AWARENESS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT IN LIGHT INDUSTRIES
.
TUAN NOORUNNAZIFAH BINTI TUAN AHMAD
A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Civil - Environmental Management)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER 2009
iii
To my beloved parents,
Ummi and ayah,
You are the aspiration in my life,
Love you always,
As to my dear siblings and friends,
Thanks for always be there for me….
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
“In the name of Allah, The Most Merciful and the Most Compassionate”
First ad foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude upon Allah
S.W.T for giving me strength and patience in completing my final year project.
There are may people around me that have supported me all the way through
and make things possible. I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave
me the possibility to complete this report. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere
gratitude and love to my dear parents and the whole family for the consistent love,
support, encouragement and guidance shown to me during the course of my study.
My grateful and deepest appreciation goes to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Mohd
Razman bin Salim who helps, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me
in all the time in completing the study and writing of the report. My thankful also
goes to Dr.Muhammad Ali bin Yuzir whom I received the necessary guidance
throughout my project study. With much valuable suggestions contributed lead me to
achieve the set aims of the study.
Lastly, to all my dear friends whom I am so lucky to have especially Kak
Rohani, Mas, Shaikhah, Kak Yaya, Diha and those who not mentioned here. Thanks
for all your contributions both directly and indirectly towards by project study and
the entire masters program. Last but not least, a million of thanks go to all the
respondents involved in this study. Thank you very much.
v
ABSTRACT
As environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are
assessing how their activities affect the environment. Society has become concerned
about the issues of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many
businesses have responded to this awareness by providing “greener” products and
using “greener” processes. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic approach
used to manage the potential environmental impacts of product and services system.
This study looked into awareness of LCA among the manufacturers in Taman
Universiti, Skudai,Johor and willingness to perform LCA in their company. The data
obtained for this study was through surveying where the questionnaires had been
distributed among the manufacturers in the study area. The analysis was done by
using SPSS software. From the result, only 31.25 percent of the respondents have
knowledge on LCA and 68.75 percent not having the idea about LCA. Meanwhile
40.6 percent of the respondents agree to consider performing LCA in their company
and 59.4 percent not being sure. Due to lack of information on LCA, 81.25 percent
agree that government should provide more training and information. However, there
was a significant correlation (r=-0.358), (p<= 0.05) between respondents position and
awareness of LCA at 95% significant level. The level of awareness of LCA depends
on the position of the respondent. In this case, manager has higher awareness about
LCA compare to others.
vi
ABSTRAK
Sejajar dengan peningkatan kesedaran terhadap alam sekitar, banyak
perindustrian and perniagaan mula menilai bagaimana aktiviti mereka dapat memberi
kesan terhadap alam sekitar. Masyarakat telah mula mengambil berat tentang
pengurangan sumber semula jadi dan alam sekitar yang semakin terjejas.
Kebanyakan industri perniagaan memberi tindak balas terhadap kesedaran ini dengan
menyediakan hasil pengeluaran dan menggunakan proses yang mesra alam. Penilaian
kitaran hidup (LCA) ialah satu pendekatan yang sistematik yang digunakan untuk
mengendalikan kemungkinan kesan terhadap alam sekitar akibat daripada sesuatu
hasil pengeluaran dan sistem perkhidmatan. Kajian ini adalah untuk menilai tahap
kesedaran tentang LCA di kalangan pengilang-pengilang di Taman Universiti,
Skudai,Johor dan kesanggupan mereka melaksanakan LCA di syarikat masingmasing. Data untuk kajian ini diperolehi melalui tinjauan dengan mengedarkan
senarai soalan di kalangan pengilang-pengilang di kawasan kajian. Analisis data
dilakukan dengan menggunakan perisian SPSS. Daripada keputusan yang diperolehi,
hanya 31.25 peratus daripada rsponden menpunyai pengetahuan tentang LCA dan
68.75 peratus tidak mempunyai pengetahuan tentang LCA. Manakala 40.6 peratus
daripada responden setuju mempertimbangkan untuk melaksanakan LCA di syarikat
mereka sementara 59.4 peratus masih tidak pasti untuk melaksanakan LCA di
syarikat mereka. Disebabkan kurangnya maklumat tentang LCA, 81.25 peratus setuju
bahawa pihak kerajaan patut menyediakan lebih banyak latihan dan juga maklumat
berkaitan LCA. Terdapat pertalian ketara (r=-0.358), (p<= 0.05) di antara jawatan
responden dengan tahap kesedaran tentang LCA pada tahap 95 peratus. Tahap
kesedaran terhadap LCA adalah bergantung kepada jawatan yang dipegang. Dalam
kajian ini, pengurus syarikat mempunyai tahap kesedaran tentang LCA yang tinggi
berbanding yang lain.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
x
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
xv
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Overview
1
1.2
Problem Statement
3
1.3
Scope of the Study
4
1.4
Objective of Study
4
1.5
Significant of the Study
5
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Environmental Issue in Malaysia
6
2.1.1
Solid Waste Management
7
2.1.2
Air Pollution
11
viii
2.1.3
Water Pollution
14
2.2
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
15
2.3
Application of LCA
21
2.4
LCA and ISO 14000
24
2.4.1 ISO 14000 Series
26
2.5
2.6
3
and Developed Country
29
2.5.1
LCA Activities in Thailand
30
2.5.2
LCA in Malaysia
31
2.5.3
LCA in Japan
34
2.5.4
LCA in Germany
34
2.5.5
LCA in Europe and the United States
36
Environmental Friendly Product
36
2.6.1
Eco-labelling
37
2.6.2
Objectives of Ecolabelling
41
2.6.3
Ecolabeling in Malaysia
41
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
43
3.2
Data Collection
45
3.2.1
Primary Data
45
3.2.2
Secondary Data
46
3.3
4
Overview of LCA Implementation in Developing
Research Design
46
3.3.1
Preliminary Data Collection
46
3.3.2
Data Collection
47
3.3.3
Result Analysis
48
3.3.3.1 Data Interpretation
48
DATA DATA AND RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
50
4.2
Questionnaire (Descriptive Analysis)
51
ix
4.2.1
Background of Respondent
51
4.2.2
Awareness and Knowledge Of LCA
54
4.3
Reliability Test
60
4.4
Inferential Statistical Analysis
60
4.4.1
Bivariate
61
4.4.1.1 Awareness of LCA
61
Regression
64
4.4.2.1 Awareness of LCA
64
4.4.2.2 Recyclability of Product
65
4.4.2
5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusion
67
5.2
Recommendations
69
REFERENCES
71
APPENDIX
75
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
2.1
TITLE
PAGE
Percentage of solid waste component from residential
and commercial
8
2.2
Environmental factors to be considered in LCA
18
2.3
The description of the LCA component
19
2.4
The description of the components of LCA according
to EPA, 2006
21
2.5
Benefits of implementing life-cycle concept
23
2.6
The description of ISO LCA standard and technical report 27
2.7
Evolution of eco-labelling and beginning of the
National LCA Project in Malaysia
32
2.8
Some of organization of ISCZ
33
2.9
The definition of Voluntary Environmental Performance
Labelling
39
3.1
Elaboration of section in the questionnaire
47
3.2
Five level of Likert scale
48
4.1
Number and category of production in Taman Universiti
51
4.2
Frequency and percentage of respondents
52
4.3
Frequency distribution towards knowledge of LCA
55
4.4
Reliability Statistics
60
4.5
Data Correlation for awareness
61
4.6
Data Correlation for product recyclability
62
4.7
Data Correlation
63
4.8
Data Correlation
63
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
4.9
Models for awareness
64
4.10
Model summary for Awareness
65
4.11
Model for recyclability of product
66
4.12
Model summary for recyclability of product
66
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Location of study area
4
2.1
Industrial air pollution sources by states
12
2.2
Number of Registered vehicles, 2005-2006
13
2.3
The industrial System
16
2.4
A complete life cycle
17
2.5
Life cycle assessment stages and system boundary
17
2.6
The LCA conceptual model
19
2.7
Phases of LCA
20
2.8
ISO and development of environmental management tools 25
2.9
Logo of Blue Angel Scheme, Federal Environment
Agency, Germany
38
2.10
Type I ecolabel. Multiple criteria, third party program
40
2.11
Type II ecolabel. Selft-Declared Environmental Claims
such as compostable, degradable, recyclable, reduced
energy consumption and reduced water consumption
2.12
40
Type III ecolabel. Environmental Declaration. An
example of Report card on environmental performance
from cradle to grave
40
3.1
The overall processes involved in the project
44
4.1
Manufacturer based on their type of production
52
4.2
Market target of the products.
53
4.3
Percentage of recyclability of the product produced
from light industry at Taman Universiti
54
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
4.4
Consideration to perform LCA
56
4.5
Consideration of green product
56
4.6
Tendency to join the standard development process
57
4.7
Implementation of LCA should be compulsory
58
4.8
Government should provide LCA training and
4.9
more information
58
Medium preferred to deliver information of LCA
59
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LCA
-
Life Cycle Assessment
MSW
-
Municipal Solid Waste
DOE
-
Department of Environment
EPA
-
Environmental Protection Agency
SETAC
-
Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
ISO
-
International Organization for Standardization
TC
-
Technical Committee
EMS
-
Environmental Management System
LCI
-
Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA
-
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
GP
-
Green Productivity
TEI
-
Thailand Environment Institute
SIRIM
-
Standards and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia
SIRIM QAS -
SIRIM Quality Assurance Service
ISCZ
-
Industry Standard Committee
MNRE
-
Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment
EU
-
European Union
MICCOS
-
Malaysian International Commodities Conference
CFC
-
Chlorofluorocarbon
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX.
TITLE
PAGE
A
Set of Questionnaire
75
B
Anova Table for Model 1 (Awareness)
78
C
Anova Table for Model 2 (Awareness)
79
D
Anova Table for Model 1 (Recyclability)
80
E
Anova Table for Model 2 (Recyclability)
81
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Overview
Malaysia has grown rapidly in especially in industrial sector. The economic
growth and the industrialization contribute to the environmental degradation. There
are regulations and rules in order to protect the environment in line with the
development. Besides, there are many campaigns launched to increase the concern
among communities regarding to environmental sustainability.
As environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are
assessing how their activities affect the environment. Society has become concerned
about the issues of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many
businesses have responded to this awareness by providing “greener” products and
using “greener” processes. The environmental performance of products and processes
has become a key issue, which is why some companies are investigating ways to
minimize their effects on the environment. Many companies have found it
advantageous to explore ways of moving beyond compliance using pollution
prevention strategies and environmental management systems to improve their
environmental performance. One such tool is LCA. This concept considers the entire
life cycle of a product (Curran, 1996).
Life cycle assessment is a systematic approach used to manage the potential
environmental impacts of product and services system. It is applied methodologically
2
to build a quantitative inventory of environmental burdens or releases, evaluate their
potential impacts and consider the alternatives to interpret the results or improve
environmental performance. LCA can be used to identify critical life cycle stages or
burdens for which additional environmental assessment tools (such as risk
assessment) may be applied to fully understand the potential impacts and risks. In
any application, LCA considers the potential environmental impacts along the
continuum of a product’s life (i.e., cradle to grave or cradle to cradle), from raw
materials acquisition to production, use, and disposal or recovery. The potential
environmental impacts to consider include resource depletion human health, and
ecological health (Fava, 2005).
