OPPORTUNITY AND OWNERSHIP
A Review of Children’s Savings
Accounts
Barbara A. Butrica
March 2015
Children’s savings accounts (CSAs) aim to improve the lives of low- and moderateincome people by increasing their financial security, developing their financial
capability, and improving their educational outcomes. They are one of the policies
advocated by the ranks of the asset-building movement: David Kirp includes them in
Kids First: Five Ideas for Transforming Children’s Lives (Kirp 2011). With their benefits
increasingly recognized, CSAs have been adopted and proposed in numerous forms over
the past two decades.
The CSA movement was catalyzed over 20 years ago with the publication of Michael Sherraden’s
ground-breaking book, Assets and the Poor. Among other ideas, Sherraden proposed providing savings
accounts with subsidies to poor people, who typically lack incentives to save and access to mainstream
financial institutions. These accounts, known as individual development accounts, or IDAs, offer
matching contributions and provide financial education. They are intended to build assets for certain
purposes, such as going to college or buying a house. IDAs have been funded through federal legislation
and have been tested or implemented in more than 40 states (CFED 2011b). IDA-type programs are
also active in many other countries (Han and Sherraden 2007; Sherraden, Schreiner, and Beverly 2003).
In Sherraden’s initial vision, IDAs were universal and began at birth. In practice, most IDAs have
been targeted at adults and implemented as short-term demonstrations. CSAs, while similar to IDAs,
are designed to start at birth or very young ages.
This brief reviews CSAs and their benefits, provides international and domestic examples of CSA
programs, and points to selected research on their effects—including their distributional impact.
What Are Children’s Savings Accounts?
Although they vary in design, most CSAs are savings accounts established in a child’s name with an
initial “seed” deposit from a sponsor—a community organization, private institution, or government.
Typically, families are not obligated to contribute to CSAs, but the seed encourages household savings
simply by providing children with bank accounts and financial education. Seed money can be provided in
one of two ways. First, the same seed amount can be provided to all participants. Second, it can be
means-tested—for example, it might decline with income and eventually fall to zero for those with
income above some threshold.
Some CSAs also include supplemental grants or matching incentives. The grants might be
conditional on meeting certain milestones—for example, bonus grants for signing up for auto-deposit
(Phillips and Stuhldreher 2011) or attending financial education classes (Mason et al. 2009).
Alternatively, supplemental grants or matching incentives may be means-tested and deposited only in
the initial year or periodically throughout the years. Like seed funding, supplemental grants aim to
increase the amount saved; they may or may not require additional private (or household) saving.
One possible aim of CSAs is to help children build private assets. Studies suggest that matches
provided against private contributions encourage additional private saving (Duflo et al. 2006).
Accordingly, some CSAs include matching funds. Sponsors can match private contributions dollar for
dollar, 50 cents per dollar, or at other rates. Another option is a multirate match structure, with the rate
decreasing as household income rises. The match can occur in addition to or instead of a supplemental
grant.
CSAs may be taxable or nontaxable. They may make use of existing saving vehicles, like 529 plans,
or create a new vehicle for deposits. Such accounts also do not necessarily need to be made available at
birth.
What Are the Benefits of CSAs?
Savings accounts aim to improve the lives of low- and moderate-income people economically, socially,
and psychologically. They increase financial security by providing people with the means to help
weather emergencies like a job loss. Savings accounts also develop financial capability; in demonstrating
the value of saving and compound interest, they encourage people to save more (Butrica et al. 2008).
CSAs share the benefits of savings accounts. In addition, they have been associated with better
educational outcomes (Elliott and Beverly 2011; Elliott, Jung, and Friedline 2010).
International Examples of CSAs
A number of countries have already implemented children’s savings accounts, including the United
Kingdom, Canada, and Singapore.
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A REVIEW OF CHILDREN’S SAVINGS ACCOUNTS
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom began its Child Trust Fund in 2005 for all children born on and after September 1,
2002. A parent or guardian was responsible for opening an account in the child’s name through the
private sector and for managing the account (e.g., keeping all the paperwork, reporting certain changes
1
of circumstances, and changing the account or provider). The government then deposited seed money
into the account. In its early years, the seed deposit was £250 (approximately $400), with children in the
poorest families receiving an additional £250. On children’s seventh birthdays, the government made
another deposit of £250; again, children in low-income families received an additional £250.
