JOURNAL
OF
MAN
VOL. 6
nos. 1 & 2
1974
LAMBDA ALPHA JOURNAL OF MAN
Wichita State University
Box #52 (Anthropology Dept.)
Wichita, Ks.
67208
LI
LAMBDA ALPHA JOURNAL OF MAN
Wichita State University
Anthropology Department - Box #52
Wichita, Ks. 67208
Ms. Frances A. Francis
Alpha Chapter of Illinois
Southern Illinois University
National
Executive
President
Ronald Gould
Wichita State University
National
Executive
Secretary
Dr. Charles Jenkins
Alliance College
Editor
Business
Monica McMullen
Wichita State University
Manager
Mary Wehrheim
Wichita State University
The LAMBDA ALPHA National Office has
two branches.
The Wichita State University
office handles the JOURNAL and its publication.
The Alliance College branch is the National
Executive office.
Any questions concerning
be directed to:
the JOURNAL
should
LAMBDA ALPHA JOURNAL OF MAN·
Wichita State University
Anthropology Dept. - Box #52
Wichita, Kansas 67208
Matters concerning
should be directed
membership,
to:
dues,
etc.,
Dr. Charles R. Jenkins
LAMBDA ALPHA - National Office
Alliance College
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A DISCUSSION OF THE METHODS OF CLASSIFYING
HUMAN FOSSILS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO
THE BOSKOP RACE PROBLEM
32
SOCIAL CONTROL BY SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS
IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
57
The following
called
tales might
"MYTHS FOR MODERNS."
directed
to utilize
best be
Authors
traditional
motifs
in the construction
relate
to contemporary
were
folklore
of myths which
social
and policitcal
realities.
Best of luck, Levi-Strauss!
As we fluffs of fiber float along in the beams of light,
as we do every day, we all dutifully perform our acts of
allegiance.
We all look alike.
We all float at the same
speed.
Since my act is a simple one, catching bits of dust,
I seem to have more time than the others to look around and
notice things.
I watch the others float by but none of them
really look at me. They seem to be all too preoccupied with
their acts.
I can't help but think that there is something
else, something more meaningful for me to do.
I grow annoyed
with my position and the apparent apathy of the masses.
I
must stop someone and see if they feel the same.
"Excuse me, Sir Fluff,
search of some advice.
do you have a moment?"
More annoyed by the lack of interest,
to get a response.
I stopped another.
SUCH INDIFFERENCE:::
Certainly
as I do.
I noticed an elder coming.
confronted him directly.
in
I was determined
some fluff among us feels
Perhaps he can help.
I
"Young Fluff, every fluff knows our purpose
the system of fluff's order."
"Yes, Sir Fluff,
I asked
but why can't I perform
is to maintain
a more meaningful
act ?"
"You are young, you must be patient.
Maybe you will get a
different act.
We must all do as we are ordered."
"But why, if I can think of meaning,
meaningful acts?"
can't
I perform
"But that cannot be right for me.
of better things?"
"It is not right to think of difference.
It is against
order.
Change will only make for chaos.
You must not show
doubt in the system or you will be labeled an agitator and
outcast from the masses:"
"Sir Fluff, would outcast be worse than this meaningless
existence? I must find purpose.
Is there no purpose?"
the
are?
"Young Fluff, why don't you accept things the way they
If you don't, no other fluff will accept you~"
"I cannot accept
must be R better way.
t.hink
or
lH'U.l'l'.
thing~
this way because I'm surf' tlWl'O
Why can't we change them.
If I can
why c.an t.
I
I mal<f~ it
I'f'(l1?"
"There is no reality but the systematic order of the
fluffs.
It is the way it has always been and the way it
will always be. You cannot be apart of it - if you cannot
accept it. I must label you an outcast.
It is my duty.
You have until the end of the beam of light to decide."
"BUT WHY?"
I screamed, "Doesn't any fluff value thought?
You perform your acts without wondering if they are good or
right: :"
The other fluffs began to notice me now because I was
causing such a commotion.
Some glanced at me and murmured,
"Agitator", but none of them stopped their acts.
As I
floated closer to the end of the beam of light, I felt
desperate.
What can I do?
Where can I go?
I MUST BREAK
AWAY FROM THESE WALLS OF CONFORMITY: :
'ORIGIN
MYTH
Larry Madl
Wichita
State University
Once long ago Great Eagle
were sitting
and his brother,
on the top of a mountain
earth which was then void of life.
looking down on the
They decided
was lonely and that it should be covered
and people.
As Great Eagle was tired,
nap, telling
Red Bear they would
when he awoke.
Great Eagle
people,
red plants
exactly
alike;
and red animals.
also the plants
made all his living creatures
the commands.
until
all these things
the world with red
All the people
and animals.
immortal.
multiply
Red Bear had
They never
creations
were no improvement
that Great Eagle
Great
Eagle began flapping
the world
and as the dust settled,
had changed
of plants
everything.
and animals,
Great Eagle also made
so they could
all
over the way
a great cloud of dust that covered
it settled,
of colors.
ate or
as they were all the same.
The dust was so dense that Red Bear could
varieties
were
as they were told with Red Bear giving
the earth had been before.
earth.
to take a
Great Eagle was very angry and he proclaimed
that Red Bear's
wings, making
he decided
animals
slept for four days and upon
he founu Red Bear h~d covered
They did exactly
the earth
with plants,
begin making
waking,
drank and they couldn't
Red Bear,
reproduce
along with hunger
see nothing
There were now many
things
and thirst.
the whole
Red Bear discovered
and people were
and multiply.
his
now a variety
either male or female
There was now death
Great Eagle
in
said, "This
is a much more exciting
brave can survive."
world where only the strong
and the
Red Bear swore he would kill Great Eagle
for what he had done, but Great Eagle flew from the mountain
top, gathering
up all kinds and colors.
with his wings,
breaking
land with the oceans.
He then hit the land
it up and separating
and he called
Great Eagle
built
she laid a gold-colored
and in four more days he had grown
egg.
God was pleased
people
into an adult.
placing
too much
importance
then told the people
He then proceeded
to the other.
each other,
plucked
wings
all the feathers
that
her son
from her
and flew down to the earth.
He
Great Eagle had sent him with a message.
to tell the people
and they should
always
Great Eagle
all created
She
fight so much among them-
that each race was superior
He told them that money
The next morning
then
she was going to tell the people
whose name was Capitalism,
they were
against
That night, while Great Eagle was sleeping,
head and made himself
almost
on race and social class.
they were all equal so they wouldn't
important
of America
Great Eagle told her son that the
to discriminate
said that in the morning
selves.
Great Eagle
them that if they were wealthy,
with them.
were beginning
In four days,
the shell of the egg,
told her son that she had given the people
telling
he
tree she could find and
a small green baby broke his way through
total freedom,
all the people
the land America.
flew to the tallest
a nest where
of
He then flew to an island that was far
from the land of Red Bear where he dropped
had gathered
the pieces
and power were most
try to outdo their fellow man.
flew down to tell the people
equal, but they laughed
that
so hard when they
saw her bald head that few heard what she had to say.
However,
the land grew and prospered,
with the people
that was new, big or powerful,
outdo their neighbor.
Whenever
would
anything
land, and so the races fought
America
Soon it became unsafe
to release
inflation
came, the people
their fellow man.
(reat Eagle's
a second monster,
to a baby who immediately
kept trying
monster.
anger
increased
to
for
very
After
monster.
the
harder
to outdo
and he released
Meanwhile,
a woman named Bureaucracy
under
the
gave birth
grew into a man named Gerald.
to swim the lake four times.
His mother
Near
told him
After he had done this, the water
began to boil and from it came a golden
monsters.
Great Eagle's
found they had to work
the place of his birth there was a lake.
his hand,
the whites
but they still kept trying
the recession
tree of the Great Eagle,
to be top dog.
for the free men of
the inflation
a living,
help them
all of this and became
angry and decided
and harder to nlake
anything
for fear of being killed
Great Eagle watched
monster
to destroy
and the people
to walk down the streets
their money.
claimed
color would protest,
claim that Red Bear was trying
outdo each other.
that would
The white people
a man of different
buying
sword which
flew into
Armed with the sword he went off to pursue
the
M Y T H
Betty Jamison
Wichita
State University
Once upon a time in the mountains
of West Virginia,
lived a man, his wife,
and their three sons.
sons were born first.
They were very handsome,
great attention.
One was a very happy, gentle
the other petulant
very pleased
Their twin
and always
with the pair,
complaining.
for whenever
and drew
child,
and
The father was
he went
into the
small town they lived near, they were the center
of attention.
This pleased
important.
the father,
Even thoughLhc
and made him feel quite
family was ~oor, the father would manage
keep some change
to
fr"m his meager purse to buy a 'treat for
the boys.
When the children
birth
were three years old, the mother
to a third c~ild;
have never seen.
that "surely
parents.
should
The midwife
such an ugly
Perhaps
A more
who delivered
they hadn't
or maybe
Normally,
discuss
child you
the baby thought
given to the church
eaten something
as they
the mother
had looked
that was tabu during
It was a very sad occasion.
pregnancy."
neighbors
homely
child had to be a curse upon the
have in the past year, or perhaps
upon a beast,
a birth meant
would come calling,
their own trials
the parents
Despite
family
also a boy.
gave
their secrecy,
friends
to look at the newborn
and tribulations
were not eager
had a new child,
that well-wishing
and
and to
of childbirth,
but
for such visits.
word soon got around
and neighbors
that the
came calling.
It was
just as they had feared.
parents,
saying that "he looked like a good child".
handsome,
between
People were kind in front of the
mind you) But looks that passed
the visitors
back and forth
spoke more than words.
No one could understand
how such pleasant-looking
could have such an ugly child.
disgust
His father
concern
time with him, trying
attention.
he first
saw him.
and pity for him caused her to spend much
to compensate
The father,
jealous
for the father's
lack of
of the time and affection
wife gave the boy, caused him to say unkind
blaming
parents
could not hide the
he felt for the child from the moment
The mother's
(not
his
things
to the woman,
with age, the boy seemed
to get worse.
her for their sudden misfortune.
Instead of imp~oving
More and more he looked like a wizened
old man.
He had little
to smile about and seldom spoke, but he was always
good and
kind and generous.
Rejected
by the other children
(except for the kind twin),
he spent many hours alone in the woods,
each other and observing
the creek nearby.
the woodland
Sometimes
watching
creatures
the loneliness
birds
call to
drinking
was more
from
than he
could bear, but not being able to understand
how or why he
was different,
himself
it was just easier to isolate
in the
woods.
One day while out in the woods,
was sitting
on her porch
She beckoned
and sit down.
in a rocking
he met an old woman.
chair,
smoking
her pipe.
him to come onto the porch of her little
He was surprised
to him, no one ever did.
that she would want
She asked him why he spent
She
cabin
to speak
so much
time alone in the woods,
and he told her that people made
of him, and that the forest was one place where
fun
he could escape
the criticism.
She told him that he must do something
his value known
to the town; that his looks showed much wisdom
and that he must put this wisdom
to work.
The old woman told him that first he must
to be useful
no trade.
parents
and self-sufficient,
"Old woman,
were ashamed
old woman
learn a trade;
but he told her that he knew
I have never gone to school,
of me.
to make
as my
How am I to learn a trade?"
arose, went into the tiny cabin, picked
knife from the table, and returned.
The
up a small
She told the boy to go to
the woodpile
at the side of the house and get a piece of maple.
Dissatisfied
with the first two chunks,
what she wanted,
the third proved
and as the boy sat there,
she took the knife
to the piece of wood with such skill as he had never
hands flew this way and that, turning
whittling
a rabbit
seen.
Her
the wood and knife blade,
it into the shape of a rabbit.
it was as pretty
to be
There was no doubt,
as he had ever seen.
She told the boy to come back each day and that she would
teach him to be a fine craftsman
could sell the pieces
in town.
with wood,
and that perhaps
The boy agreed
On the way home, he was met by the father
twin, who demanded
woods,"
he replied;
to know where he had been.
whereupon,
ing the family waiting
stupidity,
his father
supper.
and returned
he
home.
and the unkind
"Only to the
switched
The twin taunted
him for keep-
him about his
but the boy said nothing.
That night,
the boy decided
that he must
that he could no longer take the cruelty
leave his home,
inflicted
upon him by
his father.
He packed
his belongings
light, he crept out of his bedroom
morning
and before
window
it was
and into the early
mist.
The sun was well up by the time he reached
woman's
cabin;
the old
she was hoeing her corn when he appeared.
took the hoe from her, and without
a word,
continued
He
to
finish the job that she had begun.
Later, while
of the noonday
home.
they were resting
on the porch
sun, he told the old woman
She knew that explanations
from the heat
that he had left his
were difficult
for the boy and
so she bade him to rest and be quiet.
The old woman was good tc him.
sleep on in the kitchen,
and he in turn,
cook stove, and kept the garden
hours of nothing
She gave him a cot to
chopped
free of weeds.
to do, she began
wood for her
And in the many
to teach the boy how to work
with wood.
She took him into the woods
"The pine,"
she said, "grows
with hand-tools;
and told him about the trees.
straight,
and is easily
from the resin you can make salve
Oak is a very hard wood; white oak makes
buckets,
makes good foundation
blocks
It is good for smoking
good for making
cherry,
woods.
meat,
wagon parts."
ash and poplar,
furniture.
