Assumptions in Theories of Leadership
The leader
(trait, style, behavior,
vision, charisma)
The led (follower)
(motivations, readiness,
attitudes)
The task
(from holistic to
reductionism,
needing discretion or
direction)
The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)
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Democratic Perspectives
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Democratic perspectives view leadership as
facilitating an essentially participative,
internal process.
The perspectives range from a “restricted”
democracy where the leader shares power
with a limited number of senior colleagues to
a “pure’ democracy where all members have
an equal voice in determining policy.
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Democratic Perspectives:
Intellectual and Political Sources

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The human relations movement
The constitutional ideal
A high pressure for accountability
A façade
A model for future citizens
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Democratic perspectives on
Leadership: Key points
1.
2.
3.
Democratic perspectives on leadership are
normative and idealistic in nature.
Democratic perspectives assume that
people in an organization have a common
goal and decisions are made through
consensus rather than conflict, an
assumption which is contrary to that of
political perspective.
Democratic perspectives arise from a unique
set of assumptions about the organization,
the leader, and the follower.
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Democratic perspectives on
Leadership: Key points (Cont.)
4)
5)
If we view leadership from the democratic
perspective, leadership is neither a function
of personal characteristics, nor is it
associated with position in a formal
organization. Rather, leadership is to
facilitate an essentially participative, internal
process. To ensure a formal representation
within an organization is the key to
democratic leadership.
It is crucial for a leader to balance
democratic perspectives with other
perspectives.
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Reframing Leadership
Effective
Leadership
Structural
Human
Resource
Political
Symbolic
Leadership
is:
Leadership
process
Social
architect
Analysis,
design
Catalyst,
servant
Support,
empowerment
Advocate
Advocacy,
coalition
building
Prophet or
Poet
Inspiration,
framing
experience
Ineffective
Leadership
Structural
Human
Resource
Political
Symbolic
Leadership
is:
Leadership
process:
Petty tyrant
Wimp,
pushover
Management
by abdication
Con artist,
hustler
Management
by fraud,
manipulation
Fanatic, fool
Management
by mirage,
smoke, and
mirrors
Management
by detail and
fiat
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An overview of research

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It is more in the reflective and philosophical
mode than in the empirical mode
As to the empirical research, there is an
overlap between democratic perspectives on
one hand and personality and formal
perspectives on the other.

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with personality perspectives—democratic
leadership style
with formal perspectives—overall structural
arrangement and its effect
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S-M-C-R Communication Model
Level 1
_____________________________________________
Classical
Encoding
transmission
medium decoding
Theory Source
Message
Channel
Receiver
Level 2
Social
System
Theory
Level 3
Open
System
Theory
Perspectives
Motivation
Stereotypes
Distortions
Nonverbal Cues Values
Means
Perspectives
Motivation
of
Stereotypes
Distortions
Flow
Nonverbal Cues Value
External Environment
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Life magazine asked 1, 165 translators to contribute their
examples of signs in fractured English that they had seen in their
travel. Here are some of the winners of English as she is spoke.
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At a Swiss restaurant: “Our wines leave you nothing
to hope for.”
At a Bangkok dry cleaner: “Drop your pants here for
best result.”
On a toy doll’s package in Spain: “Laugh while you
throw up.”
At a German campground: “It is strictly
forbidden…that people of different sex, for instance
men and women, live together in one tent, unless
they are married with each other for that purpose.”
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Life magazine asked 1, 165 translators to contribute their examples
of signs in fractured English that they had seen in their travel. Here
are some of the winners of English as she is spoke (Cont.)
A foreign-born plumber in New York once wrote to the Bureau of
Standards that he found hydrochloric acid fine for cleaning
drains, and he asked if they agreed. Washington replied: “The
efficacy of hydrochloric acid is indisputable, but the chlorine
residue is incompatible with metallic permanence.”
The plumber wrote back that he was mighty glad the Bureau
agreed with him.
Considerably alarmed, the Bureau replied a second time: “ We
cannot assume responsibility for the production of toxic and
noxious residues with hydrochloric acid, and suggest that you
use an alternative procedure.” The plumber was happy to learn
that the Bureau still agreed with him.
Whereupon, Washington wrote: “Don’t use hydrochloric acid; it
eats hell out of pipes.”
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Summary
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Democratic perspectives on leadership are
normative and idealistic in nature.
Because of the normative nature, there is
little research on this topic. However, it will be
interesting to test normative ideas using
empirical data.
In practice, there is always a tension between
formal and political perspectives on one hand
and democratic perspectives on the other.
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