Most conventional approaches in environment protection only focused on
single medium such as air, water or soil, a single stage in the product life cycle like
during the production, use or disposal of the product or in single issue for instance
chemical limit to an individual. These strategies not always reduce the whole
environmental impact. Pollution control resources are spent on activities required by
laws and regulations, however do not always provide the most efficient use of those
resources in terms of reducing impacts. Sometimes it allows another unexpected
impact to occur because it is not designed to tackle the overall environmental
problem.
The result of an LCA study helps identify the opportunities and risk of a
product or technology from the extraction of raw material to the final disposal. LCA
helps how our choices influence each of these stages, so positive on economy,
environment and society can be made.
As industrialization in Malaysia growth rapidly, pollutions can not be
avoided. Even there are legislation and regulation to protect the environment, it still
not enough to put Malaysia away from environmental problem especially handling
industrial waste. Besides depend on the legislation and regulation, Malaysia should
adopt a new way to sustain the environment. LCA can assist in identifying
opportunities to improve the environmental aspects of products at various points in
3
their life cycle, decision making in industry, government or non government and
marketing as well.
1.2
Problem Statement
In 2000, the major contributors to water pollution were effluents from
manufacturing industries with an estimate of 43% and urban domestic sewage
facilities, which amounted to 46.1% of the total water pollutants in the country. The
pollution loads contributed by these pollutants significantly affected the river quality.
An analysis of manufacturing industries in 2000 showed that the food and beverage
industry constituted 23.7% of the total sources of water pollution, while electrical
and electronic industries accounted for 11.4%. The chemical industry was found to
contribute 11.2% and the paper industry generated 8.8% of the total pollution. The
textile and finishing/electroplating industry accounted for 7.4 and 5.3% water
pollution sources, respectively (Suleyman et al, 2005).
Since economic development tends to cause an increase in the amount of
industrial waste generation, environmentally-sound management of industrial waste
is essential to promote the LCA. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an internationally
recognised methodology for assessing the environmental impacts and a systematic
approach to manage the potential impacts of products and services. Environmental
impact of the whole aspect of the system or product can be assessed by implementing
LCA. Before the implementation can be applied, one must have the knowledge and
awareness of the LCA.
4
1.3
Scope of the Study
Figure 1.1: Location of study area
This study looks only into the awareness of LCA among the manufacturers of
light industry in Taman Universiti, Skudai,Johor and willingness to perform LCA in
their company. Taman Universiti Industrial Park is a light industrial area in Skudai.
This area consists of various industries such as paper, plastic, metal and food. The
respondents of the study are selected randomly among the manufacturers in Taman
University, Skudai, Johor.
1.4
Objectives of Study
This study aims to evaluate the awareness of LCA in industrial sector and
their point of view of LCA. Thus the objectives of the study are to:
i.
Evaluate the awareness of LCA.
ii.
Evaluate the willingness to perform LCA in their company.
5
1.5
Significant of the Study
This study is focusing on awareness of LCA among the manufacturers in light
industry at Taman University. Implementing of LCA give more benefit not only to
the manufacturers but also to the customers and the environment. By knowing the
level of awareness of LCA, a progressive step can be taken in order to introduce or
improve their knowledge on LCA. Even though they are only a small industrial
sector, they also contribute to environmental degradation. LCA can give them better
choice in making decision by taking the environmental aspect in their consideration.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Environmental Issue in Malaysia
Environmental issue has attracted a great attention of national level. As a
developing country, Malaysia has a progressive development. But the progressive
development comes together with the environmental issue. Pollution issue is one of
the issues needed to be faced. Not only in Malaysia, but environmental problem is a
global issue in every country in the world.
The past decade of rapid economic growth, industrialization and high rates of
urbanization has caused serious environmental challenges in Malaysia. The high
concentration of people and industry in urban areas also puts considerable stress on
the environment in those areas. The consequences are air and water pollution, and
large volumes of solid waste for which there are very limited disposal options.
Moreover, the concentration of people in urban areas means that large numbers of
people are exposed to airborne and waterborne pollutants, thereby raising the human
cost of that pollution.
The most prominent at the moment are considered to be air pollution from
industrial emissions and vehicular emissions, solid waste management, deforestation,
water pollution from raw sewage and haze from forest fire. Further degradation of
environment will threatens not only plant and animal but our own ability to survive
and sustain ourselves as well.
7
Environmental awareness is building up in Malaysia and with the 9th
Malaysia Plan 2006-2010 the Malaysian government has placed further emphasis on
preventive measures to mitigate and minimize negative environmental effects at
source, to intensify conservation efforts and to ensure a sustainable development of
both the exhaustible and the renewable energy resources.
2.1.1 Solid Waste Management
Urbanization and industrialisation has led to an increase in the number of
both official and non-official migrants from rural to urban area. As Malaysia aspires
to become a developed nation by 2020, it is envisaged that 80% of the population
will be living in urban areas. (Waste Management Conference, 2007). For the past 20
years, Malaysia has undergone an economic growth with the rate of 5.2%
(Agamuthu, 2001). Corresponding with the industrial sector in Malaysia which
undergoing a transformation from minor role in the economic to the large scale
manufacturing industries.
Due to growing population and increasing consumption, Malaysia generates
waste at 19,100 tons per day. In Kuala Lumpur waste generation is about 3,000 tons
a day and forecasts shows that this will increase each year (Redigeret, 2009). The
solid waste generated per capital has increased from 0.5 kg/capital/day to current
volume of 1 kg/capital/day. This represents a 200% increased in 20 years
(Agamuthu, 2001).
Accelerated industrialization, urbanization and population growth caused
rapid accumulation of waste and waste management will be a key issue that needs to
be urgently addressed. Proper waste management is a fundamental need especially in
countries with modern production and consumption pattern.
8
Waste as defined by Oxford Dictionary tenth edition is ‘unusable or unwanted
material’ or ‘eliminated or discarded as no longer useful or required’. Waste can be
divided into three categories which are municipal waste, industrial waste and
hazardous waste.
The material of municipal waste comprising of food waste,
rubbish, ashes and residues, demolition and construction waste, special waste and
treatment plant waste. Municipal solid waste (MSW) generally generated from
residential, commercial, open areas and treatment plant site. Table 2.1 below shows
the component and percentage of solid waste from residential and commercial.
Table 2.1 : Percentage of solid waste component from residential and commercial
(ILO Research Conference, April 2008)
Component
Residential (%)
Commercial (%)
Food and Organic
63.1
76.8
Mix paper
6.7
7.6
Mix plastic
14.3
9.0
Yard
6.3
-
Glass
2.1
0.9
Others
7.5
5.7
Industrial wastes are those wastes arising from industrial activities.
Meanwhile waste that poses a substantial danger immediately or over a period of
time to human, plant or animal life is classified as hazardous waste. The
characteristic of hazardous waste are ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity or toxicity.
Waste generation means unwise use of resources either upstream during
extraction, production or processing or downstream during use or consumption.
Every unit of waste generated has significant cost attached to it including direct cost
of handling, treatment and disposal.
9
The local authorities and waste management consortia have to handle
approximately 17,000 tonnes of MSW everyday throughout the country. MSW
generation depends on the size of township and level of economical standard, that as
low as 45 tonnes of MSW are generated in Kluang (a small town in the southern part
of Peninsular Malaysia) to as high as 3000 tonnes in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia's
capital). The largest sources are household waste followed by industrial and
commercial waste. In Selangor state, the highest percentage of MSW consisted of
putrescible waste of approximately 46%, followed by plastic and paper at 15% and
14%, respectively. (Fauziah et al., 2004)
Every one should take serious steps and initiative to reduce the amount of
waste generation and whenever possible to reuse or recycle the waste so as to
prolong its useful life thus minimizing waste to be disposed of which ultimately
would cause adverse impact to the environment.
Malaysia in 2002 formulated the National Policy on the Environment that
aims at continued economic, social and cultural progress of Malaysia and
enhancement of the quality of life of its people through environmentally sound and
sustainable development which include proper waste management.
Like other countries, Malaysia has its own legislations and regulation to
sustain the environment. There are several legislations related to solid waste
management in Malaysia. The legislation and regulation are listed below:
i.
Environment Quality act 1974
ii.
Street, Drainage and Building Act 1974
iii.
Local Government Act 1976
iv.
Refuse Collection, Removal and Disposals By Law
10
Since the solid waste management becomes a prominent issue nowadays, a
new act has been developed. Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act
2007 has several changes that can bring the improvement in managing solid waste.
Once the Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007 have been
implemented, the act would bring the following changes in waste management.
Several changes are as follow (Chai, 2009):
i.
A standard, integrated system in managing waste to promote a more
efficient operating procedure.
ii.
Privatization of waste management. A concessionaire applying for a
license to operate.
iii.
Key Performance Indicator. The concessionaires’ license can be revoked
when received pile up of complaints.
iv.
Proper closure or upgrading of landfills. From 261 landfills, only 10
sanitary landfills and rest have to be closed or upgraded in batches.
v.
Structured garbage collection. Households will receive a standard 120
litre bin which can be flipped into collection vehicles to prevent leachate
spill. The owner will be charged for an overloaded bin.
vi.
Separation at source. It is compulsory to separate waste into wet and dry
waste two to three years after the act is implemented. Twice a week
collection for wet waste, while weekly collection for recyclable or dry
waste.
vii.
Encourage higher recycling rate. Introducing the take back and deposit
rebate scheme.
Perhaps this act will improve the management of landfill as well because the
quality of waste has been improved before it is transferred to landfill. The improper
management of the landfills has led to environmental and social problem such as
groundwater and surface water contamination within the surrounding the landfill
areas, bad odour from landfills without daily cover, air pollution from the opening at
the landfill areas, noise hazard from the collection vehicles, unaesthetic environment,
11
scavenging activities at the dumpsites or landfills and health hazard to the workers
and people who live close to the landfills areas.
2.1.2 Air Pollution
Air pollution is the presence of the substance in the atmosphere. The
concentration of the substances can interfere with health, comfort, safety and full use
and enjoyment of properties. Naturally, the earth already has its own air pollution
loading. There are many sources of natural air pollution such as decomposition or
biological decay, volcanic eruption and lightning cause forest fire. However,
industrialization or just everyday routines has become added burden to the existing
air pollution loading. Environmental pollution problems have been local and minor
because of the earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants.
The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, the explosion
of the population and the forest fire are factors contributing toward the growing air
pollution problem.
There is something need to be sacrificed to get something else. As industrial
age has risen in Malaysia, the environmental problem has become a prominent issue.
Many industrial zones have been approved by the government to be set up in mostly
forestland and uninhabited areas. Some examples of the industrial zone in Malaysia
are Shah Alam in the state of Selangor, Senai and Pasir Gudang in the state of Johor
and Bagan Serai in Penang. As a result, trees have been cut down to accommodate
towards the building of large industrial factories.
According to the Department of Environment website, Malaysia’s economic
growth is mainly based on its manufacturing (especially electronics), chemical and
rubber industries. But higher production rates also lead to higher emissions of
organic and inorganic gases, chemicals and dust. Not only the oxygen supply has
been decreased, these factories are spewing out poisonous gases in the course of its
production. Different industries emit different pollutants. For example, the chemical
12
industry releases emissions that contain many nitrogen and sulphur compounds while
refineries discharge sulphur dioxide and hydrocarbons. The metal working industry is
partially responsible for the emissions of sulphur dioxide and large amounts of toxic
dust.