It's difficult
and pegs.
cooking
Hickory
tubs and
The locust
to work.
It
is a hard wood.
and heating;
She showed
but the best,
and remedies.
good barrels,
and green oak is good for simple
tree is one of the hardest
worked
it's especially
him others;"Black
if you could
get
it,
gum,
was
maple."
The boy was a good student;
he showed
great patience
and a
natural
apptitude
were even better
Finally,
for whittling.
The figures
than her own.
one day after some time had passed,
the boy that he should take the figures
sell them, but he replied,
ridiculed."
Reluctantly,
take his figures
the boy packed
them.
Never before
The cabinetmaker
the village,
Pleading
to know who had
and on the third trip into
told them of the boy.
for there his opportunity
be rewarded.
him to go into the
would be much
for the working
His
wood would
that he was a
of great worth.
him work,
and marveled
and went
into the town.
at this remarkable
strutted
and crowed
about how he was responsible
success;
whereupon,
the boy denounced
have rejected
Before
success,
please
he
for the boy's
his father,
me all of my life, Father;
for what another
People watched
talent.
When the father found out about his son's
offered
greater.
of beautiful
But most of all, he would realize
The boy consented
credit
to a general
His eyes lit up as he un-
with the boy, she convinced
skill and appreciation
person
them up and helped her
in th~ town demanded
the old woman
into the town
had he seen such skill.
out such fine workmanship,
village,
I might be
She took the figures
store, and showed them to the owner.
turned
into the town and
"No, I am afraid that
with them to the edge of town.
packed
she told
Seeing that the boy still did not feel his worth,
she told him that she would
herself.
he turned out
saying,
"You
do not take
has done."
long, the boy was able to open his own shop.
to teach his older brothers
what he knew,
He
but pride
would not let the unpleasant
Soon after,
boy moved
the father
twin accept;
feeling rejected,
he left town.
died.
back into his own home once more.
old woman who had taken him in and helped
The younger
The kindly
so much,
had
simply disappeared.
Thereafte,r, people
have ever thought
Has he changed
were heard to say, "How could we
that this beautiful
or have we?"
person
was ugly?
HOW EAGLE
IMMORTALIZED
Nancy R. Bloom
Wichita
HIMSELF
(Robertson)
State University
Eagle was talking with his brothers,
and Whooping
buildings
Crane one day.
nowadays;
wild, beautiful
"The Earth
there is hardly
Mother Earth.
Where
Buffalo made answer to him.
does it make whether
"Yes," answered
Coyote
is abounding
anywhere
with
to roam in the
are we to go?"
"0 Brother,
what difference
Crane,
"the greedy
human would kill us
in the wild.
What
is the use for
in wh~ch to live if we will but be killed
said, "Money drives
these humans.
herds and crops.
And if those reasons
don't
there?"
If they don't
want our skins to sell, they kill us to protect
killed
Coyote,
or not we have land to roam?"
were we to show ourselves
asking a place
Buffalo,
their precious
suffice,
we are
for sport."
"We have so few of our numbers
long before
left that it will not be
all of us, even we four, are gone," Crane noted.
"It is indeed a sad situation,"
Buffalo
added,
shaking
his head dejectedly.
As Eagle and his three friends parted
could not accept the disturbing
supposedly
revered
by American
Bird", was facing extinction
who love "him.
bringing
people
Eagle
fact that his species,
peoples
as their
"National
by the hands of the very people
He determined
make the American
company,
to try every way he could to
realize what devastation
to their own precious
wildlife.
Eagle
they were
flew home to
consider
his best plan of action.
The following
departed.
national
day, having made up his mind, Eagle
He gathered
office
all of his courage
of NBC, a television
talked with the executives,
through
their network
begging
and flew to the
station.
There,
he
them to let him speak
to the American
people.
"They must
know what they are doing to us with their ever-growing
pollution,
and greedy, .monetary-minded
being killed,
maimed,
and destroyed;
hunters.
cities,
Wildlife
the Humans
should
is
know
of this, and should know that they are the cause."
The executives
into the street.
received
poohed
him out
also, but
or help.
and humiliated,
met with Buffalo,
and threw
Eagle triert the other networks
no sympathy
Dejected
his suggestion
Whooping
Eagle
Crane
flew home.
and Coyote,
Once again
telling
he
them of
his experiences.
Buffalo
remembered
fact·now,
offered
a suggestion.
after we become
"If we are to be forever
extinct,
which
seems an inevitable
we must do something!"
"What could that be?" asked Coyote.
Eagle suggested
that each of the heads of these four dying
species must determine
"Although
a way of immortalizing
this will not be easy,
"The children
of future
Eagle thought
must
company
and thought,
could do to immortalize
it must be done,"
generations
The four agreed, parting
his species.
somehow
to embark
Eagle
concluded.
know of us!"
upon their
tasks.
as he flew home, of what he
his species.
He was saddened
to think
become
immortalized.
National
The first involved
Zoo in Washington,
also, the number
of people
When he complained
D. C.
his going to the
He gave himself
to be on
able to see him was extremely
to the zookeeper
limited.
that this was inappropriate
somehow ..."
Then Eagle made a dramatic
decision.
give his own life for the immortalization
him bubbled
ward, poised
the melting
himself,
then flew straight
that he had to reduce
greedy
America's
monetary
He flew up-
down toward
how sad a state of affairs
become
himself
system
With that thought,
to becoming
the vat.
it had
a part of
in order for people
he flew into the vat.
then on, the eagle has appeared
on three of our coins
509, $1.00).
came to appear
That is how Eagle
and that is how Eagle
immortalized
to
of his race. Below
vat for the coin metals.
As he dove, he reflected
serve him.
He decided
himself.-
to preFrom
(259,
on our coinage,
Stuart Nelson
Wichita
State University
Once, not so very long ago, there was an age when
the important
work
in this country
was a time now remembered
very little,
was done by machines.
as that point where
for the very few people
Machines
planted,
harvested,
years
it had always
a national
pastime.
Everyone
(for few people
necessary),
Men and women
mistakes
settled
.leisure.
materials
listened
had reached
Thinking
became
to the machines
of reading,
talk
when
it
of the hard days gone by, and of history.
spent everyday
crime,
strived.
with the effort
solved theoretical
repetitious
slowly
bothered
interplanetary
of gathering
it looked as if mankind
for which
Warfare,
near and far.
machines.
the utopia
games,
all food and
people
with the sole purpose
For several
wasn't
and prepared
They carried
to make newer and better
that nothing
life better.
system of gears and servos even made
travel possible,
down.
society were being
for it was then thought
drink for our ancestors.
The great
human life meant
from breaking
And always the cogs of that technocratic
finer could be done to make
It
in the country who did
work only did so to keep the machines
made newer or improved,
all
which
and hunger
in thought.
problems,
They
and even learned
had occurred
all ceased
throughout
to exist,
into the hithertofore-unknown
Years of harmony
passed
invented
quickly
mental
from the
history.
and our ancestors
sublime world
of
- as did the indi-
viduality
numbers
of the people
- accompanists
best, people
to think
- and they became merely
to the symphony
were classified
about.
According
a mass of
of machines.
according
At
to what they liked
It was a time of peace throughout
to old dating
systems,
the world.
the year was 2525 A.D.,
when a boy was born to a couple of history-thinkers
Dogseye,
Vermont.
It follows
life as had his parents
boy was rather
- thinking
strange.
century
environment
at birth,
His strangeness
was exemplified
was considered
an arduous
but this
the number-name
he adopted
which he had come across
manuscripts.
have lived his
about history;
Instead of using
given him by the machines
Lucky Strike,
that he should
in
the name
in some old twentieth
to the mechanical
by his love for reading,
chore at the time, and by the fact
that he tried to do more with his hands than merely
and pull
push buttons
levers.
Lucky
Strike
make people
instead
which
found out early in his life that he could
believe
of speaking
prominent
position
controlled
almost
anything
by singing
them.
By using this gift he achieved
of oiler for Maximus
all the other machines
II, the machine
in the land.
was one of about ten such tasks in the country
exercise
and coordination,
thing he disliked
his words
the
which
Lucky's
'job'
involving
but he was very dissatisfied.
most was the lack of meaning
physical
The one
life had for his
fellow men.
One day, while thinking
formulate
of history,
Lucky
decided
to
and carry out a plan to put some sense of individuality
into men everywhere.
He began by not oiling
Maximus
II.
After
a week, machines
As the country
everywhere
stirred
of the mechanical
were ceasing
to function
slowly into wakefulness
failures,
Lucky Strike
as to the nature
assumed
and began to sing old blues tunes and work songs,
of his strange powers
of persuasion,
properly.
the spotlight
and because
Lucky caused people
where to wonder
just what it was like to work with their
and to actually
build
and accomplish
spread across the land.
folks everywhere
tasks.
People
with each other
and thinking
bondage.
only,
manual
were allowed to rust, or were disassembled
planted
in physical
how the hero, Lucky
mechanical
Instead of sitting
hands
Soon this spirit
sang songs and sought out or created
Most machines
altogether.
things.
every-
Strike,
their own gardens
contests
and even competed
and games.
saved mankind
This then was
from perpetual
Jerry Mitchll
Wichita
During
searched
State University
the Great Undeclared
the world
out of conflict.
for a mortal
War,
the god of_ Peace
to lead the warring
He sent his messenger
to the greatest
the lands in the guise of Henry of Kissinger.
went into the kingdom
god of Peace
better
of Nixonland
and delivered
than to disobey
land's economy
of peace.
After
other kings,
King Richard
his country.
Breshnev,
Whenever
was spread
was exalted
his councils
Richard
rebuild
concessions
their blemished
of Peace's
In order
to the
War and
kingdoms.
mission
on earth,
his image,
the
such as that of Mao,
of peace.
to the four corners
and
it was in regard
to maintain
kingdoms
on missions
His fame as a
of the earth,
and he
near that of the immortals.
peacemaking
were becoming
lasted but a short while
bored with
was the ruler of the mightiest
was not the wisest
many
his name was mentioned
to a position
King Richard's
lands to talk to them
to end the Great Undeclared
going to forbidden
and Hussain
peacemaker
The king knew
a hero in the eyes of his followers
to the great new peace.
king started
granted
of the messenger
became
of the
the war, and so, he sent the
to the kings of the other
let the king of Nixonland
King Richard
with the message
the will of the gods even though his
they decided
As a result
of
Sir Henry
it to King Richard.
was built around
god's messenger
kingdoms
of kings.
so little
kingdom
to do.
for
Although
in the world,
He had in his council
many
he
devious
men who worshiped
the gods of Power
councilmen
and made sacrifices
prayed
that these gods'
influence
and Possessions.
These
to their gods in order
be felt by their King of Peace,
and so it came to pass.
King Richard
councils.
listened
He became
king became
to and was influenced
overcome
by Power
so filled with craving
all the rules of the kingdom
councils
The
for Power that he violated
to his would-be
noblemen.
adver-
He sent out his
and his royal guard to spy upon the men who would
test his leadership.
beliefs
and Possession.
in regard
saries who were highly-respected
by his evil
He obtained
information
and used this information
battlefield.
Through
devious
against
tactics
as to their
them on the political
he annihilated
all his
opposition.
Then, having
the goddess
secured
Possession.
his throne,
He started
and hid th~m in his new castles
and California
overtaxing
of Power
which
the poor.
amassing
in the kingdom,
Prince
mortal
in all the worlds.
the Plagues
by
Att, because
was so obsessed
in the realm of the gods and carne
Though
The words
arose the wrath of the greatest
emissaries,
obtained
to be the most powerful
unto the ruler of all gods, Justice.
Richard
of Florida
and Prince
King Richard
that he claimed
eyes, she hears quite well.
great fortunes
the money
Standard
with his new Power
Such words were echoed
with
close allies with the Princes
each could gain from the other.
or immortal
obsessed
in the provinces
he built through
He became
he became
Inflation
Justice
of the mortal
of gods.
and Dissent,
has no
King
She sent her
out among the
peoples
of the Kingdom
They became
as lions thirsting
their kingdom
scandal,
hearts
They saw scandal
of their trusts
wealth.
The thought
and frivolous
of revolution
and they began to rid the kingdom
They started
by overthrowing
and docile
creatures.
for blood and took interest
and its leadership.
misuses
kingdom's
who were apathetic
after
usage
filled
of the
their
of its tyrants.
some of the royal guard.
Sir
Liddy was the first to feel the wrath of the peasants.
came the ousting
Haldeman,
of the corrupt
Sir Ehrlichman
the evil commissioner
apparent,
Prince
councilmen,
and many more.
in
Sir Dean,
Then
Sir
They even threw out
of law, Sir Mitchell,
and the heir-
Agnew.
When the threat of a violent
upon King Richard,
overthrow
he was compelled
finally
to abdicate
descended
the throne,
never again to wield his Power over the lands.
The goddess,
She had taught
they would
kingdom
Justice,
with this outcome.
the evil gods, Power and Possession,
not soon forget
which
was pleased
and neither
is once again the United
would
States
a lesson
the people
of the
of America.
The Middle
food, became
land people, who liked animals
angry for no one in the Western
since they were all children,
their food.
and growing
land worked
and they could not pay for
They were angry also because
the Eastern
land
people
fought all the time over the price of the food.
Middle
land people began changing.
animals because
they had no money
for seeds, so they sacrificed
fighting
Eastern
eating their food, nor did they want the children
land growing
The
They could not feed their
them for they did not -want the strange
Western
now
strong on their plants.
people
of the
The Kansans
hid
named Gregor.