The Child Trust Fund encouraged families and friends to make tax-deferred contributions up to
£1,200 (approximately $1,950) each year. Accounts accrued tax-free interest until children’s 18th
birthdays. At age 16, children took over legal ownership of the accounts, and at age 18 the accounts
automatically converted to adult savings accounts. Withdrawals before age 18 were prohibited, but
there were no restrictions on how the funds could be spent once the accounts matured.
In 2010, the government announced that the Child Trust Fund was being phased out to cut
government spending. For children born after August 3, 2010, the government dramatically reduced
benefits to only £50 and eliminated the supplemental birthday payments. On January 2, 2011, the
government stopped contributing to all Child Trust Fund accounts.
In their place, the government established Junior Individual Savings Accounts (ISAs), which are taxfree savings accounts for children under age 18. There are two types of Junior ISAs: cash, and stocks
and shares (in the latter, cash deposits are invested). The money in the account belongs to the child but
cannot be withdrawn until he or she turns 18 (with some exceptions). Anyone can deposit money in the
account, but total deposits each tax year cannot exceed £4,000. As with a Child Trust Fund account, the
Junior ISA is in the child’s name, but the person who opens the account is responsible for managing it.
The child takes over the Junior ISA at age 16 and can withdraw the money at age 18. If he or she does
nothing, the Junior ISA automatically becomes an adult ISA. Monies in the Junior ISAs come from
private contributions only: there is no government seed deposit, supplemental grant, or match.
Canada
Canada has established three related programs to support saving for children’s education. It began
offering children’s savings accounts in 1998 through Registered Education Savings Plans (RESPs)—
special accounts that are registered with the Government of Canada and earmarked for post-secondary
education. RESPs are opened through financial institutions and feature lifetime tax-deferred private
contribution limits of $50,000 Canadian dollars. Through the Canada Education Savings Grant (CESG),
the government annually matches 20 percent of the first $2,500 of private contributions into the RESPs
of children under age 18. Children in low-income families receive an extra 10 or 20 percent, depending
on their income level, of the first $500 of private contributions. The lifetime limit for CESGs is $7,200. In
addition, the government deposits Canada Learning Bonds (CLBs) worth $500 into the RESPs of
A REVIEW OF CHILDREN’S SAVINGS ACCOUNTS
3
children in low-income families, along with an extra $100 annually until age 15. The lifetime limit for
CLBs is $2,000.
Singapore
Singapore has been praised for its “cradle-to-grave” and “highly innovative” asset-based policies (Loke
and Sherraden 2009). The Baby Bonus program covers children from birth until age 6; the Edusave
Scheme covers children ages 7 to 16; and the Post-Secondary Education Scheme covers children ages 7
to 20.
Singapore introduced the Baby Bonus program in 2001. Under the current scheme, parents receive
a cash gift from the government of up to $6,000 Singapore dollars each for their first and second
children and $8,000 each for their third and fourth children. Parents who open a child development
account (CDA) receive a dollar-for-dollar government match for their contributions: up to $6,000 each
for their first and second children, $12,000 each for their third and fourth children, and $18,000 each
for their fifth and subsequent children. Different from CSAs in the United Kingdom and Canada,
Singapore’s CDAs are designed specifically for the child care, education, and health care of children age
12 and younger (Ministry of Social and Family Development in Singapore 2013). After that age, the
government closes the CDAs and transfers unused balances to children’s post-secondary education
accounts (PSEAs).
The Edusave Scheme was introduced in 1993 to help parents pay for enrichment programs and
school-related fees. At age 7, each student automatically gets an Edusave account into which the
government makes annual contributions. Since 2009, these contributions have been $200 for primary
school students and $240 for secondary school students. The government also provides students with a
top-up grant periodically. The last top-up was $130 per student in 2011. In addition, the government
makes annual merit-based contributions (Ministry of Education in Singapore 2011). At age 16, the
government closes the Edusave accounts and transfers unused balances to children’s PSEAs.
The Post-Secondary Education Scheme was introduced in 2005 to help finance post-secondary
education expenses. The government opens PSEAs automatically and transfers unused balances from
CDAs and Edusave accounts into them. If parents have not saved up to the CDA contribution cap, they
can continue to contribute to PSEAs and receive the government’s matching grant until the
contribution cap is reached or until the child turns 18, whichever is earlier. In addition, the government
periodically contributes to each child’s PSEA. In 2010, the government top-up was $100 or $200 for
children between ages 7 and 12 and $250 or $500 for children between ages 13 and 20, depending on
the value of their families’ home. At age 30, the government closes the PSEAs and transfers unused