Figure 2.1 : Industrial air pollution sources by states, 2006 (Source: DOE, Malaysia)
Naturally, people would flock to industrial zones such as Shah Alam because
of the high pay and high opportunity of jobs involved. Shah Alam is now one of the
most densely populated areas as well as one of the most highly polluted areas in the
country, and yet it is not the only one. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter are the primary air pollutants found in
most urban areas are. These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's
atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health
problems. One can imagine the amount of people who will be affected by the long
side effects of the pollution from the gases.
Modern society today is highly dependent on motorized transportation such
as motorcycles, cars, trucks, and railways. Every movement of people and goods
requires energy which relies mostly on the burning of fossil fuels, thus causing
emissions and noise with adverse local effects. The air quality of the different
transport modes depends on the kind of energy, engine technology and the amount of
energy consumed. In text of 'Clean Air For Our Cities, 2006, by DOE Malaysia &
13
German Technical Co-operation cite that in 2004, nearly 14 million vehicles were
registered in Malaysia, almost double the number from a decade ago. The number
will increase in the next few years, due to higher incomes, rural-urban migration and
the lack of efficient public transport systems.
Figure 2.2 : Number of Registered vehicles, 2005-2006.( Source: Department of
Road Transport, Malaysia, 2006)
Household also contribute to air pollution mainly through the use of energy
that is required to run machines and electrical appliances such as refrigerators.
Refrigerators and air conditioners not only consume energy but they pollute the
environment when their coolant fluids release Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) into the
atmosphere. CFC is an odourless and tasteless substance. Chemicals in household
equipment such as batteries and pesticide used in houses and gardens are also sources
of pollution as well as toxic waste.
Open burning of older existing plantations for re-planting creates large
amounts of soot particles. These soot particles can be blown over long distances and
are mainly responsible for the haze that often covers the sky above Malaysia. Most of
the haze happened in Malaysia because of forest fire from neighbour country such as
Indonesia and Philippine. These fires not only pollute the air but also destroy the rich
habitat of the flora and fauna.
14
Human activities have resulted in harmful substances and polluting emissions
being released into the air. They endanger our health and our natural ecosystem, and
lead to an additional greenhouse effect. Besides emissions of toxic dust, unplanned
and uncontrolled development of industrial premises or zones leads to noise pollution
and vibration disturbance.
2.1.3 Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, oceans,
rivers or groundwater which can be harmful to the organisms and other aquatic life
that live in these water bodies. As Malaysia is fast becoming an industrial country,
many of her rivers have become polluted due to the many wastes that have been
poured out into her rivers.
Industrial development in Peninsular Malaysia has made significant
beneficial contributions to the country’s overall economic development. It has
generated employment and promoted socio-economic infrastructural development.
However, it has effects on the environmental water resources because all industries
require the use of both renewable and non-renewable resources from the
environment. It is obvious that the conversion of these resources into finished or
semi-finished industrial products results in residues that are often discharged as
wastes into water. These wastes are in solid, liquid or gaseous forms and, when
discharged indiscriminately, could adversely affect the quality of the water.
Approximately 2292 industries were identified as significant water pollutant
sources in Peninsular Malaysia by the Department of Environment (DOE). The major
potentially polluting industries were 928 (40%) food and beverage factories, 324
(14.1%) rubber producing premises and 270 (11.4%) chemical producers. Based on
the distribution of water pollution sources by state in Peninsular Malaysia, the
majority were found in Selangor (414), Johor (384), Pulau Penang (328) and Perak
(253). These are also the most industrialized states in Peninsular Malaysia. In terms
15
of organic water pollution load, sewage and animal wastes were the major
contributors of water pollution followed by manufacturing and agro-based industries
in the country. In the case of pollution load, both the manufacturing and agro-based
industries (palm-oil and rubber) contributed only 8% (37 t/d) of Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) loads in 1988 in contrast to 13% (65 t/d) and 79% (385 t/d) of BOD
loads from animal husbandry and sewage (Suleyman et al., 2005).
Manufacturing sector such as the paper making industry, it requires chemicals
in paper processing. Chemical such as chlorine has traditionally been used in the
bleaching process to make pure white paper, but chlorine use results in the release of
small, yet potent amounts of dioxins and furans, which are persistent,
bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (California Integrated waste management
board). Normally, the rivers are used as an outlet for the chemicals to drain away, in
turn harming the waters and the lives that revolve around them. By performing life
cycle impact assessment, the impact can be assessed and the less pollutant substance
can be used. In this case, using other bleaching agent such as hydrogen peroxide, can
help to minimize paper’s environmental impact.
2.2
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
Every year, more and more companies are becoming concerned with the
environmental impacts of their activities. These companies span the entire spectrum
of industries from energy producer to product manufacturers and service oriented.
They want to be able to understand the environment impacts they cause, in order to
control or better yet, avoid them. They do so in a time of increasingly strict
environmental regulations in an effort to stay within compliance and meet costumer
needs, all the while staying financially healthy. Currently, the main driving force is
understandably the needs for the companies to stay competitive in the marketplace
(Curran, 1996).
16
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to evaluate the
environmental effects of product, process or activity (Terrie et al., 2002).
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2006) defines LCA as a “ cradle to grave”
approach for assessing industrial system. LCA may be formally defined as a
systematic inventory and comprehensive assessment of the environmental effects of
two or more alternative activities involving a defined product in a defined space and
time including all steps and co-products in its life cycle (Pederson, 1993). It is a
“cradle-to-grave” approach for assessing industrial systems.
A collection of operations which together perform some defined function is
called as a system. Any industrial system can be represented by a system boundary
that encloses all the operations of interest. The region surrounding this boundary is
known as the system environment as shown in Figure 2.3. All raw materials taken
from the environment is the inputs and the outputs are waste materials released back
to the environment.
The environment
Inputs
The industrial
System
Outputs
Figure 2.3 : The industrial System ( Source : SETAC 1991)
“Cradle-to-grave” begins with the gathering of raw materials from the earth to
create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned to the earth. A
complete life cycle or ‘cradle to grave’ includes raw material extraction, processing,
transportation, manufacturing, distribution, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and
final waste disposal (Hauschild et al., 2005).
17
Figure 2.4 : A complete life cycle
An environmental LCA evaluate the environmental effects associated with
the given activity from the beginning of gathering the raw materials from the earth to
the point where all materials are returned back to the earth. The evaluation includes
all side stream releases to the air, water and soil. LCA is an attempt to
comprehensively describe all these activities, the resulting environmental releases
and the impacts.
Life cycle stage
Inputs
Outputs
Raw material acquisition
Atmospheric
Emissions
Waterborne
Waste
Raw
Materials
Manufacturing
Solids waste
Use/reuse/maintenance
Energy
Co-products
Recycle/waste management
Other
releases
System Boundary
Figure 2.5 : Life cycle assessment stages and system boundary (Source: EPA, 1993)
18
At every stage there can be material, energy and labour inputs. At each stage
there may be waste that is treated or untreated before disposal to air, water or land.
Within the cycle, wastes and retired materials may be reused, remanufactured or
recycled to minimize the net output.
The LCA, or environmental assessment, covers the environmental and
resource impacts of alternative disposal processes, as well as those other processes
which are affected by disposal strategies such as different types of collection schemes
for recyclables, changed transport patterns and so on. There are several
environmental factors need to be considered in LCA such as Table 2.2
Table 2.2 : Environmental factors to be considered in LCA (Gerard, 1997)
Parameter
Comment
Resources depletion
one
also
Material and energy are consumed and must
consider whether the sources are renewable.
Scarcity and alternative or potential uses are
issues.
Waste
Solid, liquid, airborne and energy
Ecological degradation
Scarcity, diversity and sensitivity of ecosystems
Human health and safety
general
The population at risk, workers, users, or
community must be identified
Economic effects
Financial cost, including alternative uses
Social effects
amenity
Degradation of areas of social interest or
value
The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) have
been instrumental in increasing the awareness and understanding of the LCA
concept. The proceedings for a workshop held by SETAC in 1990 helped define term
to describe LCA. Those discussions laid the framework for how we view LCA today
(Fava et al., 1991).
19
The key finding from the workshop in 1990 was the consensus to define LCA
as a phased approach. LCA was defined as comprising three interrelated components
which consist of inventory, impact assessment and improvement assessment. The
components and the description of the LCA conceptual components are summarized
in Table 2.3.
Impact
Assessment
Goal
Definition
and
scoping
Improvement
Assessment
Inventory
Figure 2.6 : The LCA conceptual model ( Source : SETAC, 1991)
Table 2.3 : The description of the LCA component
Component
Description
Inventory
An objective, data based process of quantifying energy and raw
material requirement, air emissions, waterborne effluents, solid waste
and environmental release throughout the whole life cycle of the
products, process or activity.
Impact
A technical, quantitative or semi quantitative process to characterize
assessment
and assess the effects of the environmental loadings identified in the
inventory component. The assessment should address both ecological
and human health considerations as well as other effects such as
habitat modification or noise pollution.
Improvement
A systematic evaluation of the needs and opportunities to reduce the
assessment
environmental burden associated with energy and materials use and
environmental release throughout the whole life cycle of the
products, process or activity. This assessment may include both
quantitative and qualitative measure of improvement such as changes
in product, process and activity design; raw materials use; industrial
processing; consumer use and waste management
20
EPA (2006) stated that the LCA process is a systematic, phased approach and
consists of four components: goal definition and scoping, inventory analysis, impact
assessment, and interpretation as illustrated in Figure 2.7. The components and the
description of the components are shown in Table 2.4.
Life Cycle assessment Framework
Goal
Definition
and
Scope
Inventory
Analysis
Interpretation
Impact
Assessment
Figure 2.7: Phases of LCA (Source: ISO, 1997)
21
Table 2.4: The description of the components of LCA according to EPA, 2006
Components
Description
Goal
Define and describe the product, process or activity. Establish the
Definition
context in which the assessment is to be made and identify the
and Scoping
boundaries and environmental effects to be reviewed for the
assessment.
Inventory
Identify and quantify energy, water and materials usage and
Analysis
environmental releases (e.g., air emissions, solid waste disposal,
waste water discharges).
Impact
Assess the potential human and ecological effects of energy, water,
Assessment
and material usage and the environmental releases identified in the
inventory analysis.
Interpretation
Evaluate the results of the inventory analysis and impact assessment
to select the preferred product, process or service with a clear
understanding of the uncertainty and the assumptions used to
generate the results.
2.3
Application of LCA
Life Cycle Assessment has been used for various purposes by industry,
academics, public interest groups, and government policymakers. Common uses of
LCA include:
22
i.
Identifying those phases of a product's lifecycle that have the largest
environmental burdens, and therefore the greatest opportunities for
improvement.
ii.
Comparing the burdens of different products that are used for the same
task.
iii.
Evaluating the influence of changes to a product, especially whether
improvements in one part of a product's lifecycle could have offsetting
negatives in another.
iv.
Assessing the relative environmental burdens of different human activities
such as transportation, home heating/cooling and waste management.