He
the food they could grow and told no one.
There was a young boy in Hays, Kansas,
had a dream one night of a great Space Being.
Antar,
The Space Being,
told him that soon there would be terrible
to the peoples
of the West, East and Middle
things
lands.
coming
Antar told
Gregor
that he must go to the Flint Hills and find a special
cave.
There he would discover
him what he must do.
Gregor
he soon began preparing
brothers
stop him.
Elmer,
and started
would
tell
told no one about his dream.
for his journey.
But
His three older
They did not like this and tried to
the oldest brother,
straight
for Gregor
and the horse stopped
to the ground
called
which
asked him what he was doing when they saw him taking
some food from the silo.
whistled
three tablets
to his death.
jumped on Gregor's
to trample
suddenly,
him.
But Gregor
throwing
Then, Buddy,
The bull started
there was much dust in the air.
charging
Suddenly,
Elmer crashing
the second
for the cows and the bull to come and poked
and then ran away.
horse
brother,
the bull
toward
Gregor
Buddy began
and
to sneeze
so he pulled his red handkerchief
seeing this tu~ned toward
third brother,
him and gored him.
Then,
deaths.
toward Gregor
Gregor
the path of the tractor
to seek revenge
seeing this, threw
and it overturned,
then left for the Flint Hills.
He wandered
ed.
rock and when he touched
Then he saw three tablets
He could not read the tablets
some glasses
rak~
for
a rock in
crushing
Joe.
Gregor
and wandered,
ing for the cave that Antar had told him of.
a glistening
Joe, the
jumped upon the tractor with the cultivator
on the front, and started
the brothers'
from his jeans and the bull
Finally,
he saw
it a cave suddenly
of gold lying
inside
look-
appear-
the cave.
at first, then he found
of ~any colors which he put on.
The first tablet
told him he must not tell anyone of what he was doing and to
collect
all the magnet-rocks
from the area.
told him he must begin building
into space because
tablet
the magnets
He worked
netic rocks and building
Soon the Mississippi
swelling.
The people
and crying.
buildings
washed
a space ship which would
would repel
gravity.
without
gathering
River began
swelling,
the mag-
swelling,
of the West, East and Middle
The waters
windows
flood and
the space ship.
spread to New York
fell down and many,
away into the Atlantic
to California,
hard, alone,
fly
The third
told him that soon there would be a terrible
he could be saved.
moaning
The second tablet
Ocean.
and the many children
washed
away into the Pacific
Ocean.
Kansas
and the hiding places
for food were
and ill the
many people were
The waters
with
lands began
also spread
few parents
The waters
were
then came to
destroyed
and many,
many ,Kansans were washed
Gregor
away into the Gulf of Mexico.
left in his space ship and was soa~ing
terrible
the waters because
a few New Yorkers
in California
in New York.
had clung to the Statue
receded
because
lived the~e because
to hold on to the mountain
tops.
waters.
were all blown
Soon the waters
a few pUJple
started
begin living ,again.
had another
dream.
that he must
the people
gathering
Gregor
things
to Kansas
and soon people
had another
So, Gregor
began
dream and Antar
so that the sun could
people how to remain
young without
was good and because
many, many people
flourished
again.
laws for
read all the books
He told them how to
still reach the earth.
being
could still stay together.
The nation
and make
told him it was now
And he told them how to keep the air clean.
healthy.
and there he
He gave laws for distrib-
uting their food so that all could eat.
for his counsel
to
corning to him for help.
time to give the laws to the people.
build buildings
together
Antar once again carne to him and told him
left in the nation.
Then Gregor
in Kansas.
learn all the good of the world
of the nation
from the
away and the tornado
their
returned
enough
the wind blew and
sucked up a few p~ople
back to the earth
And
of the mountains.
In Kansas
which
And
of Liberty.
they were strong
soon there was a tornado
The people
It dried up all
it could reach the earth there now.
the waters
And a few elders
families
above all the
floods.
Soon the sun was shining
dropped
But
He told the Western
children
The people
so that
loved Gregor,
he was so strong
and
and soon there were many,
But pretty
soon there were so many people
could not all remember
come again.
fighting
Gregor's
the rules.
multiplied.
Gregor
The old ways began
laws were not remembered
broke out again,
that they
and the children
to
and the
multiplied
and
ran away and died of sorrow for Antar
had told him how to find the right ways, but no one would
listen.
The nation,
hearing
of his death,
laws and the elder ones. wept.
sent shells
ers wanted
from the beaches
for a monument
to build for Gregor.
asked that the beautiful
in Kansas,
The Western
The Middle
monument
so they could always
be placed
remember
remembered
the
land people
that the Easternland people
in their
Gregor.
land,
Robert E.' Schmidt
Wichita State University
In the beginning there was god, because the people
believed in god.
God created the sun and reserved it as
her home, and then he created the earth, the sea, the
animals (including humans), and the plants.
She arranged
all of these elements, balancing them one with the others,
setting them in order, establishing a causal system
in
which all aspects of earth would affect each other.
And
god exerted a great deal of effort to keep everything in
order; he was protecting his investment.
At last god grew tired of the constant vigilance
required to keep the earth in order.
Frankly, she was
becoming bored with her world, in which everything was
predictable.
So god caused electrical disturbances in
the atmosphere, a bolt of lightning set a dead tree afire,
and then god turned his back on the world, causing darkness.
God knew that the first animal to see the fire would
recognize it as an important gift, and learn to use fire
during the night when.god was not watching the world.
Sure enough, a human found the fire, and taught his
brothers about fire.
For a time, god was satisfied.
She
was relieved to pass some of the responsibility on to
humans, just as parents must eventually relinquish control
over their children.
God rewarded the people by giving
them languages and rudimentary technical skills, by teaching
the humans to take care of themselves.
He also gave humans
life in the spirit world after death, eternal life, and
allowed them to unite themselves in orderly groups in his
name.
But as time passed, god became uneasy about the manner
in which humanity was developing.
They were cutting down
her trees, killing her animals, burnirlg off her grasslands.
But what could god do? He had given the people their freedom,
and couldn't very well take it away from them, especially
as the people were becoming powerful in their own right.
Then god decided that the nature of the world she had
created would not allow the people to get too far out of
line, or they would destroy the world and themselves.
So
god decided that. his investment was well protected; after
all, manwohld
surely never go so ~ar as to destroy himself.
Nevertheless, as more time passed, god became even more
worried about the recklessness of her people.
Such wholesale
destruction of the environment:
And worst of all, human
exploitative successes so far had allowed the human population
to grow dangerously large.
The resulting shortages brought
humans together in warfare.
God realized, when humans began
to kill each other, that these humans were entirely
of destroying her handiwork, including themselves.
capable
So god tried another tactic.
Because disorder had not
kept humans in line, god decided that perhaps teaching humans
the order of their world would restrain their recklessness.
After all, all parents teach their children something about
order; just so god decided to explain the larger rules of the
world to the people.
Therefore, god ejaculated several
particularly strong bursts of solar radiation, which fell
upon a woman planting seeds in a burnt-out area of the forest.
This woman became pregnant and gave birth to tWins who, though
outwardly identical to other infants, possessed special minds,
slightly mutated by god's radiation.
These children were called the Essences (but better known
to us as the sciences), and as the Essences developed and
matured, they began to recognize the order of causality.
They taught themselves to isolate recurring segments of the
order, to call these segments rules, and to use these rules
to predict what would happen next.
They built machines and
powered them with more of god's precious resources.
In effect,
they learned tu make their lives easier, but they gave very
little attention to finding the proper position of humans among
the order of things.
In faGt, they often decided that the
order didn't even apply to themselves.
'
Obviously, god said to herself, those people have missed
the point again.
But since man had grown so powerful through
god's gifts, god could no longer control his creation.
So he
resigned himself to losing his investment, and sat back to
alternatively watch, then turn his back on, then watch again,
the people.
In fact, as the people learned more and more about the essence
of order, they began to doubt that god even existed.
And when
the-~ssence of atomic order was realized, the people knew for
sure that the sun was nothing so spectacular, much less a god.
Thus did the Essence twins destroy the creator of their parents.
And when god was dead, the people lost eternal life, for when
they died they could never more be removed to the spirit world
by their former god.
So we have seen that the people gained freedom, knowledge,
and responsibility
for their actions, but because of these
things, death and disorder came into the world.
ANOTHER
FANTASY
OF
CONTEMPORARY
.
AMERICAN
CULTURE
Mary Klem
Wichita
State University
There were two men, one black,
sitting
at a long table
in a bar.
one white,
and a girl
I had nothing
else to do
so I went to the table to try and get in on the conversation
when the black man said, "There's
"There's
plenty
no room."
of room here,"
I said, and I sat down
at one end of the table.
"Would you like some wine?"
Seeing
the white man said.
that they were all drinking
beer, 'I said,
"I don't
see any wine."
"There
isn't any."
"Then it isn't very civil of you to offer
"Well,
it wasn't
it."
very civil of you to sit down uninvited
either."
"I didn't
is plenty
realize
it took invitations
around
here.
There
of room here."
"Your hair needs to be cut," the black man said.
"You make awfully
personal
statements
for a stranger."
The black man sat up in his chair and looking
simply
said,
"Do you know why a bird is like a table?"
Ah, I'm glad they changed
guess that."
offended,
the subject.
"I think
I can
"You mean you think you can find the answer?"
"Well, yeah, that's
the same thing."
"Not at all," said the black man.
'I see what
"You might
I get' is the same as 'I get what
"Or," added the white man,
I see'."
"You could say
I get' is the same thing as 'I get what
as well say,
'I like what
I like'!"
The girl spoke up and said, "Just like you could
breathe
when
Perhaps
black man.
I sleep'
is the same as 'I sleep when
I breathe'."
it is the same for you but not for me,"
"Have you guessed
"No, I give up, what
the riddle
say 'I
said the
yet?"
is it?"
"I have no idea."
"Well,
I think you could do better
think up stupid riddles
with no answers!"
The white man interrupted
like I do you wouldn't
things with time than
here and said, "If you know time
talk about wasting
it!
What
do you know
about time anyway?"
"Well,
"Ah!
I know that I beat time to music."
That's
it!
Time doesn't
like to be beaten.
keep on good terms with him he'll do anything
white man thought
Suppose
for a moment
for you."
time to go to work.
you'd have to do is give time a hint and the clock would
"That'd
All
go
it was noon, time for lunch."
be OK I guess,
but I wouldn't
be hungry
"Not at first, but you could keep it there
you wanted."
The
and then said, "In other words,
it were 8:00 in the morning,
around until
If you'd
yet."
as long as
moment
to the next.
time altogether.
I've gotten to the point that I disregard
I just sit here with my friends
and drink
A DISCUSSION OF THE METHODS OF CLASSIFYING HUMAN
FOSSILS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE BOSKOP
RACE PROBLEM.
Methods
Human
paleontology
of life thought
paleontology
fossils
of Classification
involves
to be man-like
the study of fossil
or ancestral
to man.
In the past history
in classifying
The use of these methods-has
study of micro-evolution
to human evolution.
skeletal
led to confusion
in human groups.
in human paleontology
typological
of the
of the field of human paleontology,
have been employed
confusion
Human
also involves a study of the relationship
to each other and their importance
methods
specimens
and population
resulting
methods
two
populations.
with respect
An example
to the
of the
from the use of the
of analysis
will be discussed
in this paper with special reference- given to the Boskop
race
problem.
Before
"Boskop",
b
methods
discussing
Bush and Bushman
used
materials
and living
attacks
used in zoological
is "basically
principles"
of 25-50,000.
generic
organisms
level.
standards
for the labeling
A recent
article
the function
genera
that the number
for which
of
are of a limited
is criticised
as being
it is used.
that there
and recognizes
information.
system
system of taxonomy
The
is a limited
no taxa above the
The old system has to be replaced
for recording
of fossil
of folk taxonomic
assumption
system
the
on liThe Origins
taxonomic
The present
is based on the assumption
of memorizable
like to mention
to be classified
The present
of performing
system
I would
codification
made on the implicit
number
of the South African
the basis of the entire
a Renaissance
and extinct
number
specimens.
systematics.
living
incapable
material
in the past and present
of Taxonomy"
Linnean
the classification
The present
with new
system
is
The populationist stresses the uniqueness of
everything in the organic world.
What is true
for the human species - that no two individuals
are alike is equally true for all other species
of plants and animals.
Indeed even that same
individual changes continuously throughout his
lifetime and when placed in different environments.
All organisms and organic phenomenon are composed
of unique features and can be described collectively
only in statistical terms.
Individuals or any kind
of organismic entities form populations of which we
can determine the arithmetic mean and statistics
of variation.
Averages are merely statistical
abstractions, only the individuals of which the
populations are composed have reality.
The
ultimate conclusions of the population thinker
and the typologist are precisely the opposite.
For the typologist, the type eidos is real and
variation illusion while for the populationist
the type (average) is an abstraction and only
the variation is real.
No two ways of thinking
could be more different.
two populations
serves as the basic criterion
distinctness.
Every
that overlap
precisely
those of other
The concepts
selection
important
average
but no individual
for all traits
of the synthetic
of the nature of the human
problems
by human paleontologists.
following
available,
are very
of classification
encountered
are due to the
of fossil
If the fossil
many evolutionary
problems
specimeus
record
change
and yet it is only properly
ogists
(Mayr 1963:11).