balances to adults’ Central Provident Fund accounts.
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A REVIEW OF CHILDREN’S SAVINGS ACCOUNTS
Examples of CSAs in the United States
Though the United States has no national children’s savings account program, it has similar account
structures that could be used to launch one—structures including IRAs, 529 plans, basic savings
accounts, savings bonds, certificates of deposit (CDs), Coverdell education savings accounts, and
custodial accounts under the Uniform Gifts to Minors Act or the Uniform Transfers to Minors Act.
IRAs and 529 college savings plans, for example, provide tax advantages and share some of the
same features and goals as CSAs. IRAs are designed to help save for retirement, but they do permit
penalty-free early withdrawals for first-time home purchases and post-secondary educational
expenses. 529 plans are designed to help defray children’s college expenses. Anyone can contribute
money to a 529 plan on behalf of a beneficiary. As of 2014, 49 states and the District of Columbia offer
state-based 529 plans (College Savings Plans Network 2014).
National Efforts
CSA proposals have been floated, and a number of demonstrations have taken place. First introduced in
2004, the New America Foundation’s proposal for the America Saving for Personal Investment,
Retirement, and Education (ASPIRE) Act would create children’s savings accounts. At birth, children
would receive a $500 government deposit in a lifetime savings account. Depending on family income,
some children would receive a supplemental contribution of up to $500. After-tax private contributions
would be permitted up to $2,000 a year and would be matched by the government up to $500 a year,
depending on income level. Withdrawals would not be permitted until age 18. Between ages 18 and 25,
account balances could be used only for higher education. After age 25, balances could be used for
homeownership or retirement in accordance with Roth IRA regulations. Although parents would
initially serve as custodians, it is unclear when children would take over the accounts (Friedline 2012).
Although the ASPIRE Act has been regularly introduced in Congress, it still has not passed into law.
The Young Savers Account (Savings Competitiveness Act of 2006, S. 2431) and 401Kids Accounts
(The 401Kids Family Savings Act of 2006, H.R. 5314) were proposals for children’s savings accounts
(Boshara 2006; Rist and Humphrey 2006). The former was essentially a Roth IRA, and the latter was a
Coverdell education savings account that could be used to buy a first home or to roll over into a Roth
IRA to save for retirement.
In March 2014, Representative Joseph Crowley (D-NY) announced a proposal for CSAs under
which every child born in the United States would receive a USAccount with a seed deposit of $500.
Families could deposit up to $2,000 into the account annually and the government would match
deposits dollar for dollar up to $500 per year. The proposal also calls for expanding the child tax credit
up to a maximum of $500 annually. USAccounts would be established through the Social Security
Administration, although families could move them to an approved financial services institution.
Children could access the funds at age 18 and use them to pay for college, to buy a home, or to start a
small business. The funds could also be rolled over into a 401(k), IRA, or traditional private savings
account.
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5
Institutional Efforts
From 2003 through 2008, the Center for Social Development led an experiment on children’s savings
accounts known as the Saving for Education, Entrepreneurship, and Downpayment (SEED)
demonstration. The program was piloted in 12 states and communities across the United States and
Puerto Rico and included 1,171 participants. All SEED accounts received an initial deposit of up to
$1,000. Match dollars were available to encourage private contributions. Many programs also used
benchmark incentive dollars for staying in the program or attending financial education classes, for
example, to increase account balances. At the end of 2007, the average participant had accumulated
$1,518; balances ranged from $885 to $2,626 (Mason et al. 2009).
In 2008, the Center for Social Development and RTI International, together with the State of
Oklahoma, launched a research experiment known as SEED for Oklahoma Kids (SEED OK). Though
similar to the larger SEED demonstration, SEED OK focuses on promoting asset building beginning at
birth and testing whether children’s savings accounts increase savings beyond what individuals would
have saved without them. The experiment selected newborns from birth records, and 2,704 of their
caretakers agreed to participate in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to treatment and
control groups. The treatment group received an Oklahoma College Savings Plan 529 account with a
seed deposit of $1,000. In addition, treatment group members were encouraged to open their own
private Oklahoma 529 accounts and were given $100 seed deposits if they did so. Finally, those with
low and moderate incomes had their contributions matched up to $250 each year. Members of the
control group did not receive a 529 account, though they could open one on their own.
In early results, nearly 100 percent of the treatment group had 529 accounts compared with less