Application of life cycle assessment (LCA) ensured that the environmental
impact is explicitly included in the design process, yielding the ‘best’ alternative. The
‘best’ choice can be difficult in the final analysis to assess, as many factors may
cause an objective of LCA to fall into the gray or subjective area. Application of
LCA to assess a waste site remedy is making use of the basics of chemical
engineering and related field, the materials and energy balances with a few topics
included such as economics, health risk assessment and regulatory constraints. Key
components for assessment in the material and energy balance approach are the
problem basic, boundaries, generation and accumulation and time. These terms and
their components must be consistent in remediation or waste management methods
for treatment of a process stream. In term of general equation, we may write for any
LCA assessment (Constant, 2002):
Input = output + generation + accumulation
The generation term may be positive or negative (if material is consumed). It
is critical that the terms are handled in a consistent fashion for use in LCA
Life cycle assessment as both a concept and a methodology has a valuable
role to play in improving understanding and reducing the environmental burdens
associated with products, technologies, processes and activities from design and
23
development through ultimate disposition. It provides a systematic means to broaden
the perspective of a company’s decision making process to incorporate the
consideration of energy and material use, transportation, post customer use, disposal
and the environmental release s associated with the product system. LCA provides a
framework to achieve a better understanding of the benefits and risk associated with
specific change in a product, package or process. Benefits realized from the
application of life cycle concepts include cost containment, liability management,
stakeholder value and competitiveness as indicated in Table 2.5. Companies’ use of
LCA is encouraged to help plan and begin to design and improve the environmental
quality of product system (Fava et al., 1996).
Table 2.5: Benefits of implementing life-cycle concept
Cost containment
 Lower management cost
 Lowers disposal cost
 Reduce energy consumption
 Increase productivity
Liability management
 Reduce legal fine and penalties
 Improve relationship with regulators
 Limit criminal liability exposure
 Increase likelihood of compliance
Stakeholder value
 Increase revenue
 Increase market share
 Enhance company image
Competitiveness
 Better meet supplier and consumer need
 Revenue potential through recycling
 Increase market share
 New product opportunities
24
2.4
LCA and ISO 14000
The use of LCA by business firms is being encouraged by international
standard setting organizations such as ISO. The ISO has been developing voluntary
technical standards for business, industry, and technology since 1947. These
standards are documented agreements on the technical specifications for materials,
products, processes and services.
The international organization for standardization (ISO) is developing
standard worldwide in an effort to standardize and thus streamline the international
marketplace for industry. ISO began developing standards for management systems
in 1987. A management system refers to the rules, procedures, forms, records, and
policies an organization uses to manage its processes or activities. The system of
rules may not be written down in a very small organization but in larger
organizations which involving more people, written rules are needed to ensure that
everyone is clear about their own responsibility. Management system standards
provide organizations with a model to follow in setting up and operating the
management system. When all firms share similar models, it is easier for them to
communicate the management practices to one another.
ISO has developed standards for two types of management systems which are
quality management and environmental management systems. The ISO quality
management system standards are known as ISO 9000. A quality management
system is the rules and procedures an organization uses to ensure that its products
conform to its customers' requirements. The ISO environmental management system
standards are known as ISO 14000. An environmental management system is the
rules and procedures the organization uses to reduce environment damage caused by
its activities.
One of the greatest and fastest-moving trends is the development of ISO’s
14000 series, Environmental management Standard. The ISO 14000 series has been
developed with global effort where by more than 30 countries participating.
25
In 1993, because of serious concern shared by industry, government and the
public about the proliferation of local and national environmental standards, ISO
established Technical Committee 207 (TC-207) to develop environmental
management tools and system that would be applicable worldwide. Among the tools
under development are environmental management systems, auditing, environmental
performance evaluation, life cycle assessment and environmental friendly or ‘green’
labeling. Excluded from the scope of these standards are test methods, setting limit
values or performance levels and specific product standards (Fava, 1996).
Technical Committee 207 (TC 207)
Environmental Management ISO 14000 Series
Environmental Management
System
Life Cycle Assessment
Environmental Labeling
Environmental Performance
Evaluation
Environmental Aspect in
Product Standard
Environmental Auditing
Organization evaluation
Product evaluation
Figure 2.8: ISO and development of environmental management tools
The use of LCA by business firms is being encouraged by international
standard setting organizations such as ISO. The ISO has been developing voluntary
technical standards for business, industry, and technology since 1947. These
standards are documented agreements on the technical specifications for materials,
products, processes and services
26
The ISO 14000 standards for an environmental management system (EMS)
provide guidance on how to create an environmental policy for an organization, a
management plan for implementing the policy, and procedures for monitoring
achievement of policy objectives. The ISO 14000 standards include guidelines on the
kinds of procedures needed ensure compliance and go beyond compliance. These
include standards on how to develop an LCA for an organization's product.
Organizations that follow the ISO 14000 standards can then demonstrate to
customers, creditors, insurers, stockholders, communities, and the public as whole
what they are doing to reduce environmental pollution.
2.4.1 ISO 14000 Series
ISO standards provide excellent resources for understanding the basic
elements and requirements for LCA studies. They also provide insights into factors to
consider when evaluating the results of an LCA study. The description of ISO 14000
series is summarized in Table 2.6
ISO 14000 series are combining ISO 14040, 14041, 14042, and 14043 into
two standards which are:
i.
ISO 14040- Environmental management - Life cycle assessment Principles and framework.
ii.
ISO14044 - Environmental management - Life cycle assessment Requirements and guidelines.
27
Table 2.6: The description of ISO LCA standard and technical report
ISO 14000 series
Description
ISO 14040 - General
Provides the basic description and framework for LCA
Principles
from which the remaining LCA standards are based. This
and Framework
standard
also
defines
the
“comparative
assertion”
requirements, including critical review.
ISO 14041 - Goal and
Establishes at the outset the goals, purpose, audience,
Scope
scope, and stakeholders that will be impacted or
Definition and
influenced by the results. This information influences the
Inventory
actual conduct of the LCA study. The inventory analysis
Analysis
portion is where the resources and emissions related to the
product system are quantified
ISO 14042 - Life Cycle
The phase of life cycle assessment aimed at understanding
Impact Assessment
and evaluating the magnitude and significance of the
(LCIA)
potential environmental impacts of a product system.
ISO 14043 - Life Cycle
The interpretation phase of an LCA, where the
Interpretation
significance and relative contributions of the results are
broken down and analyzed
ISO 14047 -Technical
Provides illustrative examples on how to apply life cycle
Report
impact assessment.
ISO 14048 - LCA Data
Provides
Documentation Format
documenting LCA data.
ISO 14049 - Technical
Provides illustrative examples on how to apply goal and
Report
scope definition and inventory analysis.
guidance
on
factors
to
consider
when
28
Fava (2005) in International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment cited that
in the new ISO 14040, a number of principles have been added:
● Life cycle perspective - LCA considers the entire life cycle of a product, from raw
material extraction and acquisition, through energy and material production and
manufacturing, to use and end of life treatment and final disposal. Through such a
systematic overview and perspective, the shifting of a potential environmental burden
between life cycle stages or individual processes can be identified and possibly
avoided.
● Environmental focus - LCA addresses the environmental aspects and impacts of a
product system. Economic and social aspects and impacts are, typically, outside the
scope of the LCA. Other tools may be combined with LCA for more extensive
assessments.
● Relative approach and functional unit - LCA is a relative approach, which is
structured around a functional unit. This functional unit defines what is being
studied. All subsequent analyses are then relative to that functional unit as all inputs
and outputs in the LCI and consequently the LCIA profile is related to the functional
unit.
● Iterative approach - LCA is an iterative technique. The individual phases of an
LCA use results of the other phases. The iterative approach within and between the
phases contributes to the comprehensiveness and consistency of the study and the
reported results.
● Transparency - Due to the inherent complexity in LCA, transparency is an
important guiding principle in executing LCAs, in order to ensure a proper
interpretation of the results.
● Comprehensiveness - LCA considers all attributes or aspects of natural
environment, human health, and resources. By considering all attributes and aspects
29
within one study in a cross-media perspective, potential tradeoffs can be identified
and assessed.
● Priority of scientific approach - Decisions within an LCA are preferably based on
natural science. If this is not possible, other scientific approaches (e.g. from social or
economic sciences) can be used or international conventions can be referred to. If
neither a scientific basis exists nor a justification based on other scientific approaches
or international conventions is possible, then, as appropriate, decisions may be based
on value choices.
2.5
Overview of LCA Implementation in Developing and Developed Country
LCA nowadays is accepted worldwide. In developed country, LCA has been
implemented widely but in developing country it still in infancy stage. On March
2001, a one year project on LCA Case Study Development in Asian Countries has
been developed. The objectives of the project are to showcase Asian experience in
LCA, to obtain experience and feedback from an Asian perspective on applying ISO
14040, to involve local companies in applying LCA, to promote awareness and
education in LCA, and to discover the role of LCA in Green Productivity (GP) and
other environmental initiatives. The countries involved are India, Indonesia, Korea,
Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand.
Although LCA has been receiving a lot of attention since 1990, the first
attempt to look at extended product systems can be traced back to as early as 1996s.
With the oil shortage on the early 1970s, both the United States and British
governments commissioned extensive studies of industrial studies to conduct detailed
energy analyses. After the oil crises faded, LCA activities in United States continued
at a slow stage but steady pace of around two or three studies per year.
30
2.5.1 LCA Activities in Thailand
Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been introduced to the Thai industries in
1997 as part of the ISO 14000 series. The concept of LCA is being gradually
accepted. However, there are a few formal LCA studies in Thailand so far due to the
limited amount of LCA expertise and lack of sufficient databases relevant to
domestic condition (Pongvipa, 2002).
The LCA activities in Thailand were divided into 4 areas. There areas were:
a)
Workshop and seminar
b)
Survey of LCA use
c)
Use of LCA studies in eco-labeling
d)
Life cycle inventory (LCI) and LCA studies.
The concept of LCA has been introduced through out the workshop and
seminar in cooperation with many organizations. The LCA seminar and workshop
has been done annually during 1997-2001. The entire seminar gained attention from
Thai industries successfully.
A questionnaire survey method was used to investigate LCA use in industries
in July 1998 and December 2001. The data was collected from universities,
industries and government agencies. There were 43 respondents involving in first
survey and none of the respondents performed a formal LCA. This was mainly
because of lack of LCA knowledge and expertise and difficult methodology.
However, 79% of the respondent were interested in studying LCA in their companies
but required the Thai government to provide LCA training and more information.
The second survey was conducted in December 2001.
Being aware of the high cost involved and the time consumed in developing
product criteria through format LCA, the Thai Green Label scheme has decided that
the formal LCA is not applicable. The development of award criteria for the scheme
31
has adopted different methodology. Results from existing LCA studies have been
used as a scientific tool in the Thai Green Label Scheme for the development of
environmental criteria for a few product categories.
The first LCI study in Thailand was conducted by Thailand Environment
Institute (TEI), in September 2000. The objective of the study was to develop LCI for
Thailand Electricity Grid Mixes, which will be databases for a further LCA study. In
addition, there were a few LCA thesis studies in some universities, but all the studies
used databases from the commercial software program.