There
is the problem
of populations
use of "extreme
as a possible
criterion
solution
ented by specific
The problem
The extreme
thinkers.
the criterion
proper/improper
the range of
individuals
in the fossil
belong.
fossil
use has been expounded
by Bennett
record
The problem
The
of a series
types
for the end points
of naming
means
by the paleontol-
has been advocated
(1969).
situations
by population
determining
studied
types" which are the end points
ordered by certain
in
were not
Evolution
of interpreting
to which
either
could not be solved,
in fact many would not even be apparent.
3)
such as
fossil material
The problems
is a scarcity
numbe~ or completeness.
employed
(Bennett
limitations:
There
variation
theory
and that of the population
there are additional
2)
by traits
for the populationist.
Because
1)
is characterised
individuals,
fits the population
1969:413).
natural
individual
for racial
are represand can be
remains
of
of a series.
specimens
and their
on by Garn
(1971)
and others.
This is a problem
literature
problems
on fossil materials.
of nomenclature
has a difficult
by modification"
of biological
can be proved
of distinct
for classification
evolution;
limits
fossil hominid material
of genetic
of two distinct
names equivalent
family names
(Mayr 1963:632).
to make
sense out of hominid
remains
of man's
Named fossils
as populations
ancestors
were placed
From studies
species
phylogeny
who seem
and
it was impossible
as long as the fossil
mere physical
series
is to regard
distributions
types.
and any
in any way was called
advance
an aberrant
human fossils
in time and space,
types.
on living
groups
it can be seen man is a
and this can be assumed
These early populations
isolat~on
The early
to the human christian
in morphological
with definite
may be
should be a combination
were considered
An important
than as anatomical
geographical
of past
by anatomists
For a while,
that was specialized
side branch.
also.
the evidence
principles.
was described
that every specimen
polytypic
differences
areas of human paleontology
to have thought
rather
(Mayr 1963:12).
for population
obfuscates
that
history,
up by knowledge
specimen
of
i.e., "descent
only by demonstrating
from another
purposes
One of the problem
cleared
The taxonomist
or genera.
could originate
evolutionary
and limita-
(Mayr et al 1971).
species
The problem
The imposing
and rules
job as it is he who names the specimens
local populations,
one species
the entire
Work on correcting
continues
tions are being clarified
4)
permeating
likewise
and extinction
of fossil
hominids
were polytypic
were possible.
and
In the
different
varied
groups
the rates of phyletic
in the various
isolates
As in living animal groups,
and retarded
individuals
of the polytypic
of living groups
(Mayr 1963:637-638).
have shown that no two
are alike and that both environment
endowment
make a contribution
variation
should be noted in fossil materials
sarily
indicative
species.
it may have been that advanced
races were contemporaries
These studies
change may have
to nearly
of distinctness
and genetic
every trait.
This
as not neces-
on the species or subspecies
level.
Students
approaches
of the fossil record
to the classification
and the basic underlying
critical
materials
and study of fossil material
assumptions
of the literature.
by human paleontologists
of both in order to be
In the past,
was not as strict as today.
the lack of proper
examination
available.
Boskop ~ace problem.
criteria
employed
for the study of human skeletal
of the past have been perpetuated
materials
should be aware of the two
Some of the fallacies
up to the present
of the literature
As an example
due to
and
I will discuss
the
THE BOSKOP
TYPE
The source of the problems
problem
lies in the methods
of the available
material
evidence
represents
this material
resulting
though the early literature
The Boskop
changes
levels.
classification
techniques
re-evaluation
additional
methods
cussion
and suggested
populations.
of classification
reports
specific
being
the
procedures
and
were published
only, relying mainly
for
on anthropometric
speculative
in nature.
in some cases or analysis
perpetuated
a critical
a difference,
on the generic,
were wrong
faulty with fallacies
populations
and ero-Magnon
and methods
with interpretations
The interpretations
between
can be used to demonstrate
Originally
purposes
of the genus and
day Bushman-Hottentot
stressed
race problem
u~ed in human paleontology
The Boskop
is a close relationship
to Neanderthal
in the purposes
sUbspecific
from misrepresentation
population
and the present
closer relationships
I will try to
on the Boskop material.
There
race
and types of specula-
from 1918-1955.
a variant
species Homo Sapiens.
to the Boskop
of analysis
tion found in the literature
show some of the confusion
relating
for years.
of the material
and materials
In the 1950's
was conducted
used leading
and
to a new dis-
of the problem.
In the year 1914 several
on the Boskop
farm.
pieces
The fragments
part of the frontal bone parietals,
occipital,
the right temporal,
the mandible
and a number
of a skull were
consisted
found
of the greater
a small part of the
left horizontal
of fragments
ramus of
of limb bones.
The
stratigraphic
however,
position
of the material
it was stated with confidence
are ancient"
(Broom 1918:67).
Age date based on typology
skull shows a cranial
of 1980 cc (20 cc added to compensate
left side).
been dismissed
The original
the conclusion
report
notes that
and pathlogical;
was advanced
great size and a powerful
larger than those
that in South Africa
jaw with
in modern
form from Homo Sapiens
Further
speculation
size of the cranium
to Cro-Magnon
The finding
the earliest
associating
naturally
or possibly
inhabitant
the Boskop
suggests
or Acheulian
The fossils
that the large
an ancestral
and further
was not
Speculations
type tools
Man may have been the
tools
(Broom 1918:79).
excavations
speculative
of the "very peculiar
affinity
(Broom 1918:76).
that the Bushman
Later finds and archaeological
material
as Homo
race with the Stellenbosch
maker
skeletal
and canines
so designated
Boskop
of
to be of sufficiently
of South Africa.
suggested
a brain
The teeth show tauro-
to Neanderthal
on the Vaal River
of Chellean
in very
bosses,
was advanced
of the skull showed
skull
man characterized
incisors
man.
The form was considered
Capensis.
have
On the basis of this reconstructed
by a large skull, with very thick parietal
distinct
in
e. g., Neander-
early times there lived a race of primitive
dontism.
for the
types of human skulls
as abnormal
thal and Trinil.
Stone
(van Riet Lowe 1953:137).
the past new and unexpected
much
artifact
to be of Middle
The base of the reconstructed
capacity
that "the remains
An incomplete
found with the bones was thought
crushed
was not noted;
revealed
reports
big-headed
more
resulted.
type found
in
"During the past years, workers in this
department have slowly been piecing together an imaginary picture of the skull
of the Boskop physical type."
prehistoric
people
in South Africa were the Boskop
followed
later by the Bush and Negro
(Galloway
1937:32).
Most of the literature
available
on this topic until
1955 is descriptive
designated
as to physical
observations.
(Gardner
cranial
while
are typical
At the Limpopo
Bush type" which
is synonymous
some femora resemble
man
remarks
shows Pygmy
(Torien 1953).
A child's
appearance
Many more elaborate
The comparison
room cadaver
though
suggested
theories,
fossil record.
which
it was suggested
found represented
types of elements,
antecedents
aar 1952).
little
1937),
type to present
fusion between
and a Boskopoid
using the
information
on
day Bushman,
the skeletons
of the characteristics
suggesting
of the Bushman
(Galloway
that in some cases,
a mixture
(Keen 1957).
Some of the early researchers
offered
of the Boskop
in
descriptions
have yet to be supported
The theories
the relationship
although
at the time.
jaw
fossil with a dissection
in one case was an advance
not realized
Mauer
are found in the literature
of the Boskop
affinities,
bones and are
as being miniature
remains
are of "the
and Bushman
large Hottentot
(Singer 1954).
seen in the
the bulk of the
from Bok Baai is described
of individual
are
with Hottentot
2948). At the site of Chipongwe
to Cro-Magnon
The fossils
site the 79 burials
and femural material
similar
fossils.
type on the basis of morphological
The following
literature.
Boskop
of individual
of two
the original
element
(Grobbel-
CRITICAL
An attempt
introducing
REEVALUATION
at re-examining
(1957).
described
and certain
The Bushman
fossil material.
genetic
living
traits noted
The article
of fetalization
suggests
the Boskop material
it in light of modern
by Tobias
theory
OF THE PROBLEM
based
the genes controlling
resulting
in modern
environment
However,
still have many tall people
article
contains
some new concepts
towards
the modern
solving
Bushman
and maturation
the Bushman
have come from outside
a distinct
from some Hottentots.
from South Africa
The article
and further
is an attempt
The article
There
compares
is no evidence
The Bushman
The earliest
different
Bush crania
north they become
history
of the Bushman
(1957:39)
only confuses
the issue more.
to the Boskop
He notes how a race is constructed
skull which
around
but the
by Tobias
re-evaluation
problem
come
later in time.
to sort out the literature,
The first clear and critical
The
the following
characteristics
of the racial
of the Boskop
that
race as the living
Africa.
construct
relating
in the desert
however,
in the paper.
set of physical
Theories
and some old, and is a
wit~ the Chinese;
are reached
traits
It
in the population.
the problem.
conclusions
literature
a
it is mentioned
never a pure Bushman
Bushman
except
genetics.
of growth
(short stature)
are mentioned.
there was probably
exhibit
to describe
of genes for head length,
the processes
of dwarfs
are
in common with the
in the adult skull have to be examined.
for selection
beginning
is made
in the Kalahari
attempts
that instead of speaking
theory
and
of the
is by Singer
(1958).
a skullcap.
The
supposedly
make
it distinct
are the following,
1)
and objections
The length and strength
ridge are qualitatively
However,
2)
The Boskopoid
bosses.
with Neanderthal.
size can be found in modern
and Cape Coloured.
type supposedly
has high parietal
On the type skull there may be distortion
the crushed
3)
condition
racial
of the central
aspect of the frontal
groups
due to
of the left side.
The prominence
on the internal
modern
Eskimo
by Singer:
of the supra-mastoid
great and compare
a ridge of comparable
skulls of Bantu,
are presented
vary~ng
crista
frontalis
bone is seen in all
from individual
to individual
so is not uibtinct.
4)
Another
trait, the excessive
is found to be within
5)
6)
7)
cranial
of the mandibular
type of face which
The small teat-shaped
commonly
found
in modern
i. e., rounded
ophryonic
groups.
of the Boskop
condyle
is dissimilar
mastoid
groove
lateral
Bushman
angle.
Other traits
supra-asterionic
bulging
and various
crania;
or type of
of the Boskop
post-cranial
and a deep groove
an
is of a type
ridges which
have a
type are
characters,
for the sigmoid
All of the above traits are not traits
skull.
suggests
or Bushman-Hottentot
above the supra-orbital
palate
to the Boskop
type
to Cro-Magnon.
process
and narrow with a constriction
the wide shallow
sinus.
capacity
of the skull
than 1832 or 1900.
The position
orthognathic
marked
the range of modern
The corrected
may be 1700 rather
thickness
distinct
In order to establish
features
a Boskop
in a large series must be attributed
skull itself.
The Boskop
length and width,
skull is distinct
the width
of the Hottentot
compared
and Negro,
and Negro.
to some known modern
skull's
likewise
Bushman
skull
and Hottentot
in common
occupation
type concept
was initiated
by several of his students.
was supposedly
of a type dispersed
by the Bushman.
the
is
types.
with the
traits
definition
dispersal
of a Bushman
are
Physical
Type became
there
type existing.
of skeletal
material
Somehow
synchronous
is no
The
are
of miles
references
the term Middle
with the Boskop
of
or
Stone Age
Race.
The
'Boskop' now should refer only to the type specimen
a large calvarium
of Bushman-Hottentot
Race may be defined
the genetic
difference
as a device
for teaching
However,
operationally
nature
the
discovered
over thousands
with poor stratigraphic
associations.
before
proto-Bushman,
arose even though
in small groups or individually
cultural
type
of these races or sub-species
based on small collections
continent
in 1923
The Boskop
in South Africa
or Hottentot
and migrations
by Dart
The terms pre-Bush,
proto-Australoid,pre-Hottentot
tool.
the length within
dissimilar.
and advocated
term
in its great
the normal
great size and the post-cranial
The Boskop
African
only
The boskop
Most of the other skulls have little
Boskop
to the Boskop
falling well beyond
outer limits of the Bushman
ranges
race, the identifying
(Singer
-
1958:76),
as a rough measure
in human populations
human variation
race does not necessarily
of
and may function
and as a research
exist
in reality
and its use depends
However,
on an individual's
in population
populations
which
studies
conjunction
differences.
or temporal
with environmental
An elaborate
African
the term is used, to designate
show genetic
may occur due to physical
Negro
area of research.
isolation
difference
study on the racial
is reported
Genetic
or in
(Baker 1967).
affinities
by de Villiers.
from all available
African
of the South
The study
based on series of not less than 35 undeformed
per series
crania
male
the Bushman
from the other African
based on the Penrose
of distance
sT~tistics.
distribution
Negro
The report
of Bush and Boskop
crania,
even though
been challenged.
and computer
programs
studies
(de Villiers
1968).
of the article
African
Negro groups
morphological
the racial
method
in the South African
of a Boskop
are applied
type has
However,
in population
the purpose
and the main
to be on classification
based on minute
distinctions,
perhaps
groups of South Africa
of the conclusions
show distance
features
is questionable
appears
On the
shows how the new statistical
methods
the study is reported
crania
also tries to show the
the concept
The report
is
series.
basis of the cranial measures
groups
distance
of the report
for which
emphasis
of the
and even questionable
for purpose
of defining
for the government.
can be questioned
Some
on the basis
of the data presented.