than 3 percent of the control group, and the difference in average 529 assets was around $1,040.
Looking at just the privately owned 529 accounts, however, the results are slightly less encouraging.
Around 16 percent of the treatment group had their own private 529 plan, compared with less than 1
percent of the control group. Although treatment group members saved significantly more in their
accounts than control group members, the amounts and difference were small—an average of $47
compared with only $13 (Nam et al. 2013). Further, it is unclear whether the increased savings in the
529 plans were from new savings or savings transferred from other assets.
City and State Efforts
San Francisco’s Kindergarten to College (K2C) program gives every public-school kindergartener a child
savings account with an opening deposit of $50. The city deposits an additional $50 in the accounts of
children eligible for free and reduced-price lunches. Families are also eligible for a one-to-one match on
their contributions up to $100; those who make monthly automatic deposits receive an additional
$100. The program was piloted in the 2010–11 academic year with 1,200 students in 18 schools and
rolled out to all entering kindergarteners over two years (Phillips and Stuhldreher 2011).
Mississippi has a pilot program that has provided 529 plans to 500 children across the state and
deposited $50 into their accounts. The children with 529 plans are also receiving financial education in
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the classroom, and their parents are receiving training that encourages them to save for their children’s
future. In Michigan, the Oakland Livingston Human Services Agency recruited Head Start families to
participate in CSAs. Participating families were provided a Michigan 529 plan, an initial contribution of
$800, and a $200 match. Additional contributions were matched one to one.
Maine, Nevada, and, most recently, Rhode Island automatically deposit funds into the 529 plans of
all young children. In Maine, children born since 2013 receive a $500 Alfond Grant for future education
2
expenses. The grant is deposited into their Maine 529 account if they have one or is invested by the
Alfond Scholarship Foundation until children are ready to use it. Since 2013, Nevada’s College Kick
Start Program has provided public school kindergarten children with a 529 plan with an initial deposit
of $50. Starting in 2015, Rhode Island will give every child born or adopted after July 1, 2010, a $100
CollegeBoundbaby grant of $100 to deposit in a CollegeBoundfund 529 plan.
Through a partnership in Texas, the state Office of the Attorney General’s Child Support Division
piloted a program that encouraged using 529 CSAs specifically for children in the child support system.
The program—Child Support for College (CS4C)—originally targeted custodial parents who received
lump sum child support payments to deposit at least a portion of that payment into a Texas 529 college
4
savings plan of their choice (Osborne, Dillon, and Bellows 2013). After four sessions with a financial
coach, participants were eligible for a 20 percent match on their initial deposit and a 10 percent match
on subsequent deposits, up to $500. The program also encouraged noncustodial parents to make
separate contributions to the 529 plan. The CS4C program evolved after its 2012 beginning and most
recently targeted low-income parents who received regular child support payments. Financial
education sessions were no longer required, and all new CSAs were seeded with $100 for the first $25
deposited and received one-to-one matching contributions on all deposits, up to $500. The program
ended in August 2013. A follow-up study shows that one-third of those inquiring about the program
participated in a financial education session, and that two-thirds of those participants opened a CSA.
Account balances averaged close to $775 at the end of the program, of which $440 came from
participants and the rest from CS4C program incentives (Osborne, Dillon, and Bellows 2013).
Unfortunately, deposits were not tracked after participants reached the maximum match, so account
balances may be higher.
The Kansas child support program, in partnership with the state treasurer, has a program to help
low-income noncustodial parents save for their children’s college education by reducing their child
support debt when deposits are made into the Kansas 529 college savings accounts. Noncustodial
parents who participate and make qualifying deposits into a Kansas 529 college savings account will
receive forgiveness of their state-owed child support debt on a 2:1 ratio for every dollar deposited.
Finally, a 2011 CFED resource guide noted that states have the flexibility to design many features
of their 529 plans and that many states use incentives to encourage saving in these plans. The CFED
analysis found that 10 states had matching grant programs, 3 states offered tax credits based on a
percentage of 529 contributions, and 1 state had both types of incentives (CFED 2011a).
A REVIEW OF CHILDREN’S SAVINGS ACCOUNTS
7
3
Guidelines for Establishing CSAs
Establishing a CSA program requires careful consideration of its design and administration. Having said
that, there are now many models of successful CSA programs that states and organizations can consult.
The following design decisions are key:

whom the program is targeted to;

what savings vehicle to use;

whether accounts will be seeded and by whom;

how much the seed amount will be;

whether the program will provide supplemental grants;

under what conditions participants receive supplemental grants;

how much the supplemental grants will be;

who can make private contributions;

whether there are contribution limits;

whether the program will match private contributions;

under what conditions it will match private contributions;

how much the match will be;

when participants can withdraw funds and for what purpose;

what are the permissible investments for accounts;

who will administer the account (e.g., financial institution, public sector, or another third party);
and
what fees and costs will be assessed against accounts for investments and administrative

services.
Administering a CSA program requires

establishing accounts;

developing systems to properly credit private contributions from different sources (e.g.,
parents, grandparents, friends, and employers) and matches or subsidies (if they exist) to each
child’s account;
providing periodic financial statements to households that show the balance in each child’s

account to date and break out the share from private contributions, matches and subsidies, and
investment earnings; and
determining whether account withdrawals are allowable based on child’s age and purpose.

Published guides provide more detailed information about starting a CSA (Brooks et al. 2006;
Osborne, Dillon, and Bellows 2013). This brief is not intended to discuss these design and
administration options in detail. It does, however, provide a few examples of issues that must be
addressed:
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Taxability
Researchers have questioned the consequences associated with not taxing income in CSAs (Butrica et
al. 2008). Nontaxability is worth more to those with higher incomes. Some child account proposals have
tried to make the proposal more progressive by providing higher levels of contributions or matches at
low and moderate income levels. But the same principle applies even if the rich are excluded: for
instance, the account might still be worth more to the middle-income qualifying family than the lowincome one.
Choice of CSA Vehicles
CSA programs might create new saving vehicles or use existing account structures. Rist and Humphrey
(2006) discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of using IRAs and 529 plans as CSAs.
Compared with 529 plans, IRAs are more flexible in their uses and receive more advantageous
treatment in calculating need-based financial aid because the formula excludes them from assets.
However, IRA assets are countable for determining eligibility for public benefits. In contrast, assets in
529 plans may or may not affect public benefits. With the passage of the 2008 Farm Bill, 529 plans no
longer count against asset limits for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. However, they
count against asset limits for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families in some states, and against
assets limits for Supplemental Security Income benefits (Greer and Levin 2014).
Another complication with using many existing tax vehicles for CSAs is that they are often
considered poorly designed from a tax, education, or budget policy perspective. For example, 529 plans
predominantly benefit high-income individuals; they have not been proven to aid in expanding
educational opportunity; and they create an unnecessary level of intermediation since states hire other
financial institutions to run the accounts. Roth IRAs, in turn, have been used to play budget games,
since, unlike 529 plans and traditional IRAs, lost tax revenue is deferred into the future—well beyond
and not accounted for in 10-year budget windows. Roth accounts also heavily favor those whose
investments turn out well over those with low or negative returns on their assets.
The extension to child accounts does not add significantly to those inefficiencies. Yet it is unclear
whether long-term policy objectives for low- and moderate-income individuals should be attached to
vehicles that, from many other perspectives, tend to operate against their interests and that might need
reforming.
Age at which Accounts Are Provided
If child accounts are to be used to make people more financially literate from young ages, then providing
accounts at birth is less important than helping children become aware of the accounts and their
potential. A community, for instance, might make a substantial effort to get its school children to start
bank accounts earning interest that can compound.
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Notes
1.
The government opened accounts for children whose parents who failed to, as well as for children in foster
care arrangements.
2.
Between 2008 and 2013, parents had to open a Maine 529 plan before their child’s first birthday to be
eligible for the Alfond Grant. Starting in 2014, children automatically receive the grant at birth (Clancy and
Sherraden 2014).
3.
For more information, see http://raisetexas.org/childsupportforcollegeinitiative/.
4.
The average lump sum child support payment was $2,444 in August 2011.