2.5.2 LCA in Malaysia
Evolution of eco-labelling in Malaysia has begun in year 1992. In year 1992 a
formation of National Advisory Committee on Eco-Labelling under the national
standard infrastructure managed by SIRIM. Two years later, ISO formed the
Technical Committee on Environmental Management, ISO TC 207 and The National
Advisory Committee on Eco-labelling was changed to Industry Standards Committee
on Environmental Standards. In 1996, SIRIM QAS International had launched the
Environmental Management System Certification Scheme. Industry Standards
Committee on Environmental Standards assumed the role of the national mirror
committee to TC 207 and was renamed (Industry Standard Committee) ISCZ on
Environmental Management in year 1999.
32
Table 2.7 : Evolution of eco-labelling and beginning of the National LCA Project in
Malaysia.
Year
Event
1992
Formation of a National Advisory Committee on Ecolabelling under
the national standard infrastructure managed by SIRIM
1994
ISO formed the Technical Committee on Environmental Management,
ISO TC 207. The National Advisory Committee on Eco-labelling was
changed to Industry Standards Committee on Environmental Standards
1996
SIRIM QAS International launched the Environmental Management
System Certification Scheme
1999
Industry Standards Committee on Environmental Standards assumed
the role of the national mirror committee to TC207 and was renamed
Industry Standard Committee (ISCZ) on Environmental Management
2001-2003
Development of LCA Among APEC Member Economies: Malaysian
Component (JEMAI Phase II – III)
2004 -2007 SIRIM JETRO-Establishment of LCA Methodology and Application in
Malaysia (Phase I)
2007- 2008 22 LCA studies under MNRE (Ministry of Natural Resources &
Environment) to support National LCA project
2008
SIRIM JETRO (Phase II)
The organization of ISCZ consist of 27 members which come from various
bodies such as professional bodies, industry representative, research institution and
universities, government and non-government organizations (NGOs).
33
Table 2.8: Some of organization of ISCZ
Organization
Professional bodies
Example of organization involved
 Association of Consulting Engineers
Malaysia
Industry representative
 Federation of Malaysian Manufacturer
 Peremba Group of Companies
Research institution and
 SIRIM Berhad
universities
 University Malaya
Government
 Department of Environment MITI
 Ministry of Primary Commodities
Non- government
organizations(NGOs)
 Centre for Environmental Technology and
Development
Under the Ninth Malaysia Plan, the Government of Malaysia has authorized
The National LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) Project to develop the National Life
Cycle Inventory Database. The Database will be used to conduct life cycle
assessment studies, support the National Ecolabelling Programme and fulfil the
requirements of foreign legislation that demand evidence on the control measures
taken to reduce environmental impact of products and services throughout their life
cycle.
The specific objectives of the National LCA Project as stated in LCA Malaysia
website are:
i.
To develop the national life cycle inventory database
ii.
To develop a critical mass of local LCA practitioners
34
iii.
To develop ecolabelling criteria documents for the National Ecolabelling
Programme
iv.
To create awareness among industry and consumer groups on the
importance of LCA in today’s manufacturing and procurement practice.
2.5.3 LCA in Japan
LCA has been watched with keen interest as a method for evaluating
environmental load in order to realize the sustainable development. The
standardization of these methods has been promoted by the ISO (the International
Organization for Standardization). In Japan as well research activities in the national
and private organizations has become ever more active. In the LCA Society of Japan,
the methodology and applications of LCA were studied in detail during the period
1995-1997 with the support of MITI and the participation of 250 national, industrial
and academic organizations. As a result of the studies the following activities have
been addressed:
i.
Establishment of LCA tools for the whole of Japan
ii.
Construction of a Japanese public database
iii.
Establishment of LCA application rules
iv.
Establishment of education and popularization systems for both the public
and industries.
2.5.4 LCA in Germany
Life-Cycle Assessment has gained rising relevance in the environmental
policy of business in German. This observation was the stimulus for carrying out an
empirical survey concerning the application of LCA in German industry. In general,
35
German industry has become more experienced with LCA and will continue to apply
this instrument in the near future (Susanne et al., 1996,).
A survey was carried out by Ecological Economics Research Institute in cooperation with Federation of German Industry, on the application of LCA in German
industry from February to November 1995. The survey aimed at providing an
overview of the objectives and investigated products of LCA-studies carried out by
German companies. The companies involved in this study were automobile industry,
followed by the chemical and paper and print industries.
LCA is of growing importance in German industry. The evaluation revealed
that the prevailing objective is product and process optimisation, while the utilisation
for procurement, for example, is not yet wide spread. Furthermore, LCA is used for
information purposes. Companies, however, especially those in the automobile
industry, do not always make these studies available to the public. It appears that
food companies use LCAs in a more offensive fashion, while chemical industry
applies these instruments for more defensive reasons. Few LCAs have been
conducted by industrial associations. For them, they more often serve external
purposes, likes information of interest groups is more important than product
optimization.
Even though companies in Germany have become more experienced with
LCA, other instruments that extend the set of environment related strategies such as
environmental reporting, environmental auditing, risk assessment are gradually being
paid more attention. This may sometimes curtail the personnel and financial
resources available for LCA. This accumulation of knowledge both on methodology
and preparation for instance, the establishment of data banks and application of LCA
software will reduce costs per LCA and, thereby, promote its application on a larger
scale.
36
2.5.5
LCA in Europe and the United States
According to McKiel and Goidel (1996) European countries have been much
more willing to use some form of LCA as a basis for their public policy. The
willingness of Europeans to use an evolving tool more practically in is most apparent
in ecolabeling programs that have cropped in many European countries. Ecolabeling,
in fact, is perhaps the most widely publicized area where LCA has been used as an
underpinning the public policy. In the European Union (EU), a number of individual
member countries have established national labeling programs with Germany Blue
Angel. All these programs are adopting the concept of LCA, at least in principle. The
EU formally articulated in a directive that the EU ecolabeling program shall be based
on LCA.
In the United States, the concept of life cycle has been used by the
Department of Energy since the late 1960s for analyses the energy use in certain
processes and products. In fact, the current methodology of LCA has origins in
Department of Energy’s fuel cycles. More recently the use of LCA and its concepts
has been much more widespread in the private sector but has not gained a strong
following in the public sector.
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006 by Cooper and
Fava, (2006), most life cycle assessments are carried out with dedicated software
packages such as GaBi Software and SimaPro. With the progressive development of
software, the LCA become easier and less time and cost consuming.
2.6
Environmental Friendly Product
Lately, word environmental friendly is not strange anymore. Environmentally
friendly is also known as eco-friendly, nature friendly and green. Those words are
used to refer to goods and services considered to inflict minimal or no harm on the
environment.
37
When products, goods or services are bought, environment-conscious
consumers may rely on labelling and marks for information about their resource
consumption, sustainable production practices, recycling, and overall environmental
impact. To make consumers aware, environmentally friendly goods and services
often are marked with eco-labels.
Consumers also need effective mechanisms to support the credibility of these
marks and labels and avoid being misled by unfounded “ eco-marketing ” claims.
Products have more complex production and marketing cycles ; the increased resale
and recycling of goods (either whole or in parts) and the continuing acceleration of
cross-border trade contribute to this. Companies and organizations tend to
communicate more to the general public on their environmentally preferable
production practices and ethical behaviour, and use this for marketing purposes. But
because there is no single international standard for this concept, the International
Organization for Standardization considers such labels too vague to be meaningful.
2.6.1 Eco-labelling
Ecolabelling is a voluntary method of environmental performance
certification and labelling that is practised around the world. Basically, an ecolabel is
a label which identifies overall environmental preference of a product (e.g. good or
service) within a product category based on life cycle considerations. In contrast to a
self-styled environmental symbol or claim statement developed by a manufacturer or
service provider, an ecolabel is awarded by an impartial third party to products that
meet established environmental leadership criteria. Ecolabelling is only one type of
environmental performance labelling, and refers specifically to the provision of
information to consumers about the relative environmental quality of a product.
There are many different environmental performance labels and declarations being
used or contemplated around the world (Global Ecolabeling network, 2004).
38
The origins of ecolabelling can be found in the growing global concern for
environmental protection on the part of governments, businesses and the general
public. Initially, and mostly in developed countries, as commercial enterprises
recognised that environmental concerns could be translated into a market advantage
for certain products, a number of environmental declarations and claims emerged on
and in association with certain products. These included labels with such claims as
"recyclable", "eco-friendly", "low energy", and "recycled content". Such labelling of
the products attracted consumers who were looking for ways to reduce adverse
environmental impacts through their purchasing choices.
The oldest eco-label scheme is the German Blue Angel, established in 1977.
Of the 48 eco-label schemes in operation, more than three-quarters are governmental
or quasi-governmental schemes, administered or funded by public agencies. Ecolabelling schemes are in existence in at least 29 countries, both in the North and
South. Most countries have one eco-label scheme in operation, Sweden has two and
the US has 28 operational schemes (FERN, 2003).
Figure 2.9 : Logo of Blue Angel Scheme, Federal Environment Agency, Germany.
There are many different voluntary (and mandatory) environmental
performance
labels
and
declarations.
The
International
Organization
for
Standardization (ISO) has identified three broad types of voluntary labels, with
ecolabelling fitting under the Type I designation. Table 2.9 indicates of Voluntary
Environmental Performance Labelling according to ISO definitions. Figure 2.10 to
Figure 2.11 shows the types of voluntary labels.
39
Table 2.9 : The definition of Voluntary Environmental Performance Labelling
Types of voluntary labels
Definition
Type I
A voluntary, multiple-criteria based, third party
program that awards a license that authorizes the
use of environmental labels on products indicating
overall environmental preferability of a product
within a particular product category based on life
cycle considerations.
Type II
Informative environmental self-declaration claims
Type III
Voluntary
programs
that
provide
quantified
environmental data of a product, under pre-set
categories of parameters set by a qualified third
party and based on life cycle assessment, and
verified by that or another qualified third party.
40
Figure 2.10: Type I ecolabel. Multiple criteria, third party program
Figure 2.11: Type II ecolabel. Selft-Declared Environmental Claims such as
compostable, degradable, recyclable, reduced energy consumption and reduced water
consumption
Figure 2.12 : Type III ecolabel. Environmental Declaration. An example of Report
card on environmental performance from cradle to grave.( Source: Slide presentation,
MICCOS)
41
2.6.2 Objectives of Ecolabelling
Ecolabelling has become a useful tool for governments in encouraging sound
environmental practices, and for businesses in identifying and establishing markets
(i.e. domestic and sometimes international) for their environmentally preferable
products. There are three objectives of ecolabelling as cited by Global Ecolabeling
network, 2004:
i.
Protecting
the
environment-
Through
ecolabelling
programs,
governments and/or non-governmental program authorities seek to
influence consumer decisions and encourage the production and
consumption of environmentally preferable goods and the provision and
use of environmentally preferable services.
ii.
Encouraging environmentally sound innovation and leadership- By
offering products that reduce stress on the environment, the businesses
can establish or reinforce a market niche and positive corporate image
among consumers, thereby realising an advantage.
iii.
Building consumer awareness of environmental issues- Ecolabelling
programs can also serve to heighten consumer awareness of
environmental issues and of the implications of their choices.