The above three studies
begin to reflect
paleontologists
materials
changes
in ,the method
and physical
available.
by Tobias,
Singer
of approach
anthropologists
However,
and de Villiers
in the reports
of human
to the skeletal
are remnants
of
the old typological
approach
and speculation
regarding
human
variation.
CURRENT
STATUS OF STUDIES
The history
is becoming
and their ancestral
better known through
The ancestral
artifacts
of the Bushman
Bushman
skeletons
of the Wilton
and southern
Africa.
11,000 B.P.
(Clark 1970:164-5).
throughout
skeletal
fossils
studies being
material
appear
conducted
of subspecies
and are employing
examining
species
more recent
are being
population
Singer who criticise
and Tobias
the skeletal
of pure races
new method
concept.
searched
for.
studies
the typological
material
Instead
Some of the
the two groups,
two groups
races,
authors,
of
groups
and a
by Stern and Singer
The hybrid
material
and Hottentot
the amount of admixture
and when and how often
occurred
of Galloway
They said much
may be able to reveal how far back the Bushman
distinctive
of
are by Stern and
and hybrids by the earlier
is suggested
and
the causes
into meaningless
for the study of the hybrid material.
constituted
definition
approaches
workers.
is divided
of approach
in South Africa
for differences,
skeletal
and other earlier
B.P. to
more of the theories
the skeletal materi~ls
of the differences
appears
at the present
to get away from the typological
of the biological
with
most of eastern
show attempts
methods
excavations.
stock and dating 40,000
The small Bushman
populations
are found associated
The earlier
18,000 B.P.
The skeletal
archaeological
industry
to be of a larger Khoisan
ON THE BUSHMAN
(Stern and Singer
admixture
1967:104).
between
between
the
The hybrid
skeletal
material
is a small sample of 8 Bushman
Hottentot
men.
Because
available
to Stern and Singer
men, 6 Bushman
of the small sample,
women
size and statistical
m~as;ures deriye<;lcannot be tak,en as significant.
the sample
of the Bushman
than females
between
in many
instances.
the Hottentot
is too small.
are larger
male,crania
in the direction
characteristics
of the Bushman
published
1938).
are not used
earlier
Because
The study of modern
breeding
typological
perhaps
as a problem
though
approach
Bushman,
Hottentot
and females.
typical
when compared
in the literature
to
(Broom 1923,
techniques
1967).
because
1952).
is an attempt
of South African
races
of the widespread
The problem
according
inter-
of hybridization
to Montagu
(1950).
The
to get away from the strict
to the fossil material
study was recently
and South African
The racial
affinities
The sample sizes are larger.
of multivariate
used.
though,
and an attempt
to
study it more objectively.
A comprehensive
known.
or Hottentot"
representatives
(Dreyer and Meiring
use of hybrids
but the sample size
of the accepted,
as being valueless
can be dismissed
larger
difference
of the sample size multivariate
(Stern and Singer
is criticized
is little
The study data showed
"less tendency
Drennan
There
in
are noted other than the Bushman men
than the women.
measurements
However,
are significantly
and Bushman males,
No trends
and 4
analysis
The findings
reported
Negro
on a series of
skulls
of both males
of the skeletal
The computer
and descriminant
function
material
is
techniques
analysis
show the range of Bushman-Hottentot
are
variation
is small and non-significant
with relation
to the Bushman-Negro
and Hottentot-Negro
separation.
The conclusion
cranial
is supported
by other
information
theBushman
protein
height
and Hottentot
distribution.
are similar
category
differ
(Rightmire
The lumping of the Bushman
of the cranial
analysis
Negro distance
is still a problem
is suggested
the light-skinned
Though
the Bushman
the orthognathous
face, yellow
in the
into the Negro
The amount
on the basis
of Khoisanmore
fully.
with the African
Negro
that his observations
lead
of the Negro must be extended
people
exhibit
show
and serum
to Rightmire
and Hottentot
that the definition
the
1971a:193).
to be examined
by Singer, who proposes
to the opinion
to include
(1971a:169).
of the Bushman
which
slightly
and Hottentot
does not seem right according
The lumping
studies
in blood group
The Hottentots
of the cranial vault
regarding
(Singer
1970:41).
some Mongoloid
to yellow-brown
traits;
skin,
e. g.,
it does not
~
seem feasible.
migrations
172).
The archaeological
and the Diego blood antigen
The evidence
on the origin
refutes
South African
study of the known Bushman,
establish
from each other.
affinity
(Rightmire
(1971b).
Africa
1971a:
influence
Hottentot
criteria
The results
of Iron Age crania
solve some of the debates
Southern
populations'
are used to solve a more complicated
ing the racial
condition
groups
(Rightmire
of
population.
Negro crania helped
distinguishing
shows no reports
is absent
any Mongoloid
of the Bushman
The comprehensive
technique
evidence
important
establish-
preserved
The study of this material
over the peoples
during the Early
Iron Age.
living
in
and the
problem,
in poorly
and
helps
in eastern
and
The use of the multi-
variate
descriminant
measurements
separates
or morphology
out the fossils
The results
technique
analysis
Many researchers
other areas showing
more methods
according
of the Bushman's
is discussed
by Wynbham
male population
at medium
altitude
responses
are remarkably
blood studies
The most descriminating
which may by determined
have been in South Africa
conditions
and
on the Bushman.
is the Gm allele
which
the Bushman
is
molecule,
The Bantu
only since 500-1500
B.P.,
hunter-gatherers
admixture
in various
of the Gm1,13 allele.
the amount of racial
well as to study the amount of variation
(Jenkins
(1969:166).
Negro
than one allele.
The amount of Bushman
allele can be used to estimate
are
similar.)
possibly
can be seen by the frequency
to desert
of the Immune globulin
in waves and replacing
in the area.
Dermatoglyphics
have been conducted
by more
to study
to heat, cold and exercise
trait studied
located on the heavy chains
in order
(The Bushman,
in
have added
bands by Hiernaux
adaptation
(1970).
Caucasoid
studies.
anthropologists
Bushman
information.
studies on the Bushman
populations.
The question
arriving
for future
to their discipline
in different
and
here but the use of the
are conducting
on the different
Extensive
to the available
relevant
how physical
shows the important
to group separations
implications
of analysis
human variation
reported
important
are not really
has important
technique
in a racial
tribes
The Gm
admixture
as
group
et al 1969:197).
The Bushman
techniques.
are important
and Hottentot
The subsistence
groups
patterns,
to an understanding
are being
caloric
studied
intakes,
of the group's
by many
etc.,
adaptation
to
the environment.
examined
The social customs
also.
understanding
ancestors
All the information
of the people
of these groups
collected
are being
will give a better
as they are today and what their
were like in the past.
CONCLUSIONS
The problem
recurrent
of classifying
topic in the literature.
the problems,
Simpson
gists
for the purpose
should,
specimens,
suggests
use their specimen
universal
in zoology.
pUblication
should
of information
include
of making
the specimen
or delaying
taxonomy
This procedure
the recent
systematic
more
answers
just examine
provide
regarding
more
the amount
about the status of
a decision
Leakey
of the
1970:337-40).
in the reports
will provide
on
but must
Studies
perhaps
available,
The paleontologist
with the fossils
and
of
cannot
also consider
the
in order to better
on living populations
about the mechanisms
present
without
of man and migrations
populations.
information
the
(1971).
the origin
of variation
facilitate
of the fossil materials
record.
is almost
photographs,
(Eckhardt
by Richard
the fossil material,
the fossil
until
in human paleontology
studies
associations
of individual
The information
measurements,
publication
some of
like zoolo-
This practice
a hasty judgement
is followed
geographical
interpret
number.
has been considered
studies
more
cultural
of discussion
finds at Lake Rudolph
Further
different
that anthropologists
on specimens.
standardized
is a
To help alleviate
This would help perhaps
the necessity
proper
human fossil material
in living
of evolution
groups,
and the
and
theories
can be applied
use of new techniques
perhaps more
to tests on the fossil materials.
make these broader
significant.
studies possible
The
and
Appendix A-Skeletal gaterial
,,
..
iloilo',
'..-.
............
..
_------_ •....
l
'•...- .... -
Fig. 5. Restoration of the Skull of Homo
shaded a.re those known.
I·li~.. \
I:
('
caprns;.,
46/100 Na.t. size.
'l'h6 l,arls
~Iillil of :t 1'1"1' l~lIslllll:111 f I'll Itl "1"""11)"-";':
~kllil "t" :I 1:11 ..•11111:111.
:-;klllt
Iff
:111
ild"alll
':lIslllll;llI,
.·i~l,t
.'·I':U·S
1:;(.,",
U'''.
Baker, P. T.
1967 The Biological
A.J.P.A. 27:21-26.
Race Concept
as a Research
Bennett, K. A.
1969 The Typological Versus the Evolutionary
in Skeletal Population Studies.
A.J.P.A. 30: 407-414.
Broom, R.
1918 The Boskop
Anthro. Papers
Tool
Approach
Skull (Homo Capensis).
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.
23:63-79.
Clark, J. D.
1970. The Prehistory
Praeger, New York.
of Africa.
Clark, W. L.
1964 The Fossil Evidence
University of Chicago.
for Human Evolution.
De Villiers, H
1968.
The Skull of the South African
Witwatersrand Press.
Negro.
Drennan, M. R.
1931 Pedomorphism in the Pre-Bushman
A.J.P.A. 16:203-10.
Skull.
Dreyer and Meiring.
1952 The Hottentot.
Res. Nas. Mus.
1:19-22.
Eckhardt, R. B.
1970 Bigeneric Nomina:
Perspective.
A.J.P.A. 3:337-40.
Galloway, A.
1937 The Characteristics
A.J.P.A. 23:31.
An Evolutionary
and Evolutionary
of the Skull of the Boskop
Gardner, G. A.
1948 Hottentot Culture on the Limpopo.
S. Af. Arch. Bull. 4:117.
Garn, S.
1971 The Improper Use of Fossil
A.J.P.A. 35:217-218.
Nomenclature.
Grobbelar, C. S.
1952
Skeletal Material of the Boskop
S. Af. Arch. Bull.
7:95.
Type.
Type.
Hiernaux, J.
1952
La Diversite
Bruxelles.
Humaine
eh
Afrique
Subsaharienne.
Keen, E. N.
1957
Human Remains from Twyfelfontein.
S.Af. Arch. Bull. 12:27.
Mayr, E.
1963
Animal Species
Harvard University,
and Evolution.
Cambridge, Mass.
1969
Principles of Systematic
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1971
Stability in Zoological Momenclature.
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1950
A Consideration on the Concept of Race.
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1971
The Origins of Taxonomy.
Science 184:1210-13
D. E.
Rightmire, G. P.
1971a
Bushman, Hottentot and South African
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A.J.P.A. 33:169-196.
1971b
Iron Age Skulls from Southern
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Negro Crania
Re-assessed
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1963
The Meaning of Taxonomic Statements, in Classification
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1954
A Report on the Bok Baii Skeletal
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1958
.The Boskop Race Problem.
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1968
Investigations on the Biology of Hottentot
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78:37.
and Bushman
Steinberg, A. G.
1969
Globulin Polymorphisms in Man.
Ann. Rev. Gen. 3:28
Stern, J. T. and Singer, R.
1967
Quantitative and Morphological Distinctions between
Bushman and Hottento: A Preliminary Report.
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Tobias, P. V.
1957 Bushman of the Kalahari.
36:33-40.
Toerien, M. J.
1953
Skeletal Remains.
S. Af. Arch. Bull. 10:114.
Van Riet Lowe, C.
1953
An Artifact Recovered with the Boskop Calvaria.
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Wynbham, C. H.
1970
Man's Adaptation to the Physical Environment in
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Materiaty I Prace Anthropolog~czne 78:4~.
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1962
The Contributions of Genetics to Anthropology, in
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1970
Gammaglobulin Groups (Gm and Inv) of Various
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A.J.P.A. 32:197-218
SOCIAL CONTROL
BY SUBSISTENCE
IN SUB-SAHARAN
Lorna Drummond
from Wichita
degree
State University
she participated
university,
prepared
faculty
AFRICA
Chorn graduated
in anthropology.
summa cum laude
in 1973, with a
As an undergraduate,
in the Honors
and the present
for this program
committee.
PATTERNS
Program
paper
is the thesis
and defended
At present,
in Urbana,
Illinois,
a graduate
student
University
of Illinois-Urbana.
before
a
Ms. Chorn resides
where her husband,
in chemical
of the
Larry,
engineering
is
at the
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Introduction
Techniques
of Social Control
Conclusions
Bibliographies
Some mechanisms
of social control
every human culture.
and confusion
societies.
They are the means by which
are avoided,
able to continue
to live within
isms of social control
Africa
and by which
In this paper,
pastoral,
chaos
individuals
the framework
a description
of the mechan-
and gathering
and an attempt
or not there exists any appreciable
the subsistence
pattern
are
of their
found in two agricultural,
and two hunting
will be given,
between
are vital to
two
societies
in
to discover
whether
amount of correlation
and the types of mechan-
isms used will be made.
