The Re-Politicization of Religion in Europe: The Next Ten Years
Author(s): Jytte Klausen
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Sep., 2005), pp. 554-557
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Now
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JytteKlausen
The Re-PoliticizationofReligionin Europe:
The Next Ten Years
In thecomingdecadereligion
willbecomean increasingly
salientissuein Europeanpolitics.'This predictionruns
counterto theconventional
wisdomthatEuropeansare
When
Europeto theUnited
comparing
"post-Christian."
note thatchurchpews are empty,that
States,observers
fewerpeopleprofess
to believein God, and thatEuropeans are moralrelativists
who shyawayfromprincipled
In theEuropean
authoritarian
countries.
positionsagainst
and by this
view,modernization
secularization,
implies
standardEuropeansare modernwhile Americansare,
or
is, eitherpostmodern
dependingon who theobserver
the
then
are
we
with
evidence
of
flooded
irrational.2
Why
ofEurope?
"re-Christianization"
show
recent
Surveys
growthin thenumberof Europeans who expressan increasing
measureof religiouscommitment.It is only in Sweden and the formerEast
When the
are themajority.3
Germanythatnonbelievers
newconstitution
oftheEuropeanUnion(EU) wasdrafted,
German,Italian,Polishand Slovakiandelegatesargued
values"should
thata reference
to "God" and to "Christian
in thetext,and theyweresupportedby
be incorporated
theformer
Frenchpresident,
ValkryGiscardd'Estaing,a
RomanCatholic.4Greece,Denmark,and Irelandfought
to includea preemptive
(ArticleI-51 [3]) that
paragraph
church
protected
privileges
againsttheconvention's
existing
antidiscrimination
clauses,arousingtheireof theBritish
Associationof
HumanistSocietyand the International
Bund
and Atheists(Internationaler
Non-Confessionals
assoa
German-based
und
Konfessionslosen
der
Atheisten)
the
BBC
criticized
of the
ciation.5The governors
corpoA Danishsocial
rationforcutting
programming.6
religious
democratand formerNew Left historian,Karen Jespersen,has declaredthatshe does not wantto live in a
to stickto thenational
multicultural
societyand prefers
a nineteenthvaluesarticulated
by N. E S. Grundtvig,
The
reformer.
Lutheran
pressis sudNorwegian
century
to
with
references
filled
Christianity.7
denly
Beforewe pronouncea Christianrevivalto be on its
on
way,we shouldpauseto consideriftheoriginalreports
The
the dearthof faithwereperhapsnot exaggerated.
comparisonpresumesthatifyou do not go
empty-pews
to churchon Sunday,youdo notcareaboutreligion.But
religionmattersmoreto Europeansthan theirSunday
tosupbehaviorletson. Europeanspaytheirgovernments
church
that
the
assume
and
churches
their
quiterightly
port
ofessenwillbe therewhentheyneedit.The consumption
tialreligious
confirmations,
weddings,
services-baptisms,
Klausenis associate
politicsat
professor
ofcomparative
Jytte
BrandeisUniversity
@brandeis.edu).
(klausen
554
on Politics
Perspectives
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resistant
to change.
and funerals-hasbeen remarkably
Denmarkand Swedenareoftendescribedas theepitome
ofEuropeansecularism,
but85 percentofthepopulation
in the two countriesbelongto the nationalProtestant
churches.
Swedesaremoreproneto churchweddings(61
Danes are
percent)thanareDanes (43 percent);however,
morepartialto confirmations
(80 percent).Aboutthreein bothcountries
ofthenewborns
arechristened,
quarters
and theygetchristened
eveniftheparentsare not marprovide
ried.8The Danishand Swedishnationalchurches
burial.One
90 percentofthepopulationwitha religious
has to concludethatmanySwedesand Danes whoprofess
not to believein God nevertheless
turnto thechurchfor
lives.
assistance
their
throughout
But ifEuropeis stillChristian,
and perhapsbecoming
moreso, it is also grappling
withnew issuesof religious
millionMuslimsliveinwestern
Fifteen
pluralism.
Europe
The
new
insistence
on Christianvaluesis clearly
today.
linkedto a backlashagainstIslam.AngelaMerkel,the
leader of Germany'sChristianDemocraticParty,has
said thateveryone
who livesin hercountrymustaccept
that it is based upon a Judeo-Christian
value system.
AnnetteSchavan,theChristianDemocraticcultureministerin Baden-Wiirttemberg
who was responsiblefor
teachers
fromwearpushingthrough
legislation
prohibiting
ing the Muslimheadscarfin public schoolsin Badenstatethatalsomandates
Wiirttemberg-a
placingcrucifixes
in publicclassrooms-gaveas thereasonfortheapparent
of Christianity
and Islamthat
inequityin the treatment
is
an
essential
of
the
value
ofthe
Christianity
systems
part
"occident."It is, in herview,a matterofpublicethicsto
in the classroom:"We cannotallow a
keep Christianity
vacuum
to
spiritual
emergethatwouldleaveour society
withoutguidance,"theMinister
warned,"We muststand
our
cultural
and
as theyareexpressed
traditions
by
religious
in our Constitution."9
Academicshave also voiced the
viewthatthemoralidentity
ofEuroperestsuponsecularized Christianvalues,whichotherfaiths(forexample,
Islam)areperceivednotto share.10
The problemwithMuslims,it is widelyargued,is that
theyare too religiousand do not distinguish
properly
betweenprivatefaithand publicvalues.Lastfall,Helmut
chancellor
ofGermany,
his
Schmidt,theformer
expressed
that
under
his
had
regret
Germany opened
stewardship,
thedoorsto Muslimlabormigrants.
