year minimum MODIS datasets
94
5.8
Brightness temperature derived from single MODIS dataset on 5
April 2000
96
5.9
Smoothed weekly brightness temperature of MODIS datasets
derived from 14th week of 2005
97
xv
5.10
Multi-year maximum of brightness temperature derived from
MODIS
98
5.11
Multi-year minimum of brightness temperature derived from
MODIS
99
5.12
Vegetation Condition Index derived from 15th week of 2005
102
5.13
5.14
th
Temperature Condition Index derived from 15 week of 2005
th
Vegetation Health Index derived from 15 week of 2005
103
104
5.15
th
Fire Risk Map of 11 week of 2005
106
5.16
The relationship between VCI and rainfall
107
5.17
Relationship between TCI and temperature
108
5.18
The relationship between VH and temperature
108
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
EEPSEA
-
Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia
NDVI
-
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
BT
-
Brightness Temperature
VCI
-
Vegetation Condition Index
TCI
-
Temperature Condition Index
VH
-
Vegetation Health Index
FRDM
-
Fire Rescue Department of Malaysia
MMS
-
Malaysian Meteorological Services
KBDI
-
Keetch and Byram Drought Index
FWI
-
Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index
FBP
-
Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction System
CFFDRS
-
Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System
FOP
-
Fire Occurrence Prediction System
FFMC
-
Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC)
DMC
-
Duff Moisture Code
DC
-
Drought Code
ISI
-
Initial Spread Index
BUI
-
Buildup Index
FFDM
-
Forest Fire Danger Meter
API
-
Application Programming Interface
GIS
-
Geographical Information System
VAS
-
Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer and Atmospheric Sounder
xvii
SWIR
-
Shortwave infrared
LWIR
-
Longwave infrared
μm
-
Micrometer (1 meter = 1 000 000 μm)
km
-
kilometer
mm
-
Milimeter
DMSP
-
Defense Mapping Satellite Program
TM
-
Thematic Mapper
K
-
Kelvin
NOAA
-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
AVHRR
-
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
MSS
-
Multispectral Satellite
MODIS
-
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
SNR
-
Signal noise to ratio
NEΔT
-
Noise-equivalent temperature difference
CZCS
-
Nimbus Coastal Zone Color Scanner
HRIS
-
High Resolution Infrared Sounder
GES DAAC
-
Goddard Earth Sciences Distributed Active Archive Centre
GCPs
-
Ground control points
RMS
-
Root Mean Square
VIS
-
Visible
NIR
-
Near infrared
NDVImin
-
Multiyear absolute minimum of NDVI
NDVImax
-
Multiyear absolute maximum of NDVI
h
-
Planck’s constant (Joule per hertz)
c
-
Speed of light in vacuum (m/s)
k
-
Boltzmann gas constant (Joule/Kelvin)
λ
-
Band or detector centre wavelength (m)
T
-
Temperature (Kelvin)
BTmin
-
Absolute minimum of smoothed weekly brightness temperature
BTmax
-
Absolute maximum of smoothed weekly brightness temperature
T4
-
Brightness temperature of 4 micrometer channel
xviii
T11
-
Brightness temperature of 11 micrometer channel
Ť
-
Respective mean of the channel for valid neighbouring pixel
Naw
-
Number of water pixel adjacent to the fire pixel
Nac
-
Number of cloud pixel adjacent to the fire pixel
δ
-
Mean absolute deviation of the respective channel for valid
neighboring pixel
C
-
Confidence level
TIFF
-
Tagged Image File Format
UTM
-
Universal Transverse Mercator
MOD01
-
Raw MODIS data
MOD02
-
Level 1B MODIS data
MOD03
-
Geolocation MODIS data
MOD035
-
MODIS Cloud Mask product
MOD14
-
MODIS Fire product
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Forest Fire Record From FRDM
125
B
Fire risk level for each forest fire occurrence in time range
127
of 1 January 2005 to 30 April 2005.
C
Visual C++ source code
129