Specific
within
techniques
a society
can be divided
The first category
all control
techniques
groups
control
the society.
techniques,
believe
the category
which
obligations
urative,
there exists
in the kinship
a category
one whose techniques
ceremonies
system,
and fusion
category
of
is that of
sanctions.
contain
include
and those
with those elements
in and are maintained
inherent
instill
of fission
The second
would
and would
and values,
to have supernatural
in the initiation
which
opinion
dealing
of kinship
originate
Lastly,
with pUblic
secular
categories.
from the political
based on the processes
within
religious
stemming
order and control
into four basic
can be labeled
techniques
those concerned
for maintaining
of social
Thirdly,
those techniques
by the many
ties and
systems of a society.
which can be called
encult-
for social
control
are inherent
and age-set
systems
of societies
the modes of proper
behavior
in the young.
These categories
are of an arbitrary
life are often very difficult
niques of social
control
nature and in real
to separate,
contain
elements
for many
tech-
from more
than
one category.
The six societies
and discussed
before
as they existed
the imposition
economies
to be dealt with will be examined
of modern
ern Uganda
patterns
societies,
of many African
Nuer of the south central
ern Uganda
the Mbuti Pygmies
Congo are within
of culture.
the Lugbara
the Kalahari
African
Tanzania,
are
as the
the same general
with the Pygmies,
Of
in northwestern
vicinity
pattern
of Southwest
cattle herders.
that will be examined,
of the Ituri Forest
Desert
of northwest-
agriculturalists,
societies
The subsistence
and
Sudan and the Jie of northwest-
are of Sub-Saharan
the two hunter-gatherer
and
governments
and the Arusha of northeastern
representative
connected
colonization
national
upon their traditional
The two agricultural
peoples.
before
as the previous
of the !Kung Bushmen
Africa
in contrast
allows
of
them to be
to the other
four
societies.
In examining
these African
the general
the techniques
peoples
have, the emphasis
to specific
details which
and back.
the techniques
common will be illustrated.
specific
certain
details
techniques
of social control
differ,
will
that
shift from
Where necessary,
of different
specific
societies
have in
On the other hand, where
but general
exist, emphasis
principles
will be placed
underlying
on these.
The ultimate
if certain
goal in this examination
techniques
be a secular,
are limited
of social control,
religious,
kinship
in their usage
ence or whether
having different
is to ascertain
or enculturative
they
nature,
to only one type of subsist-
they are also utilized
patterns
whether
by societies
of subsistence.
!Kung Bushmen
Among the
!Kung Bushmen
society of hunters
of the Kalahari
and gatherers
the Stone Age, there
technique
live together
the necessary
and are related
qualities
and concern
"to coordinate
by close kinship,
and he protects
(veldkos)
the resources
He cannot
by public
and dependent
and public
related
by forcing
from outhis authority
a wrongdoer
influence,
is judged
in talk
of a Bushman
band:
if
and con(ibid)."
a very
in close cooperation
upon each other for survival,
opinion
territory,
expressed
group living
1965:
the rights of ownership
"He may have great
This agrees with the composition
small, closely
(Marshall
from encroachment
usually
is used
and his chief duty is
leader, but wrongdoing
opinion,
sense,
in relation
nor can he judge or punish
among any of his own band.
he is an effective
His authority
of the band's
do this however,
on those who intrude,
i. e. common
the band will move
also represents
of the food resources
is usually
from his father
of his own people
of resourc~s,
to plan when and where
who
son, and who also possesses
of leadership,
the movements
The headman
the office
for his people.
to their consumption
trolled
The only such
of a !Kung band, a group of families
by virtue of being the oldest
siders.
amount of social control
in nature.
an older man who has inherited
267)."
in
is found in the person of the headman.
The headman
wisdom,
a
still living largely
is a minimal
which can be labeled political
Desert,
are very important
in which
techniques
gossip
of inducing
proper
behavior.
The Bushmen
control
which
use several secular
are very effective.
is one way of commenting
ior, especially
lead to bigger
means
of venting
disputes
tensions
of social
As mentioned,
on and chastising
small squabbles
could
techniques
talking
improper
behav-
between men and women which
and fighting.
It is also a
which could ultimately
result
in disputes.
Attention
courtesy,
is another
disputes.
which
to good manners,
technique
Good manners
emphasizing
of avoiding
control
If they are angry,
mope rather
(Marshall
aggrieved,
with apprehen-
are expected
or frustrated,
aggressive,
and
to
degree.
they tend to
expressing
to their close relatives
their feel-
and friends
1961: 235-36)."
Gift-giving
jealousy
People
and
Any behavior
and do so to a remarkable
than to become
ings in low mutters
is regarded
by the !Kung.
their tempers
tensions
"should be inoffensive.
is likely to stir up trouble
sion and disapproval
restraint
is also a technique
and ill feelings
The things
designed
and to develop
to help avoid
friendly
given as gifts are not primarily
relations.
valuable
in them-
selves; most gifts are the common every day artifacts.
most highly
valued
ones are ostrich
next in value are metal objects
gift is meat.
egg-shell
and pots.
The only two requirements
beads,
The
and
The most common
for gift-giving
are that one must not refuse a gift and that one gift must
be given
within
in exchange,
no definite
preferably
time limit.
of a comparable
value but
Probably
sharing.
the most important
technique
is that of meat
The system begins with the hunters.
is made,
When the kill
they may eat the liver and more meat at the site
until they are satisfied.
They then carry the rest of the
animal back to the band where it is the responsibility
the owner of the arrow that killed
the meat.
The first distribution
to five or six people--the
giver of the arrow
himself),
is made in large portions
spouse,
of the fatal arrow,
(if it was not one the killer
certain
to wife's parents,
and offspring
meat is not cooked
involves
obligations
such
one's own parents,
being compulsory.
the hunter gives to his siblings,
From his own portion,
other kin, and friends.
as a family meal.
Each person
Each cooks and eats his
piece when and where
This sense of ownership
very important
for it gives one the responsibility
gling with hunger
others
as best one can, without
for eating more than their share
effectiveness
of this technique
The practical
the enormous
value of the custom.
obligation
and people
(ibid:236)."
it
!Kung are fully aware of
The fear of hunger
the person one shares with will share
when he gets meat
The
is that it
value of using up the meat when
to all and the
is mitigated;
for blaming
over food at a low in-
is fresh is obvious
social
is
of strug-
(ibid:240-41).
of social control
" ...helps to keep stress and hostility
tensity.
excuse
The
owns his
piece of meat for only himself.
he wishes.
the
had made
The second distribution
giving to those of close relation,
as large portions
the beast to distribute
possessor
and the hunters.
of
are sustained
in turn
by a web of mutual
One further
secular
technique
category
is the fear of fighting
arise over encroaching
The extreme
fighting
distaste
veldkos
print,
arrows
to
used
to man as to game and they are always
a mark as telling
to be secretive,
to Bushmen
leaving
righ~s,
relatives
can becoue
"In the opinion
for an accused
involved
fighting
(Marshall
one's
footto
to violating
thief can fight back,
and the fighting
of the !Kung, situations
are assiduously
the
as fingerprints
This is a further deterrent
ownership
actual
but the poisoned
could not be stolen without
hostility
have of
for not only is it ridiculous
Even if one desired
Westerners.
food resources.
and fear that the Bushmen
waste energy on disputes,
available.
in the
that could
on another band's
is justified,
are as deadly
of social control
would
spread.
likely to engender
to be avoided,
to say nothing
of
1965:249)."
Mbuti Pygmies
The Mbuti Pygmies
control
which
centralized
also have few techniques
can be called political.
political
headman utilized
They do not have a
system or the very simple office
by the Bushmen.
The emphasis
unity of the band and on full cooperation
tendency
grounds
towards
(Turnbull
individual
leadership
1965:297).
does exist, but it is divided
activity
and there
is little
charismatic
type of leadership
up among various
than others.
of
is on the
on purely
A different
in which certain people
more knowledgeable
of social
are recognized
These areas
realms
of
as being
include
hunting
and gathering,
marriage,
ships, and womanhood
band is entitled
and manhood.
and group relationEvery member
to express his own opinion
in any area, but within
who are listened
individual
of a
about matters
each one, there are individuals
to more readily
and whose
advice
is
more often followed.
There
is one other mechanism
as political.
This mechanism,
by which
woman of the band or a stranger
ties to the members
a dispute
forest,
cooperation
from destroying
nearly
always effective.
in order to
the cooperative
appeal
The dispute
economy.
but rather
to the stomach
forgotten
(Turnbull
although
failure
is relatively
If the elder
involved
is
will be shelved,
behind the scenes by the two individuals,
the entire band often becomes
the
survival
continued
1965:303)."
states
disturbing
entity which provides
"This direct
man or
a type of author-
and order
is noisy and therefore
the personified
(Coon 1971:240).
an elderly
who has few or no kinship
This person makes no formal judgement,
that the dispute
could be labeled
of the band, ascribes
ity and tries to restore
prevent
which
perhaps
or simply
is unsuccessful,
and eventually
rare among these most
splits,
coopera-
tive hunting people.
Public
opinion
and ridicule
are very important
of social
control among the Mbuti Pygmies.
operation
and unity
is responsible
There
are stressed,
for contributing
is often one specific
The values
and each member
to the maintenance
person
techniques
of co-
of the band
of these.
in a band who employs
the technique
clown.
of ridicule
He is usually
more
than any other,
a young skilled
hunter,
ried and with few family responsibilities,
in a safe position
to comment
does so not by spouting
one or both parties
ly ridicules
mocks
and quietly
responsibility
it off.
to the point
for the trouble
restoring
peace.
The most
social control
as
usually
an entire
marital,
he himself
takes the
and then proceeds
to laugh
are very
and effective
technique
utilized
by the Mbuti
and the frequent
level,
secular
is the process
changeover
fission
of local bands
it is quite common
between
the
which
1968:132)."
for an individual
or
family to pack up and go live and hunt with rela-
in a distant
up over disputes.
camp to avoid the tensions
which
Since the Pygmies'
system
kinship
strict or based on definite
lineages,
of being
living with a different
in a minority
when
On the band level of organization,
to the flux process.
Prior
of
through
and fusion
(Turnbull
and
of flux,
of personnel
shifts of campsites
as recurrent
and
is quickly
important
the composition
On a family
but pointed-
disputes
seasons ...expressed
tives
He subtly
or at least resolving
" ....the constant
local groups
He
but by lampooning
Either way, the clown and his tactics
at preventing
affects
and therefore
that settlement
Occasionally,
effective
defined
words of wisdom,
the cause of the dispute,
reached.
often unmar-
on social conditions.
of the dispute.
the disputants
i. e. the
to this period
The focal point
the bands
there
is not
is no feeling
there
band.
is a pattern
is the honey
have remained
build
united
season.
for ten
months,
living and hunting
two months
of the honey season,
and families
plenty,
in close cooperation.
hunting
alone.
living
these
antagonistic
so closely
lines of fracture
reformation
rather
The splitting
elements
together,
from
(ibid:136)."
prevent
future ones by simply separating
This process
the bands to resolve
the honey season usually
avoided;
lines of dissent
and fusion allows
dispute
of the band
are carefully
fission
parties,
hunt-
and at the end of the season,
" ...follows
than those of descent
is a time of
which have developed
and dispute
of the bands
individuals
that close cooperative
ing is not needed to subsist.
separates
the bands split,
The honey season
and the Mbuti maintain
For the
being
of
disputes
and
the conflicting
long enough
for the
to be forgotten.
Lugbara
The Lugbara
main
of Uganda,
crops are sorghum
of the Western
codified
niques
These
and cassava,
decisions.
They do, however,
elders
and rainmakers,
dispute
by self-help.
The authority
interaction,
is the oldest
and approved
of elders
On the lowest
the family
exercised
no
machinery
possess
tech-
political.
by family
means
system
chiefs,
which could be called
include the authority
whose
have no political
and no courts or judicial
of social control
society.
people
type, i. e. they have no kings,
law system,
for enforcing
an agricultural
and lineage
of settling
a
is very important
in Lugbara
levels of organization
and social
compound
living descendant
and cluster,
a true elder
of the ancestors
of the
lineage
family
of the family
compound
is accorded
and he is responsible
order within
involved.
this unit, according
to prohibit
spiritual
havior
his authority
for keeping
forth by the ancestors.
power
The elder of a single
Although
offending
authority
from the ancestors,
peaceful
relations
and
to the ideal model
set
he has no actual
actions,
his age, wisdom,
enable him to greatly
of the members
legal
influence
and
the be-
of the compound.
On a much wider scale of social relations,
" ...fighting
among groups ...could be stopped by the joint efforts
elders
directly
dependents
There
concerned~
who continued
is no set procedure
their dissatisfaction
quarreling
who could curse any of their
to fight
(Middleton
over such disputes,
it be known that they think continued
of which
Outside
of the family
they are a member,
authority
to influence
elders
events,
rather
they merely
fighting
clusters
involving
let
to be point-
or subgroups
have no real domestic
and advice
heeded by men outside
their
groups.
Rainmakers,
the power
taining
usually
but their wisdom
is still often sought and largely
own kin
1965:50)."
by which the elders meet to express
over water or land rights;
less (ibid).
of the
those men of a certain
to make and control
social control
lineage
who inherit
rain, also have roles
by certain
political
in main-
techniques.