References
Boshara, Ray. 2006. “Savings Accounts at Birth and Other Children’s Savings Accounts Proposals.” Washington,
DC: New American Foundation. http://www.newamerica.net/files/CSA%20two%20pager.pdf.
Brooks, Jennifer, Kevin Keeley, Will Lambe, Carl Rist, and Barbara Rosen. 2006. “Children’s Savings Accounts: A
State Policy Sourcebook.” Washington, DC: Corporation for Economic Development.
Butrica, Barbara A., Adam Carasso, C. Eugene Steuerle, and Desmond J. Toohey. 2008. “Children’s Savings
Accounts: Why Design Matters.” Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
CFED (Corporation for Enterprise Development). 2011a. “Resource Guide: College Savings Incentives.” Assets &
Opportunity Scorecard. Washington, DC: CFED.
———. 2011b. “Resource Guide: State IDA Program Support.” Assets & Opportunity Scorecard. Washington, DC:
CFED.
Clancy, Margaret, and Michael Sherraden. 2014. “Automatic Deposits for All at Birth: Maine’s Harold Alfond
College Challenge.” Policy Report 14-05. St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development, Washington
University in St. Louis.
College Savings Plans Network. 2014. “529 Report: An Exclusive Year-End Review of 529 Plan Activity.” Lincoln,
NE: College Savings Plans Network.
Duflo, Esther, William Gale, Jeffrey Liebman, Peter Orszag, and Emmanuel Saez. 2006. “Saving Incentives for Lowand Middle-Income Families: Evidence from a Field Experiment with H&R Block.” Quarterly Journal of
Economics 121 (4): 1311–46.
Elliott, William, and Sondra Beverly. 2011. “The Role of Savings and Wealth in Reducing ‘Wilt’ between
Expectations and College Attendance.” Journal of Children & Poverty 17 (2): 165–85.
Elliott, William, Hyunzee Jung, and Terri Friedline. 2010. “Math Achievement and Children’s Savings: Implications
for Child Development Accounts.” Journal of Family and Economic Issues 31 (2): 171–84.
Friedline, Terri. 2012. “The Case for Extending Financial Inclusion to Children.” Washington, DC: New America
Foundation.
Greer, Jeremie, and Ezra Levin. 2014. “Upside Down: Higher Education Tax Spending.” Washington, DC:
Corporation for Enterprise Development.
Han, Chang-Keun, and Michael Sherraden. 2007. “Attitude toward Institutional Features and Savings in Individual
Development Accounts: Latent Class Analysis.” Working Paper 07-24. St. Louis, MO: Center for Social
Development, Washington University in St. Louis.
Kirp, David L. 2011. Kids First: Five Big Ideas for Transforming Children’s Lives. New York: Public Affairs.
Loke, Vernon, and Michael Sherraden. 2009. “Building Assets from Birth: A Global Comparison of Child
Development Account Policies.” International Journal of Social Welfare 18: 119–29.
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Mason, Lisa Reyes, Yunju Nam, Margaret Clancy, Vernon Loke, and Youngmi Kim. 2009. “SEED Account Monitoring
Research: Participants, Savings, and Accumulation.” St. Louis, MO: Center for Social Development,
Washington University in St. Louis.
Ministry of Education in Singapore. 2011. The Education Endowment & Savings Schemes: Annual Report for
Financial Year 2010/2011. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
http://www.moe.gov.sg/initiatives/edusave/files/edusave-report-2010.pdf.
Ministry of Social and Family Development in Singapore. 2013. Baby Bonus Scheme: Singapore — Our Home for
Family. Singapore: Ministry of Social and Family Development.
http://www.babybonus.gov.sg/bbss/html/English.pdf.
Nam, Yunju, Youngmi Kim, Margaret Clancy, Robert Zager, and Michael Sherraden. 2013. “Do Child Development
Accounts Promote Account Holding, Saving, and Asset Accumulation for Children’s Future? Evidence from a
Statewide Randomized Experiment.” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 32 (1): 6–33.
Osborne, Cynthia, Daniel Dillon, and Laura Bellows. 2013. “Seeding the College Dream: An Evaluation of the Child
Support for College Asset-Building Initiative.” Child and Family Research Partnership. Austin: University of
Texas at Austin.
Phillips, Leigh, and Anne Stuhldreher. 2011. “Kindergarten to College (K2C): A First-in-the-Nation Initiative to Set
All Kindergarteners on the Path to College.” Washington, DC: New America Foundation.
Rist, Carl, and Liana Humphrey. 2006. “Choosing the Right Vehicle: A Review of the Primary Options for Children’s
Savings Accounts.” Washington, DC: Corporation for Economic Development.
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Individual Development Accounts.” Economic Development Quarterly 17 (1): 95–112.
About the Author
Barbara Butrica is a senior fellow and economist in the Urban Institute’s Income and Benefits Policy
Center. As an expert in the economics of aging and income dynamics, she has published and spoken
extensively on work and retirement, pensions, Social Security, economic security, and household saving.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges the Ford Foundation, which provided financial support for this
brief. Thanks also to Don Baylor, Signe-Mary McKernan, and Caleb Quakenbush for their thoughtful
comments and suggestions and to Fiona Blackshaw for her editing and production assistance.
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