2.6.3 Ecolabeling in Malaysia
According to paper written by Staff Pengajar from Universitas Mercu Buana
stated that environmental labels can be either mandatory or voluntary. Product
certification started in Malaysia in 1996 based on voluntary product certification
programs supervised by the SIRIM which also co-ordinates its programs with the
Ministry of Environment. The program was launched in 1996 by the Standards and
Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia (SIRIM). As of March 1997, SIRIM's
certification activities were delegated to a fully-owned subsidiary, SIRIM Quality
42
Assurance Service (SIRIM QAS). Malaysia adopted an eco-labeling program which
is voluntary with independent third-party verification that attempts to assure that
goods meet specified environmental criteria or standards. The criteria are publicly
available and uniformly applied. Currently, few products have been eco-labeled such
as energy (plum free); papers and packaging (recycle), CFC (cloroflocarbon) free and
biodegradable household goods. In this regard eco-labeling programs in Malaysia
involve third-party certification done by a body that is not in any way involved in the
production, marketing, or consumption of the goods in question. The international
standards organization has developed a set of standards on eco-labeling. Basically,
ISO 14020 Environmental labels and declaration has set out three categories of
certifiable labeling standards. The description of categories of certifiable labeling
standards can be referred in Table 2.9:
i.
Type I- Stamp of approval label
ii.
Type II - Self declaration label
iii.
Type III - Report card label.
Currently, Malaysia adopts product certification programs that can also be
designed according to Type II -ISO 14021 standards which provide a self-declaration
pertaining to environmental attributes of the product.
For example, eco-labels which have been self declared may contain a
percentage of recycled material been used or that the product is recyclable. Thus, this
standard has been finalized and printed and is available for use. Certification
determines whether a given product meets those standards, while marketing develops
consumer awareness and trust in the claim. An example of this will be products with
the recycling symbol, or the Mobious Loop which is widely used and recognized as a
voluntary eco-labeling program that may be funded and supervised by the private
sector or sponsored by the government.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This section contains the methodological issues used in this research. It
primarily focuses on providing information with the tools and techniques used in the
research process. A methodology of research defines the activity of the research,
measuring the progress of the research and the outcome of the research. Proper
methodology for the research is essential in order to ensure all the data and
information needed is able to be obtained. Besides that, the methodology refines on
the method of analyzing the data for the research using the correct method. The
whole process involved to get the findings is shown in Figure 3.1.
Gathering the information related to the study was the initial phase of the
project. Interpretation of the information in the literature review is important. The
sources of the literature review and the secondary data are books, magazines, articles,
journals, newspaper articles, conference articles, legislation and standards, brochures
and thesis. The information from literature review and secondary data also helps in
assisting the development of questionnaires and case study.
44
Phase 1
Gathering Information
Gathering information
Identification of problem
Literature review
Phase 2
Question Development
and survey
Secondary data
Questionnaire Development
Manufacturer
Small and medium scale
Phase 3
Analysis and result
Analysis of Data (SPSS)
Result and conclusion
Figure 3.1 :The overall processes involved in the project.
45
The second phase of the process is developing the questionnaire and
conducting the survey. The questionnaire consists of two types of question which are
open ended question and close ended question. The questionnaire was composed of
three sections, which helps in the assessment of the level of awareness of the LCA
and also helps in evaluating the willingness to perform LCA in their company.
The third phase would be the stage of analysis and result. All the data was
analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). SPSS is a
computer program used for statistical analysis.
3.2
Data Collection
This study took consideration from various sources including questionnaire,
informal conversation and field observation. To fulfill the objectives of the study,
data and information used in this study was classified into two groups, namely as
primary and secondary data.
3.2.1 Primary Data
Primary data were obtained from questionnaire survey done in study area.
During the conducting the surveying, observation of the field has been done.
Informal conversation related to this study also happened. Data and information
which was categorized as primary data in this study is the data obtained from the
questionnaire.
46
3.2.2 Secondary Data
Beside primary data, secondary data is also needed for this study. Secondary
data is an unobtrusive data collection method in which available data that predate the
formulation of an evaluation are used to answer the evaluation question (Unrau
et.al.,2007). It refers to the information by somebody else other than the researcher
conducting the current study. However, secondary data does not permit the
progression from formulating a research question to designing methods to answer
that question. Such data can be internal or external to the organization and accessed
through the internet or perusal recorded or published information.
3.3
Research Design
There are three main phases involved in this study as shown in Figure 3.1.
These phases are consists of preliminary data collection, data collection and analysis
the result.
3.3.1 Preliminary Data Collection
Before other steps can be taken, gathering the information related to the study
need to be done. This is the initial phase of the project. The information related to the
study can be obtained from books, journals, magazines, newspapers, articles,
conference articles, standards, brochures and thesis. The information from literature
review also helps in developing the questionnaire for this study.
47
3.3.2 Data Collection
Developing the questionnaire and conducting the survey is the second phase
of the process. The questionnaire consists of two types of question which are open
ended question and close ended question. The questionnaire was composed of three
sections, which helps in the assessment of the level of awareness of the LCA and also
helps in evaluating the willingness to perform LCA in their company. The target
questionnaire to be shared is 32 and the companies are selected randomly in the area
of the study.
The questionnaire is divided into several sections. There are three sections in
the questionnaire which seeks to address the issue regarding the aim of the study.
Proper elaboration of the section and the topic tackled in each part is shown in Table
3.1
Table 3.1: Elaboration of section in the questionnaire
Section
Topic
A
Company’s background
B
Recyclibility of the product
C
Awareness of LCA
Section A looks more towards the understanding of the company’s
background of the respondents such as the product that they produce, the scale of the
company and the market for the product.
Section B addresses on the product itself like the economical aspect of the
product and the recyclibility of the product.
Section C asks of the knowledge of LCA and other consideration related to
the LCA like the willingness to perform LCA and produce greener product. This
section also asked which medium can deliver the information of LCA effectively. It
48
also emphasizes on the knowledge of the impact to the environment through out life
cycle of the product. This section is more towards general understanding on
environment issue on impact of the product’s life cycle. Respondents are needed to
give feedback based on their knowledge on the issue.
3.3.3 Result Analysis
The last phase involved in this study is analysis the data. In stage of result
analysis, SPSS software is used to analysis all the data. The result will be produced
and the conclusion will be drawn together with the recommendation for future study.
3.3.3.1 Data Interpretation
For some question, Likert scale is used to indicate the respondent’s level of
awareness and level of knowledge. Five level of scale are used in the questionnaire.
A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaire and the most
widely used scale in survey research. These scales range from one (1) to five (5),
which represents the lowest and highest strength. Respondents have to specify their
level of agreement to the statement given. Table 3.2 shows the typical level of scale
used in the questionnaire.
Table 3.2 : Five level of Likert scale
Scale
Level
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
Slightly Agree
4
Agree
5
Very Agree
49
Highest percentage was identified for each part to summarize the level of
awareness based on the respondent’s feedback. The information is displayed in a
narrative way with suitable charts to make it more easily understood.
CHAPTER 4
DATA AND RESULT ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
All the data obtained is being analyzed and processed in this chapter. All the
data is analyzed using SPSS software and there are data that is being analyzed
manually as well. The findings is discussed and presented in this chapter. The
analysis is based on descriptive statistical analysis and inferential analysis.
The data in this study was obtained through questionnaire distribution. The
study area chosen is light industrial in industrial park at Taman Universiti, Skudai,
Johor Bahru, Malaysia. There are about 47 industries in this area. The number and
type of production is summarized in Table 4.1.
The questionnaire was covering 68% from the whole numbers of industries in
Taman Universiti. The total number of 47 is including warehouses or storages and
retail shops.
51
Table 4.1 : Number and category of production in Taman Universiti.
Category
4.2
Number
Food and Beverage
5
Funiture and Part
3
Metal Product and Part
4
Paper and Paper Product
4
Plastic and Plastic Product
11
Rubber and Rubber Product
3
Textile and Textile Product
3
Others
14
Total
47
Questionnaire (Descriptive Analysis)
The questionnaire is the main source of data collection in this study. The
questionnaire was distributed amongst manufacturer in the study area of Taman
Universiti. This was carried out in order to evaluate the set objectives of the study
from the study area. There were 32 of questionnaires has been distributed among the
manufacturers in Taman University. This study not only focuses on one production
but different type of production.
4.2.1 Background of respondent
In order to commence the questionnaire studies, background of the
manufacturer and the position of respondent are required. This will help analyze
groups like the type of production and the market target for the product. These
background questions also will help assess the way in which different role of
respondent react to questions being asked. Beside that the recyclability of the product
they produce is also obtained in this section. Tables 4.2 shows the frequency and
percentage of respondent who response to the questionnaire
52
Table 4.2 : Frequency and percentage of respondents
Reply
Frequency
Percent %
Manager
14
43.75
Engineer
13
40.625
5
15.625
32
100
QC
Total
From the Table 4.2, it is observed that the percentage of manager and
engineer doubles that of the Quality Control (QC). Even though this area only
consists of light industry, they have their own engineer and QC to make sure their
product meet the client requirement. Beside that, the position of the respondent is
importance because they know better about the product that has been produced and
the process involve in making the product.
Figure 4.1 shows the manufacturers involved in this study according to their
production. Production based on plastic takes the highest position with number of 10
out of 32 manufacturers involved in this study. Food industry is the second highest
manufacturer in this area. Meanwhile the rest shared almost the same position.
Type of production
31.25
35
30
25
20
15.625
12.5
percentage
15
12.5
9.375
9.375
9.375
10
5
0
food
metal paper plastic rubber textile others
Type of product
Figure 4.1 : Manufacturer based on their type of production
53
Every single manufacturer has their own market for their product. For this
area, most of the product is for local market and only 12.5% for export. 25% of
productions for these manufacturers are for local market and for export. Figure 4.2
indicates the percentage for market target of the products.
Market target of the product
70
62.5
percentage
60
50
40
25
30
20
12.5
10
0
local
export
both
Figure 4.2: Market target of the products.
Local marketing is 62.5% which is the highest because of the production
itself. Since the area is light industry, they may not produce the product in large
amount. Basically, most of the production is depending on client requirement.
The recyclability of a product is important in order to make sure the product
can be recycled at end of their useful life. Recycling also can reduce the waste to be
dumped in landfill. From the survey, 65.6% of the products produced can be recycled
as shown in Figure 4.3. Since the production of the plastic is higher than others, it
may contribute to the percentage of recyclability of the product.
54
Recyclability of the product
70
60
50
40
65.625
30
34.375
20
10
0
yes
no
Figure 4.3: Percentage of recyclability of the product produced from light industry at
Taman Universiti
Beside that, the respondents were asked about their product either it reusable
or not. The respondents said they have no right to decide because it depends on
consumer creativity. The product may reusable if the consumer knows how to exploit
the product to other purposes. The product life service also depends on how the
consumer utilizes the product.
All the products involved in this study can not be economically repaired or
upgraded. Since they are small and medium manufacturer, most of them produce
only a part of the entire product. The components then are sent to other company to
coalesce it into a useful product. The suppliers also are not taking back the product
for recycling purposes.
4.2.2 Awareness and Knowledge Of LCA
This section of the questionnaire is to evaluate the awareness and knowledge
of the respondents at the study area on LCA. Issues are based on their knowledge and
55
awareness on application of LCA in industry. Their knowledge and awareness of
LCA is essential to improve the future trend of LCA implementation especially in
light industry.