They can often bring to an end a quarrel
over cattle,
or personal
to the victims
of
of a quarrel
could
rights
such a dispute.
by offering
sanctuary
A man who was the victim
land,
go to the rainmaker
and clasp his feet, thus putting
under the protection
of the rainmaker,
the elders of the persons
and eventually
concerned
forbid continuance
Such arbitration
often prevents
who would
and discuss
The judgement
actually
of the elders
further disputes
guilty,
and rainmaker
then summon
the matter
of the offense
would have arisen had the victim been harmed
him
(ibid).
that
or killed.
dictates
who is
and he has to give a bull to the rainmaker
and the person whom he offended.
Again on the larger
scale, the rainmaker
social control by his sanction
an action which carries
to possess
The rainmaker
social control
pecially
when
of forbidding
further
strife,
the power of a curse by the elders
plus a small amount more,
believed
can enforce
considering
that rainmakers
a vague sort 0:( supernatural
is actually
a very powerful
for the respect
it is contrasted
respect paid by Lugbara
are
power.
force of secular
paid to him is extreme,
to the general
to anyone
in authority
es-
lack of overt
over them
(ibid).
If the preceding
mechanisms
of elders
trying to impose order and resolution
then self-help
order.
often becomes
The concept
of self-help
leads to homicide,
quired as compensation
person
or persons
of a dispute
the only means
one's own hands the settlement
action
is simply
the taking
Often
in which case blood money
are outside
fail,
of maintaining
of a dispute.
to the deceased's
killed
and rainmakers
relatives.
the major
into
such
is reIf the
lineage,
no
compensation
caser
in the form of cattle
self-help
is praised
most efficient
kinsmen,
technique,
a settlement
simply threatening
stimulus
The aspects
tudes towards
to reflect
founded by the ancestors
is given to the elders
of the Lugbara.
though their
lineage
patterns
and behaviors
The respect
overtones
and fusion
the Lugbara
of movement
lack any such technique.
designed
among groups,
This is due primarily
onto a closely
sanctions
related
later.
the
Al-
could facilitate
to compensate
for disputes
they do not generally
tensions
use
and hostilities.
land in the area
if it split away, and also
do not approve
group's
but
a segmentary
to the lack of arable
onto which a group could move
kinship
which
utilizing
of groups within
to that of the Nuer,
as
of the relations
of social control
this system as a means of eliminating
because
They are thought
system of social organization,
or disagreements
in the atti-
an aspect which will be explained
of fission
similar
means.
is due not only to this factor,
the techniques
total society,
being
with public
reflected
of the elders.
also in large part to religious
the processes
by one of
to the self~help
concerned
the ideals of social relations
Regarding
among
to settle by a less violent
the authority
the
that might result
are most clearly
with the ancestors,
and is often
In disputes
to resort
of social control
and values
In this
is achieved
the fear of consequences
a sufficient
opinion
by the elders
way to end a dispute.
occasionally
the parties
is required.
property.
ofa
group moving
Even if a move
was made to an area in which the inhabitants
closely related,
fighting
ing the original
purpose.
The political
the Arushaare
sidered.
might
techniques
Although
still result,
of social
the most complex
their subsistence
control
pattern
of social
control
system
dispute~,
from petty theft or name-calling
is the discussion
assemblies
of peers and/or kinsmen.
to achieve
a settlement
is based on
acceptable
exercised
and arbitration
The ultimate
in
goal is
to both parties
can be further
broken
so that
down into specific
One very common
assembly,
a gathering
of men from the parish
scattered
homesteads
within
in the age-group
simply concerned
type is the parish
fixed boundaries)
of the disputants,
onlookers.
of a parish
The principal
assembly
as spokesmen
for the age-groups
intelligent,
popular
(a group of
who are either
kinsmen,
or
speakers
in
are those men known
involved.
They are usually
men who are felt to be able to present
their cases with eloquence
are not viewed
of all
to murder,
types of assemblies.
the discussion
by the
is alleviated.
This technique
elders
con-
they have a politi-
political
strife
used by
is much different.
The main technique
further
thus defeat-
of the six societies
the same crops as those of the Lugbara,
cal system which
were less
and influence.
as having any authority
The spokesmen
in the decision
making
process,
and indeed they do not wish to be elevated
this way over their age-mates,
bias of the Arusha
They do, however,
guide the decision
Parish
and conclaves
volving
only kinsmen
involved
success
lineage;
witnesses
for public
discussion
presentation
the proposals
1963:105)."
Before
the meeting
the best course
involved,
of the dispute,
In the conclave
taking
a solution.
informed
itself,
on either
side to accept
his opinion.
influence
and direct
he consults
a meeting
in the
of witnesses
and
(Gulliver
the counsellor
in attempting
acts
to
a great deal of influ-
ence, and much power of persuasion--almost
he seldom
are
" ....
and he assists
discussion,
his role as conciliator,
to the
of his own
he arranges
of the affair
He also exercises
of
settlement
of action,
the initiative
opinion;
assembly
to the disputant
for the resolution
in-
The
important
of dispute
of the case, the questioning
as a conciliator,
secure
actually
who are most
as a means
and other people
for disputes
only those who are
ties being
acts as advisor
he recommends
of the same
and outsiders.
less public,
counsellors.
the counsellor
and outside
than the parish
The persons
of a conclave
the lineage
assembly
kinship
the proceedings.
within
and/or kinsmen
somewhat
through
try to
to settle disputes
are used primarily
is a smaller
and is usually
and influence,
are used mostly
of age-sets
parish,
conclave
respect
upon self-seekers.
in favor of their associates.
assemblies
among members
for the strong egalitarian
looks with displeasure
through
in
attempts
authority.
In
to force people
"Rather
he tries to
and to urge the kinds of reso-
lution which,
be more
in the given circumstances,
acceptable
conclusion
to the other party,
of the dispute
.lineage
concession
In their capacity
about a dispute,
counsellors
and to lead to a
with a minimal
his own side (ibid:l06)."
ence decisions
are likely to
are similar
by
to influ-
the Artisha spokesmen
to the Lugbara
and
elders
and
rainmakers.
Even though the parish
usually
putes,
quite efficient
the problem
assembly
at achieving
of implementing
hibit further disputes
and conclave
settlements
are
to dis-
them adequately
still exists.
Even though
to proa man
may admit his guilt and agree to pay compensation,
do nothing
bility.
method
afterwards
The Arusha
which
in hopes of avoiding
try to prevent
is most successful,
is to have the punishment
disperses;
for example,
compensation
delivered
often not this simple,
meeting
ment carried
Although
obtaining
and the Nuer.
to initial
out before
immediately.
The
permit,
the meeting
required
for
As the agreement
the other method,
of having
are concluded
is
another
and the agree-
out, is used.
in one way, self-help
settlement
is different
this in.'two ways.
to have the animal
where the final details
his responsi-
if circumstances
carried
he may
is the normal
of and compensation
way of
for disputes,
it
from the self-help
practiced
by the Lugbara
In this society,
self-help
is limited
responsibility
that falls to the wronged
to make his injury known to counsellor,
spokesmen,
only
person
and
others who will help.
physical
violence
The Arusha
to achieve
argument.
of settlement
They also perceive
and dignity
cal coercion
family,
through
against
is thought
recognized
his person,
of weakness
it as an affront
It is an
to persuasion
procedures:
and to
but physi-
or his property,
to be an inequitable
in
and a loss
of an individual.
tenet that men are susceptible
coercion
or compensation.
but also as " ...an admission
to ...the integrity
peaceful
to the use of
as not only a breakdown
and right method
of social control,
Arusha
settlement
see such violence
the traditional
in a man's
It does not extend
or his
and immoral
act
(ibid:220)."
The Jie of Uganda,
practice
system,
a cattle-herding
some agriculture,
have no traditional
and there are no acknowledged
authority
ascribed
or decision-making
to specialized
do nevertheless,
can be labeled
theft,
own stock-associates
a meeting
ment
of these
and appeal
offered
concerned.
nor is
roles or particular
persons.
techniques
techniques
for unity
control.
the injury, whether
to the attention
and the offender
individuals
it
of his
and his associates,
forms in which moral
and resolution
argu-
of the dispute
a man who belongs
After much argument,
They
of control which
of social
brings
or adultery,
by a go-between,
political
or power
When an injured person
be homicide,
leaders,
who also
responsibility
have several
secular
people
agreement
is
to both groups
is usually
reached
in which
compensation
in the form of cattle
paid to the injured person.
associates
refuse
the injured
If the offender
to settle, public
opinion
can become a very powerful
about resolution
Self-help,
and his
in favor of
technique
to bring
of the dispute.
both as defined
and Nuer standards,
by Arusha
is the secular
and Lugbara
technique
most frequently
of social
control
that is utilized
Similar
to the Arusha use of the term, an injured
must seek for himself payment
of a dispute
by the Jie.
them either.
that has arisen over a past
self-help;
then no one else should
Also in keeping
i.e. seeking
force, "Jie clearly
Jie
for his injury or resolution
injury.
feel that if someone does not make his opinion
ances known,
is
The Jie
and griev-
take any interest
in
with the other definition
settlement
or payment
of
by use of
feel that an injured person
has the
moral right to resort to force if that is the only way
open to him to gain a settlement
Whether
1965:190)."
or not the threat or actual use of physical
to, for example,
attack the offender's
payment
cattle,
depends
on how much support
real guilt
opinion
(Gulliver
lies.
is successful
in bringing
or seize
about settlement
each side has and where the
In clear cut cases or ones where public
and concern
are strong,
the mere threat
help in the form of force is a powerful
to restore
homestead
force
social order.
enough
of selfsanction
The Nuer of the Sudan have several
of social
control which are very similar
Lugbara.
They, along with the Lugbara,
government
systems which
have no law or
in a judicial
other effective
means
for
about control.
Among the various
very egalitarian
clans and tribes
pastoral
people,
there
of the Nuer,
exercised
by some elders within
authority
of such a man, a tut, is usually
advice and opinion.
a village.
surviving
of his family and head of the joint
family,
to be a social
is readily
he must also have character
and ability.
of his family and joint family,
part in settling
the affairs
1940a:180).
Within
tut is a leader
somewhat
being concerned
mostly
in arbitrating
disputes.
to the
but having
Outside
(Evans the
no judicial
the family groups,
he has no political
status,
and a type of authority
headman,
of the group
although
of disputes.
to,
!Kung Bushman
of a tut is like that of a Lugbaran
the settlement
agreed
these family groups,
position
him respect
but in order
As the chief man
of these groups
with the movements
of its rights,
son
he takes a very prominent
similar
the protection
The
in the form of
He is often the eldest
leader whose opinion
a
is an informal
authority
Pritchard
techniques
to those of the
deal with disputes
or legal sense, but utilize
bringing
secular
elder;
his position
used mainly
and
powers
the
i.e.
affords
to encourage
There
is in Nuer society
a means of social
like that found in the rainmakers
This means
Such a man exercises
control
He is first of all a mediator
such things
as land rights,
The process
of settlement
cattle
begins
in two main
in disputes
of the offender.
and the injured
when a chief goes with
to justify
Here the offender's
and offender
their actions.
" ...and anybody
present
elders meet with them,
their views
however,
an op~nion
full of persuasive
to discuss
The leopard-skin
language
can quickly
if compensation
has been reached.
the settlement
refuse
in the form of
and not as a judge-
where
a blood-feud
is not paid.
The killer
in the home of the chief until
The chief
is responsible
with the dead man's
the first offers,
of curses
The disputants
chief can also act in a more powerful
in cases of homicide
sanctuary
among
(ibid:164).
way, particularly
receives
the matter
gives his final decision
with authority
arise
an
of the chief and the elders ... (ibid:163)."
The chief,
ment delivered
chief,
has had his say
and to agree upon the decision.
accept the verdict
and attempt
to do so, expresses
When everyone
the chief and elders withdraw
themselves
to the village
Then the leopard-skin
else who wishes
on the question.
over
theft, and adultery.
the injured party and elders of his village
opinion
society.
is seen in the men who are known as leopard-
skin chiefs.
areas.
of Lugbara
control
until
people.
public
from the chief persuade
settlement
for negotiating
They usually
pressure
and threats
them into accepting
the
compensation
(in the form of cattle).
he can bring to bear is stronger
ment more urgent,
if community
the pressure
and the desire
the leopard-skin
cases only a mediator
Although
for settle-
chief is still
and his mediation
ties are acknowledged
in such
is successful
by both parties
and if
they both wish to avoid further
hostilities.
parties
can the leopard-skin
want the affair settled
intervene
ways,
with success
(ibid:174-75).
the leopard-skin
of dispute
social
settlement
chief
chief acts as a very effective
and sanction
self-help
as a major
The Nuer are a very emotional
for maintenance
from birth to defend
people,
means
of the
man will challenge
his offender
in relations
technique
possibly
is the most
property
is a very effective
violence,
to settle
important
sanction
of an individual's
the Nuer, the principles
are two further
secular
techniques
of fission
of social
they are not quite as systematic
the fission
of groups
within
life and
and fusion
control.
Al-
as among the Mbuti
is similarly
balanced
and
a dispute
(ibid:150).
Among
Pygmies,
of violence
that force,
from failure
a tribe and the main guarantee
and
norm that an injured
is the threat
The knowledge
and/or pay compensation
provoked
and honor by fight-
among Nuer, that it in itself
a feud could result
control.
and fight to the death to
So powerful
of control.
the Nuer
for social
easily
one's rights
It is an accepted
compensation.
examined,
sanction
ing if necessary.
though
if both
order.
use violent
obtain
Only
Thus in these two
More than any other of the peoples
taught
only
by the
combination
Nuer
of others.