In retrospect,
he said,
ithad beena mistake,
becauseitwasnowclearthatChristiansand Muslimscouldnottolerate
eachother.Schmidt
blamedtheChristianchurchesforhavingindoctrinated
Germanswithresentment
againstMuslims,but he said
also that peacefulaccommodationbetweenIslam and
is possibleonlyin authoritarian
states."
Christianity
WesternEuropeanstatesare not secular.Nor are they
neutralin matters
ofreligion.On thecontrary,
Europeis
riddledwith Christianprivileges.Existingstate-church
frameworks
ofthe1555Treaty
ofAugscarrytheimprint
theprinciplethatsubjectswould
burg,whichestablished
havethefaithsof theirrulers.Amongthecountries
that
havebothconstitutionally
established
confessions
andpubareAustria,
FinDenmark,Norway,
liclysubsidizedfaiths
and
The
Church
of
is
land, Greece,
Italy.
England an
established
church,althoughit receivesfewdirectsubsidies.Ifwe countfunding
forfaith-based
educational
institheeducationofChristian
atthetheological
tutions,
clergy
faculties
atpublicuniversities,
andpubliclyfundedChristiansocialand healthservicesas examplesofpublicsupof Europeas deeply
portforreligion,the self-portrayal
committed
to secularvaluesand stateneutrality
crumbles
evenfurther.
theNetherlands,
andSwedenareconFrance,Germany,
secular
states
but
stitutionally
providedirector indirect
subsidiesforinstitutions
associatedwithrecognized
faiths,
forexample,religious
schoolsorsocialandhealthservices.
In Sweden,Belgium,andtheNetherlands,
funding
opportunities
arede jureavailableto all religions,
butstateneuremainsan elusiveand notfullyacceptedgoal. In
trality
theProtestant
and RomanCatholicchurches,
Germany,
as wellas Judaism,
but not Islam,thethirdlargestfaith,
are entitledto federally
collectedchurchtaxesand the
rightto runstate-subsidized
religioussocialservicesand
createdafter
theoverhospitals.
Spain's1978 constitution,
throwof theFrancoregime,declaredthestateto be secular and ended the Roman Catholic Church'slongstandingassociationwiththe state.Yet the government
tofundtheCatholicChurchfollowing
continued
an informal agreement
reachedin 1979 and stillin effect.
The
Netherlandsand Sweden"privatized"
but fullyfunded
clergysalariesand pensionsin 1983 and 2000, respectively.Even in France,wherethe law of 1905 and the
principleof laicitehas been invokedto prohibitMuslim
girlsfromcoveringtheirheads in school,churchesare
and are lentfreeof chargeto parmunicipalproperties
areownedbymunicipalities
butrunby
ishes,cemeteries
parishcouncils,and 25 percentof Frenchstudentsgo to
Catholicschools,whicharepubliclyfunded.No publicly
fundedMuslimschoolexists.
Twentieth-century
Europeanstatesmodernizedrelibut
never
embraced
constitutional
they
gion
principles
about stateneutrality
and theseparationof churchand
state.Secularization
in Europewas achievedbymeansof
statecontrolof religion.Germanyand Francestillmaintainlistsof bannedsects.SteinRokkan'stheoryofpathsince the sixteenthcentury
dependentnation-building
and thesubsequent"freezing"
ofpartisancleavagesin the
age ofmasspoliticsdependedupon theunacknowledged
butassumedstability
of basicreligiousaffiliations,
of the
cuiusregio,
eiusreligio
have
principle.12Politicalscientists
fora decadedebatedtheconsequencesof thecollapseof
theWestphalian
order-so namedafterthe 1648 Treaty
of Westphalia,whichestablishedthe sovereignnationstateas the basic unit of the international
order-for
September2005 Vol.3/No.3 555
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Now
Symposium I TenYearsfrom
international
but we haveneglectedtheattenrelations,
dant consequencesforthe Augsburgprinciplesof Religionsfriede.13
Migrationis one of manyconsequencesof
the new international
order,and it means that many
no
faithsof states.
subjects longerbelongto theofficial
Conflictoverthe role of religionin westernEurope
does not pit ChristiansagainstMuslims,but secularists
againstthosewho want publicpolicyto endorsefaith.
Muslimsareas dividedas Christians
on theseissues.Lale
the
SPD
of
member
the
toldme that,
Akgiin,
Bundestag,
in herview,whenhistorians
come to explainhow Muslims changedEurope,theywill concludethatMuslims
promotedthe belatedseparationof stateand church.