Table 4.3 : Frequency distribution towards knowledge of LCA
Reply
Frequency
Percent
%
YES
10
31.25
NO
22
68.75
Total
32
100
From Table 4.3 it is observed that the 10 of respondents out of 32
respondents agree that they do have the knowledge of LCA. This frequency
contributes to 31.25% of saying Yes and the rest of 68.75 % responded No to the
question indicates that they have no idea about LCA. Informing those who involved
in industrial sector about the LCA and the benefits of performing LCA is important
to increase their knowledge and awareness. The awareness of LCA indirectly can
reduce the impact of the service or product through it life cycle to the environment.
Even 31.25% of the respondents know about LCA, but none of the companies
have certification of environmental concerned such as ISO 14000 or equivalent. It
can be considered that environmental conscious among the manufacturers in the
study area are still low. However, they assert that they have plan toward
environmental conscious but it still in development.
56
40.625
agree
46.875
slightly agree
6.25
disagree
6.25
strongly disagree
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 4.4 : Consideration to perform LCA
Even though the awareness and knowledge of LCA is still low, 40.6% of 32
respondents agreed to consider performing LCA in their company as shown in
Figure 4.5. Meanwhile the rest of the respondents are still indecisive. This is because
they have no knowledge of LCA. More training and information need to be provided
to deliver the important of LCA not only to industrial sector but also to the public.
Awareness of LCA can help the industry to perform better.
50
50
46.875
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
3.125
0
0
0
s trongly
dis agree
dis agree
s lightly
agree
agree
very agree
Figure 4.5: Consideration of green product
57
Green product becomes the prominent issue in order to sustain the
environment. Green product mean the product is environmental friendly which has
less impact of the product to the environment. The manufacturers must consider the
environment in all aspects of the product lifecycle, from design and engineering to
packaging and recycling to produce green product. This means eliminating
environmentally sensitive substances from the products and working towards
developing reliable, environmentally sound, and commercially scalable solutions.
Performing LCA can assess the impact of the product to the environment.
40.6% of respondents agree to consider performing LCA but the consideration is
excluding the cost. From Figure 4.5, can be seen that no one agree to change to
green product if it increasing production cost. Perhaps they are small industry, so
they do not tolerate with financial aspect. Plus, advantages of implementing LCA are
still far from their knowledge. They do satisfy with the current situation as long as
their company meets the DOE requirement.
0
very agree 0
11
agree
34.375
Frequency
16
slightly agree
disagree
percentage
50
5
15.625
0
strongly disagree 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 4.6: Tendency to join the standard development process
From Figure 4.6, 50% of respondents slightly agree to join the standard
development process if there is a body decides to develop a standard or guidance for
LCA. 34.4% agree and 15.6% refused to involve in the standard development
process. Development of standard or guidance consumes time and cost. Because of
58
this reason, only 34.4% of respondents agree to join the standard development
process.
slightly agree,
50
50
45
40
disagree,
28.125
35
30
agree, 18.75
25
Percentage,%
20
15
strongly
10 disagree, 3.125
5
very agree, 0
0
Figure 4.7: Implementation of LCA should be compulsory
According to Figure 4.7, only 18.75% respondents agree that implementation
of LCA should be compulsory meanwhile the rest of respondents responded
negatively toward this question. It shows that the industry is not ready yet to apply
the LCA in their organization.
43.75
45
40
37.5
35
30
25
18.75
20
Percentage, %
15
10
5
0
0
0
strongly disagree slightly
disagree
agree
agree
very
agree
Figure 4.8 : Government should provide LCA training and more information.
59
LCA is a new approach to assess and control the environment degradation.
Many have no idea what LCA is. So, somebody must have responsibility delivering
the information of LCA. In this survey, 81.25% of respondents agree that
government should provide LCA training and information on LCA. Government has
great influence and priority compare to others. So far, SIRIM has been given a
mandate by the government to organize the development of LCA activities in
Malaysia. Every year SIRIM conducts the seminar related to LCA. The detail about
the seminar can be reviewed in SIRIM’s website.
There are several medium such as internet, television, radio, newspaper and
seminar which can deliver information to public faster and effectively. From Figure
4.9, the best medium which can deliver better information effectively is chosen by
the respondents is through workshop and seminar. They do believe by attending the
workshop and seminar, they can gain the information of LCA is better than other
medium. This is because in seminar, training is normally provided and any question
related to LCA can be directly referred to the expertise. Even though one have to
spent some money and time attending the seminar, it worth in delivering information
effectively. Meanwhile 12.5% chose television and 6.25% goes to internet, radio and
newspaper respectively.
Medium preferred to deliver information about LCA
new spaper,
6.25
internet, 6.25
television, 12.5
radio, 6.25
w orkshop or
seminar, 68.75
Figure 4.9 : Medium preferred to deliver information of LCA
Electronic media such as television, internet and radio are the best medium to
spread the information. But, via these mediums the information is only to let the
60
public know what LCA is and not emphasize on LCA technically. For those who
involved in the industry, they need to know the information on LCA more deepen. A
body who in charge conducting seminar or workshop can use electronic media and
print media as well to spread out the event.
4.3
Reliability Test
Reliability test was carried out for data obtained from the questionnaire. The
reliability test was run by using the Alpha Cronbach model. This model is a model of
internal consistency based on the average inter-item correlation.
From the model, the value of Cronbach’s Alpha as shown in Table 4.4 is
0.702. Data is considered reliable if the value of Cronbach’s Alpha is above 0.7.
Since the value of Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.702, it indicates that the data is reliable.
Table 4.4 : Reliability Statistics
Cronbach’s Alpha
Cronbach’s Alpha Based on
Standardized Items
0.702
4.4
0.715
Inferential Statistical Analysis
The inferential analysis looks into the correlation that exists between set
objectives and related significant dependent variables. Analysis is based on bivariate
correlation and regression to produce a linear equation.
61
4.4.1
Bivariate
This analysis basically correlates the dependent variables and the independent
variables. The Bivariate Correlations procedure computes Pearson’s correlation
coefficient with their significant levels to measure how variables or rank orders are
related. The independent variable being the position of respondents, the production
and the market target. These independent variables will be correlated with dependent
variables. Thus, deducing there from the level of significance in respect of Pearson
correlation (r) and Significant level (p).
4.4.1.1 Awareness of LCA
Table 4.5 shows that respondents position has significant correlation (r=0.358), (p<= 0.05) with awareness of LCA and at significant level 95%.
Table 4.5: Data Correlation for awareness
Awareness of LCA
Variables
Pearson
Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation (r)
Respondents position
-0.358*
0.044
Type of production
0.007
0.97
Target Market
0.177
0.332
Note : *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
The correlation indicates that the manager has higher awareness about LCA
compare to engineer and QC. In organization, manager has higher position which
mean manager has the power to control and make the decision. So, manager has to be
sensitive with current issue to make sure the market of their product is stable.
62
Many campaigns have been launched regarding to environmental conscious
such as recycling program and say no to plastic bag. Generally, recycling rate at
Malaysia is still low. In Penang, customer has to pay for plastic bag. This program to
lessen the usage of plastic since the plastic takes long time to decompose
Table 4.6: Data Correlation for product recyclability
Product Recyclability
Variables
Pearson
Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation (r)
Respondent position
-0.450**
0.010
Type of production
0.113
0.539
Target Market
0.393*
0.026
Note : * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 4.6 present the correlation between recyclability of the product and the
variables. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level between recyclability of product
and target market with (r=0.398) (P<= 0.05) and correlation is significant at the 0.01
level ( r=-0.450) (P<= 0.01) between product recyclability and respondents position
as indicates in Table 4.6. It is explaining that the recyclability of product for export
and local market is higher.
Every country has it own regulation to protect the environment. As an
example, in German, disposal problem strongly favor recyclable materials for
product packaging. In fact, German regulation applying to national and imported
product require specific levels of recyclability and may even require that an importer
take back the packaging materials once the consumer unwraps the product.
Packaging materials are much smaller consideration in the life cycle of Malaysian
products imported to German. But transportation and energy expenditures associated
with collecting, transporting and recycling of packaging materials are prohibitive to
effective export of some products under German regulation.
63
Beside that, the product for local and export shows more interest in joining
standard development process. The correlation can be reviewed in Table 4.7. The
correlation is significant at the 0.01 level with value of Pearson Correlation is 0.548.
Table 4.7 : Data Correlation
Tendency Joining Standard
Variables
Development Process
Pearson
Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation (r)
Respondent's position
-0.339
0.057
Type of production
0.043
0.816
Target Market
0.548*
0.001
Note : *. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 4.8 shows the correlation significant at the 0.01 level between target
market and compulsory of implementing LCA with r=0.683. It means that product
for international and local need more attention to meet the regulation of local
authorities and other country as well.
Table 4.8: Data Correlation
Compulsory of Implementing LCA
Variables
Pearson
Sig. (2-tailed)
Correlation (r)
Respondent's position
-0.197
0.281
Type of production
0.312
0.083
Target Market
0.683**
0.000
Note: ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Development of the basic LCA concept has occurred at international level. To
make sure the product can be accepted worldwide the manufacturer need to have
access to the bases including the LCA methodology of national and regional
64
standard. Better yet, life cycle considerations applied in the development of
international standard for product could reveal common elements of both agreement
and concern.
4.4.2
Regression
Regression is a measure of the relation between the mean value of one
variable and corresponding value of other variables. Regression is consists of
independent and dependent variables for modeling and analysis of numerical data.
The purpose of linear regression is to adjust the values of slope and intercept to find
the line that best predict y and x value for linear equation. Linear equation, y= mx +
c where y represent dependent variable, m is value of slope, x is the independent
variable and c is the constant value which intercept at y-axis.
4.4.2.1 Awareness of LCA
There are two models obtained from SPSS. The independent variable for first
model is respondent position and independent variables for second model are
respondent position and target market. Table 4.9 shows the models for dependent
variable awareness.
Table 4.9 : Models for awareness
Model
Linear Regression
Model 1
Awareness = 1.666 – 0.456 RP
Model 2
Awareness = 1.388 – 0.449 RP - 0.129
MT
The best model is the model with highest R square value. Table 4.10 is model
summary for R square. Value R square for model one is 0.128 and model two is
65
0.142 which mean model two has higher value of R square. This indicates that model
two is the best model for dependent variable awareness.
Table 4.10: Model summary for Awareness
Model R
R
Adjusted Standard Change Statistic
square
R
Error of
Square
the
estimate
R
F
Df
Df
Sig. F
Square
Change
1
2
Change
Change
1
0.358a 0.128
0.099
0.44693
0.128
4.419
1
30
0.044
2
0.377b 0.142
0.083
0.45097
0.142
2.402
2
29
0.108
a. Predictors: (Constant) Respondent position
b. Predictors: (Constant) Respondent position, market target
Regarding with the higher R square value, model two is the best model.
Therefore, the linear regression for awareness as the dependent variable is:
Awareness = 1.388 – 0.449 RP - 0.129 MT
Equation 4.1
Where : RP = Respondent Position , MT = Market Target
4.4.2.2 Recyclability of Product
There is also a linear regression for recyclability of product. As shown in
Table 4.11, there are two models obtained from SPSS. The first model is market
target as independent variable whereas model two market target and type production
as dependent variables.