"Becauseof [theheadscarf
bans],we arehavinga discusI do notsaythatthingswillchange
sionaboutsecularism.
in two months,but we are lookingfora new parityof
stateand secularism
and religionin Germany.It is very
a newdimensionto the
that
Islam
hasbrought
interesting
It is a verybigdifference,
discussionin thiscountry.
and
whenyou look in fiveyears,in tenyears,whatwillhave
14
changedwillbe becauseofthisdecision."
Muslims
Nonetheless,
manyreligious
prefera ChrisA youngman
tianstateto one thathasno publicreligion.
and a Germancitizen,who
ofTurkishorigin,native-born
waselectedas a Christian
Democratto a stateparliament,
whodrawtheir
explainedto methatMuslimslikehimself,
civicvaluesfromtheirfaith,see nothingwrongwitha
partyprogramthatmentionsGod. But when religion
and "occidental
comesto meanexclusively
"Christianity"
values,"thenMuslimshaveto object.'5The managerofa
controversial
Germanassociationof mosqueshesitated
couldbest
whenI askedwhichpartyMuslimslikehimself
in
to
with
the
future.
work
"Manypeoplesaythe
expect
theChrisGreens,"he said,"I am notso sure.Probably,
was undertian Democratsare better."16His hesitation
standable,since he and his associationhad just been
subjectedto yetanothervolleyfromtheChristianDemto "occidental"and
ocratsabout Germancommitments
The
have
attracted
values. Greens
"Christian"
supportfrom
manyMuslimsfortheirstrongsupportforhumanrights
butthe
antidiscrimination
andstrengthened
enforcement,
partyis also secularist.
Religiouspluralismis a new socialfactthatEuropean
stateshaveyetto engage.Europeanshave to reexamine
thetwentieth-century
"stability
pacts"betweenchurchand
aboutreligion
andpubstate.New nationalconversations
lic policycannotbe avoided.The EuropeanUnion is a
centralactorin thesedebatesfortwo reasons.First,the
of the European
awkwarddebateson the ratification
accessionwillsoakup thesimandTurkey's
Constitution
meringconflict.Second,the EU is based upon a postThe EU has no one
framework.
Augsburgconstitutional
"national"religionand mustremainneutralwithrespect
to all the religionswithinthe Europeanspace. Europe's
taskof
largepoliticalpartiesare facedwiththedifficult
556
betweentherocksofxenophobic
negotiating
partiesmobion
nativist
sentiments
about
the
dilution
ofnational
lizing
"values"causedbyimmigration
and theshoalsoftheEU's
efforts
to endowthefederalist
projectwitha billofrights
based upon principlesof nondiscrimination
thatreach
mere
I
mercantilism.
in
that
a decade,
beyond
predict
will
no
be
able
to
accuse
of
Americans
Europeans
longer
mix
the
ones
to
and
Governments
being
politics religion.
facea choiceof fundingIslamor allowingforeign
sponsorsto continueto providemoneyformosquesand supinstruction.
Muslimassociations,
plyimamsand religious
community
groups,and politicaland civicleaders,who
favordismantling
the tiesto the Islamiccounstrongly
tries,havefoundan allyin nationalsecurity
agencies.At
thesametime,growingpublicsentiment
thatIslamis a
threatto nationalidentities
and thepopulistembraceof
as
tool
for
votersguarantee
Christianity
mobilizing
heightenedconflict
overtheplaceofreligionin publicpolicy.
Notes
1 The argument
hereis basedupon Klausen
presented
2005.
2 Anderson2004; Kagan2002; Cooper2001.
Mattei
3 Basedon the 1990-91 WorldValuesSurvey,
forthenonDogan (2002) pronouncedvictory
in Europe.Nonetheless,
believers
evenin thissurvey
62 percentoftheFrenchsaid thattheybelievedin
God. The 1999 WorldValuesSurveyrevealeda
increasein believers,
evenin themore
significant
See Lambert2004.
secularcountries.
4 Terrence
Murray,
"EuropeDebatesGod's Place in
New Constitution,"
ChristianScienceMonitor,
10,
2003,
April
http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/
-woeu.html.
0410/p07s01
5 See Ladwign.d.; Stinsonn.d.
6 The Guardian,May 9, 2005.
7 Gullestad2002.
8 Statistisk
2000,
Arbog2002, Denmark;Stiftslista
www.svenskakyrkan.se.
ofApril
communication
9 Land Baden-Wiirttemberg,
1, 2004.
10 Seidentop2001, 191.
11 Quoted in Hamburger
November24,
Abendblatt,
2004.
12 Rokkan1968.
13 Marchand Olsen (1998) describedtherigiddomesticorderassociatedwiththeWestphalian
system,
but theirargument
aboutthepost-Westphalian
systemfocusedexclusively
upon thechangesto the
international
order.
14 Interview
withLale Akgiin,Berlin,November8,
2004.
15 Interview,
Boston,June15, 2004.
16 Interview,
Berlin,November26, 2004.
Perspectiveson Politics
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September2005 1Vol.3/No.3 557
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