66
Table 4.11 : Model for recyclability of product
Model
Linear Regression
Model 1
Recyclability = 0.640 + 0.28 MT
Model 2
Recyclability = 0.412 + 0.024 MT - 0.065 TP
Table 4.12: Model summary for recyclability of product
Model R
R
Adjusted Standard Change Statistic
square
R
Error of
Square
the
estimate
R
F
Df
Df
Sig. F
Square
Change
1
2
Change
Change
a
1
0.393
0.155
0.127
0.45096
0.155
5.496
1
30
0.026
2
0.406b 0.165
0.107
0.45596
0.165
2.861
2
29
0.073
a. Predictors: (Constant) market target
b. Predictors: (Constant) Type of production, market target
Due to higher R square values as indicate in Table 4.12, model two is chosen
as the best model. Therefore the linear regression for recyclability of the product as
dependent variables is:
Recyclability = 0.412 + 0.024 MT - 0.065 TP
Where : MT = Market Target and TP = Type of Production
Equation 4.2
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Conclusion
The main objective of this study is to evaluate awareness of LCA among the
manufacturers. From the analysis, the result shows the awareness of LCA is still low.
Only 31.25% which represent 10 out of 32 of respondents claim that they have the
knowledge of LCA. But none of them implements LCA in their company. Also, none
of the companies involved in this study have certification of ISO 14000. ISO 14000
is environmental management system standards that provide the rules and procedures
for the organization use to reduce environment damage caused by its activities. The
organization or company which has ISO 14000 certification indicate that the
company has environmental conscious with minimizing harmful effects on the
environment caused by its activities to achieve continual improvement of its
environmental performance.
Based on the result, it can be concluded that LCA in Malaysia is still infancy
stage. This result agreed with Inaba et al, (2002) and Sumiani (2007). The
involvement of APEC nations including Malaysia in LCA at international level has
yet to reach an encouraging level. Even though Malaysia is directly involved in
programmes conducted but still too few scholars are doing research on LCA. Even
surveys conducted from previous study found that the majority of industries have
never known about LCA.
68
There are some factors that may contribute to this situation such as lack of
expertise, financial problem, time constraint and lack of data needed. Light industry
usually not involved in the whole process of making the product. They only make a
part of the whole product.
However, the Pearson Correlation shows that level of awareness is depend on
the role of the respondents. The respondents who possess higher position in the
company signify that they more aware about LCA. In this case, managers who
possess the highest position has more responsibility and must monitor all the
activities in their company to make sure everything goes as planned. Most managers
will try to avoid pollution that could cost the company a fine for infringing
environmental legislation. But better managers will agree that doing only just enough
to keep the company out of trouble with government inspectors is a rather weak and
reactive approach to business in today's environment-conscious world.
Curran (1996) agreed that LCA is fast becoming an important tool for product
designers and production managers. LCA has been used mostly by experts because of
the complex nature of the analysis. Gradually, LCA is being used in more general
applications as understanding of the approach grows and data become more readily
available. The companies that take systematic approach to assess the environmental
effects will gain a competitive advantage through cost savings, an improved images,
and more effective holistic management style. Although interest in the systematic
approach to view environmental consequences has fluctuated over the years,
continuing concern for the environment and the new drivers of pollution prevention
and sustainability are reemphasizing the need to look at products, processes and
activities holistically with a life cycle approach.
The respondents tend to disagree using green product in their productivity if it
increasing production cost. This regarding to lack of knowledge of LCA and the
benefit they could gain after performing LCA. As Tan (2002) cited Green
Productivity (GP) is a strategy for enhancing productivity and environmental
performance for overall socio-economic development. It is the application of
appropriate productivity and environmental management tools, techniques and
69
technologies to reduce the environmental impact of industrial activities, products and
services. The principles and practice of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) have been
more widely accepted and applied since the publication of the ISO 14040 family of
international standards beginning in 1997.
5.2
Recommendations
These are some recommendations suggested in order to improve the awareness of
LCA:

Conduct awareness seminars and workshops. Promote the benefits and the
advantages of LCA especially for industrial sector. According Hauschild
(2007), global and international environmental problems are still unsolved
(dispersion of hazardous substances, increasing consumption of fossil fuels,
increasing consumption of non-renewable mineral resources and overexploitation of biological resources). By conducting the LCA study in
Malaysia it will at least reduce these global problems at our level.

More studies related to LCA need to be done in order to create experts in
LCA. There are a lot of software tools available such as GaBi, SimaPro and
BEES which can assist in conducting LCA.

Continue to promote environmental awareness to all level of society.
Develops environmental awareness among children and young people. Teach
them to implement environmental management based on the ISO 14000
approach in their homes and communities.

Disseminate the information through the print and electronic media. Print and
electronic media plays an important role in spreading the information.
Through these medium, the information about LCA not limited to certain
person, but the public get the knowledge as well. It is important to educate the
70
public about LCA. At least with the knowledge, public concern on
environment pollution due to the product they use can be increase.
To ensure that the performance of the study is improved in term of accuracy and
data acquisition, some recommendations are suggested for future study:

Survey should be carried out in other study areas which include large scale
industry and light industry so that comparison can be made. A comprehensive
relationship also can be established.

A study also can be done in a company which has implemented LCA to see
the advantages that the company could gain before and after implementing
LCA in economical and environmental aspect. It is also recommended to
observe the cost and time needed to finish a LCA study.
71
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studies. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
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University Kebangsaan Malaysia, ILO Research Conference: Green Jobs for
Asia & Pacific Niigata, Japan.
Consoli, F., Allen D., Boustead, I., Oude, N., Fava, J., Fraklin, W., Parrish, R.,
Perrimen R., Postlethwaite D., Quay, B., Seguin, J. and Vigon, B.
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Environmental
Toxicology
and
Chemistry
(SETAC),
Pensacola,FL.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Life Cycle Assessment: Inventory
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Franklin Associates Ltd, for the Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory,
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Practice (EPA/600/R-06/060), prepared by Mary Ann Curran, National Risk
Management Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S
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Fava, J. A. and Consoli F.J. (1996).
Application Of Life-Cycle Assessment To
Business Performance, McGraw Hill
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Barnum, J. (1991). A Technical Framework for Life Cycle Assessment,
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McKiel, M. and Goidel, E.S (1996). Public Policy Applications Of Life Cycle
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McGraw Hill.
75
APPENDIX A
NAME : TUAN NOORUNNAZIFAH TUAN AHMAD
MATRIC : MA081139
SURVEY ON THE AWARENESS OF IMPLEMENTATION OF LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT ( LCA )
You are kindly requested to spare few minutes to help complete a survey on the
awareness of implementation of life cycle assessment (LCA) of your product. This
survey is part of a research leading to MSc, and involves random selection of
factories. Please note that your input is considered very valuable to this survey.
SECTION A
1.
Which of the following best describes your role?
Manager
Engineer
Quality Control
Other, please specify………………………..
2.
What kind of product does your company produce? Please specify
………………………………………..
3.
How many of the product can be produced per month? Please specify
………………………………………
4.
What is the market target for the product?
Local
Export
5. Does your company involve in recycling
activities?
6.
7.
Both
Yes
What does your company recycle the most?
Paper
Plastic
Glass
Cans
How does your company recycle?
Collected from company
Taken to recycling facility
No
Other:………………
Both
Neither
76
SECTION B
YES
9.
NO SPECIFY
Does your company has certification (ie:
ISO14001 or equivalent)?
10. Does your company have an environmental
policy statement at the executive level?
11. Does the product have a long service life? How
long? Please specify.
12. Does the product can be economically and
effectively repaired or upgraded?
13. Is the product reusable or contain reusable part?
14. Is the product recyclable?
15. Will the supplier take back the product for
recycling?
SECTION C
Please rate accordingly based on ranking below:
1- Strongly
2- Disagree 3- Slightly Agree
Disagree
4- Agree 5-
Very Agree
16. Do you aware about life cycle assessment (LCA)?
17. Would you consider performing LCA in order to produce better product
to consumer and environment?
18. Will you consider green product even it will increase production cost?
29. If a body decides to develop a standard or guidance, would your
organization like to join the standard development process?
20. Implementation of LCA should be compulsory to sustain the
environment.
21. Government should provide LCA training and more information on
LCA
77
22.
What medium do you prefer to deliver information about LCA?
Internet
Television
Radio
Workshop or seminar
Others :………………………………………………….(please specify)
The activities as listed in the table below give impact to the environment. Please
choose the appropriate impact and state the significant level of the impact which
might contribute to environmental degradation.
1
Insignificant
2
Less
Significant
Activities
3
Slightly
Significant
4
Significant
5
Very
Significant
Waste
Air
Noise & Water & Depletion
problem pollution vibration
soil
of energy
pollution resources
Extraction and processing
of raw material
Manufacturing
Packaging
Marketing
Use, reuse or
maintenance of the
product
Disposal of waste at the
end of its useful life
In your opinion, what is the best practice should be applied to an organization or
production in order to gain profit and at the same time sustain the environment?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Thank you.
78
APPENDIX B
ANOVAb
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression
.883
1
.883
4.419
.044a
Residual
5.992
30
.200
Total
6.875
31
Model
1
a. Predictors: (Constant), Respondent position
b. Dependent Variable: Q24 (Awareness)
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std.
Error
(Constant)
2.085
.205
Respondent
position
-.231
.110
Model
1
a. Dependent Variable: Q24 (Awareness)
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
-.358
95% Confidence
Interval for B
Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
10.167 .000
1.666
2.504
-2.102 .044
-.456
-.007
t
79
APPENDIX C
ANOVAb
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression
.977
2
.489
2.402
.108a
Residual
5.898
29
.203
Total
6.875
31
Model
1
a. Predictors: (Constant), markettarget, Respondent position
b. Dependent Variable: Q24 (Awareness)
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std.
Error
(Constant)
1.958
.279
Respondent
position
-.218
.113
-.338
Market target
.064
.094
.119
Model
1
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
a. Dependent Variable: Q24 (Awareness)
95% Confidence
Interval for B
t
Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
7.025
.000
1.388
2.528
-1.935 .063
-.449
.012
-.129
.258
.682
.501
80
APPENDIX D
ANOVAb
Sum of
Squares
Model
1
df
Mean Square
Regression
1.118
1
1.118
Residual
6.101
30
.203
Total
7.219
31
F
Sig.
5.496
.026a
a. Predictors: (Constant), markettarget
b.
Dependent Variable: Q15 ( Recyclability)
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
B
Std.
Error
Standardized
Coefficients
95% Confidence
Interval for B
t
Beta
Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
(Constant)
.989
.171
5.789 .000
.640
1.338
markettar
get
.218
.093
.393 2.344 .026
.028
.408
a. Dependent Variable: Q15 ( Recyclability)
81
APPENDIX E
ANOVAb
Sum of
Squares
Model
1
df
Mean Square
Regression
1.190
2
.595
Residual
6.029
29
.208
Total
7.219
31
F
2.861
Sig.
.073a
a. Predictors: (Constant), production, markettarget
b. Dependent Variable: Q15 ( Recyclability)
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Model
1
B
Std. Error
Standardized
Coefficients
95% Confidence
Interval for B
t
Beta
Sig.
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
(Constant)
.895
.236
3.789
.001
.412
1.378
markettarget
.216
.094
.390 2.298
.029
.024
.409
production
.026
.045
.100
.561
-.065
.118
a.
Dependent Variable: Q15 ( Recyclability)
.588