The fission
is in terms of groups
families,
but the effect
tion of antagonistic
number
of causes
of people
and fusion among the
rather
is much the same; i. e. the separa-
elements
before
ill feelings
can lead to open disputes
of the Nuer, a feud.
than separate
from any
and in the case
RELIGIOUS TECHNIQUES OF CONTROL
!Kung Bushmen
The
!Kung Bushmen
are unique
examined
in this paper
in that they have almost
techniques
disturb
of religious
the social order.
a sin being
an offense
man corrects
context.
of having
or worshipping
no techniques
There
special
which
(Marshall
ceremonial
curing
dance,
in an att~mpt
lurking
sickness
physical
pleasure
unifying
social
of the people
find outlet
themselves
control
This
involving
and purging
aside
dispute.
technique
valve
and being
a very
of the
of releasing
Fear and
have acted
together
dance
of social
for feelings
away any
from providing
them
The curing
which
is the
and drive
of the ceremony
(ibid:251)."
an escape
of the
all of the band
satisfaction
and the people
as an effective
into a future
the wrath
act, has the effect by means
the emotions
it provides
of social
The dance,
and aesthetic
and excitement
there are
1962:241-245).
to cure sickness
" ...violence
!Kung lack
in any way,
could offer
a ritual
and evil.
the social
with their own an-
to the area of religion.
members
be viewed
within
Since the
their ancestors
of sin;
for his own reasons,
relations
is only one technique
can be connected
hostility
people
that
They feel that
such wrong-doings
of control
dead as a sanction
protect
the gods.
are often quite obscure.
any concept
actions
They also have no concept
against
or avenges
no specific
which prohibit
The high god punishes
ones which
cestors
control
among the six societies
to
can thus
control,
which might
for
erupt
Mbuti Pygmies
The Mbuti Pygmies
are second only to the
!Kung Bushmen
in their lack of social control techniques
which
ligious basis and supernatural
Like the
they do not worship
ponding
techniques
ancestors
deep religious
and therefore
to control behavior.
have a vague concept
ing the forest,
sanctions.
significance.
family
ties are not strong,
cautions,
religious
extreme
technique
degree of identification
the forest,
neighbors,
in contrast
it.
These
also serves
of the forest;
as expressed
The
have with
life of their Bantu
is Mother
factors which
by the Mbuti
and Father,
We are children
we die (Turnbull
form the one
that the Mbuti
1965:132)."
affect
the welfare
themselves
because
us all the things we need ...food, clothing,
and affection.
and appealing
in this same way to urge cooperation
of conflicts,
"The Forest
pre-
among the Mbuti.
to the sedentary
and resolution
saying
to the level of a
and disputes,
of social control
It
his loyalty
in the form of curbing open hostility
of arguments
kin-
people.
life, receiving
are taken not to offend
for the settlement
has
the forest
bond between
As the forest is elevated
deity, precautions
to offend-
In their society where
the focus of a Pygmy's
and devotion.
They do, however,
in their life which
forms the basis of the strongest
becomes
!Kung
have no corres-
of sin, but only with regard
the one element
ship and nuclear
have a re-
it gives
shelter,
of the forest.
in the
When
warmth ..
it dies,
Lugbara
Religious
Lugbara
techniques
of Uganda
that these people
all Lugbara
have for their remote
Since the spirits
of the dead
world
and aware
effective
the dead are present.
terms of adultery,
jury or insult,
by sinful
theft,kinship
in the form of sickness,
Their ability
and lineages
expected
to their
punishment
1965: 68 & 74)."
an offender,
do so most
role.
in-
to bring punishment,
i.e. " ...either
living
Anyone
gives the elders the ability
and bring about the end of most disputes
adequate
can invoke
the
of the families
for it is part
This power and authority
is
and it is
or without
but the elders
frequently
descendants
of morality,
that they do not do so wantonly
dead to punish
in
of living kin or on their own responsibility.
to send sickness
(Middleton
usually
or personal
in two ways;
part of their role as the guardians
accepted
actions,
disputes,
can use their power
at the invocation
reason
and for
of social order so as not to
The dead, when offended
always
to the concern
among their survivors,
for maintenance
the
ancestors
still a part of the present
of all that takes place
offend
among
are in many cases related
who have died.
are considered
sanctions
of social control
of their
to invoke
supernatural
to control
relations
by threatening
invo-
cation.
When the dead themselves,
order and the social
account,
ance.
without
system,
invocation,
They do this mostly
who are the origin
send sickness
of law and
on their
own
this is known as ghostly
venge-
when they feel that their descend-
ants are not sacrificing
often enough
they are not being remembered
when offenses
against
Such a sanction
ritual
with due respect,
close kinsmen
encourages
correct
life but also in everyday
The belief
control
in witchcraft
in two ways.
Before
a witch must be examined.
a man who is usually
does not behave
except
explaining
these,
spiteful,
ugliness,
man who is insulted
hands and bewitch
but often he is
socially
kin or community
as a sanction
and abuse the power
states
it, "A
He should
leave his punish-
own elder or other kin, who can bring
action ...because
approved
are feared
the acts they commit
As Middleton
the offender.
upon him in socially
an antisocial
He may
should not take the law into his own
ment ·to the offender's
sickness
and one who
Witches
they usurp
of the elders.
is always
by the society.
and thought of as evil not only because
and authority
in
the idea of
to the Lugbara
for his actions.
are evil, but also because
not only
acts as an agent of social
in a way approved
inconspicuous
(ibid:77).
relations.
bad-tempered,
by his physical
and also
are committed
behavior,
A witch
be recognized
or when they think
means
mores
approved
the witch
of dealing
(ibid:244)."
for social
ways.
control
Witchcraft
ignores
the
with offenders
against
Thus witchcraft
by stressing
is
acts
the authority
of the elders.
The second way that witchcraft
technique
of control
neighbors.
Witches
is utilized
is by encouraging
attack
as a
good manners
their neighbors,
between
those who deserve
to be attacked
witchcraft,
due to their unfriendly
though
antisocial
acts as a sanction
between
behavior.
and punishable
for good manners
Thus,
if persistent,
and friendly
relations
neighbors.
There
is one further method
part of the Lugbara
lease of tensions
to the method
religious
system.
and hostilities
allusion
It involves
The dance
of someone.
sing; and " ...as in most Lugbara
that is
the re-
by means of a dance
of the !Kung Bushmen.
after the death and burial
and sarcastic
of social control
takes place
The people
songs, there
to the failings
dance and
is much bitter
of other
lineages,
and so there is a good deal of airing of grievances
thereby
disposing
once a grievance
of them
(ibid:69)."
has been expressed
and
The Lugbara
openly,
say that
it is doubtful
that anyone will take it up again for to do so brings
rassment
similar
embar-
and loss of face.
Arusha
The techniques
sanctions
ancestors,
of social
among the Arusha
similar
control
having
supernatural
are based on the power
of the
to those of the Lugbara.
For the Arusha,
the most
father, who is believed
important
ancestor
to be the most powerful
and active
ancestor,
with the ability
to communicate
ancestors
and to influence
the use of their powers
1963:83).
Each homestead
of the father'
ancestors
has a shrine known
at which all sacrifices
are conducted.
with
is one's
Effective
all the other
as the
and rituals
social
control
(Gulliver
'grave
for the
and coop-
erative
relations
achieved
tinued
among the members
by the idea that the dead father desires
cooperation
lifetime.
Rituals
him may be ignored
ately,
of the homestead
and unity
directed
that he commanded
toward praising
if the supplications
from the displeasures
of opportunities
directed
brothers
are not done corpor-
and family members,
Among the Arusha,
and lineage
of difficult
is a very
serious
unless
The curse
It is believed
for proper
to bring about
and no counsellor
he is completely
supported
that if a person
usually
in the form of sickness.
qUickly
after the appeal unless
between
them-
fail.
This
will take this
by public
opinion.
the offender.
of the charges
this and send punishment,
The punishment
the curse
follows
is revoked.
of a curse is sufficient
and an end to hostilities
curse has been uttered,
will
settlement
is indeed guilty
him, the god will recognize
agreement
rituals
used by
to the high god to punish
the mere threat
for
behavior
is a technique
ag~inst
cases,
to them through
when all other measures
is an appeal
respect
activities.
the curse
action
he is glad
not only in the rituals
counsellors
disputes
fears that he may
The fear that such rituals
acts as a sanction
selves but also in everyday
most
his
and appeasing
his continued
in invocations
to the dead father.
be unsuccessful
measure
during
of the ancestors,
to demonstrate
them by participating
elders
the con-
and he may even take action to show his displeasure.
In view of the fact that a man always
suffer
are
and rarely
does the offender
In
to force
even after a
still refuse
to
settle and pay due compensation
and risk the consequences
of the curse.
Religious
sanctions
the social order,
ercised
peace,
by members
of households
ity status,
acquire
espouse
maintenance
and cooperative
behavior
of the senior age-group
among the Jie of Uganda.
by virtue
mystic
rituals,
which encourage
power
the accepted
other occasions
he may refer
and values
the conflict
a~though
not thought
nevertheless
someone
(Gulliver
punish
is brought
placed
rituals.
wrongdoing
and disputes
Since the proper
rituals,
rituals,
particularly
high god is not properly
for the "Jie are inclined
of
man.
is the emthe rain
if there are hostilities
of rainfall
If the rituals
can
conduct
for social control
there must be cooperation
will be spoiled.
behavior,
by such a responsible
among those assembled
amount
to resolve
The high god of the Jie,
is not possible
present
in behav-
if the disapproved
sanction
On
to point up the situa-
procedures
to his attention
on successful
Success
breaches
of as the source of moral
The most powerful
phasis
1965:186).
position,
of the people.
to specific
not to initiate
to
At all public
of his ritual
ior, but even then he must be content
tion and be careful
and by the heads
are thought
from the high god.
morals
are ex-
These men of senior-
of their position,
such a man may, by virtue
of
for the ritual.
is dependent
upon effective
and unity or the ritual
are unsuccessful
supplicated,
to attribute
then trouble
death,
and the
may follow
disease,
mis-
fortune,
and so on, to failure to reach the high god
properly ...(ibid:189).11
behavior
in order
force cooperation
for successful
and peaceful
The Nuer religious
control
similar
This emphasis
on unity and correct
rituals
does much to reinamong the .Tie.
relations
system contains
to those of the Lugbara
sanctions
for social
and Arusha.
They
in-
clude both the power of a high god over man, and the concern
for not displeasing
provoke
the spirits of the dead in such a way to
their anger.
The high god of the Nuer, termed
the anthropologist,
world
Evans-Pritchard,
and the controller
"God" or "Spirit"
is the creator
of all life.
by
of the
He is commonly
a benevo-
lent deity and is compassionate
towards most men.
The super-
natural
from him encourage
peaceful
sanctions
relations
between
which
all Nuer and consideration
His power discourages
Although
emanate
envy, greed,
he is not thought
theft,
good behavior.
is reflected
famines,
misfortunes,
it strikes
committed
This power of Spirit
in the Nuer conception
epidemics,
death,
they wonder
a man,
fault.
the committing
in many cases.
adultery,
to be an immediate
sins, sooner or later he is thought
of their rights.
to punish
sanction
of misfortunes
punishment
such as
The eventual
i
i.e. when they suffer
how it may have come about,
it is usually
against
ill and reward
to administer
and injury;
and murder.
because
punishment
for if
of some previously
that will follow
of a sin serves as a deterrent
to such action
function
Arusha,
as peacemaker
(ibid:167).
Unlike
a curse has only to be thought
-
a curse
among
the
to be heard by God,
!Kung Bushmen
The
!Kung Bushmen
in which
ligious
there are inherent
sanctions
control.
which
ties and obligations
organization
family.
Within
more than one wife,
there
is only one rather
found
in the respect
the father,
There
extended
a kinship
serve as techniques
The only social
them is the nuclear
include
do not possess
of importance
each family,
small element
names
of control.
that the members
is one means by which the concept
beyond one's close relatives;
children
This involves
unity
cousin.
sexual
relations
give to
purpose
grandparents,
and thus only a few
the generations.
with or marriage
This
behavior
a region.
jealousy
of
It acts
for " ...the familiar
to kinsmen--sharing
from expressing
to
is to give a feeling
of bands within
for correct
suitable
giving
grandparents.
and the use of the kin terms make them expect
other behavior
is
at least up to the level of the
The second
to all the members
restraint
is
In one case it acts as an incest
of the same name,
as an encouragement
names
throughout
has two purposes.
taboo, prohibiting
second
This
of kinship
of always
are named for their maternal
are used repeatedly
persons
spouses,
i. e. the same name
the practice
and aunts, and other relatives,
custom
which may
and their
the first born the names of their paternal
uncles
to
even after he is too old to hunt.
relationship.
Other
or re-
of social
her offspring,
and obedience
system
or other
from each
food, gift-giving,
hostilities,
con-
forming
to group opinion,
conducive
to peaceful
all the things
living together
they do that are
(Marshall
1965:260)."
Mbuti Pygmies
Like the !Kung Bushmen,
the Mbuti
organization
beyond
furthermore,
even the semblance
that the
!Kung have ,in their
is understandable
these people
shifting
more
that of the nuclear
of a broader
who live so intimately
are expected
Techniques
of flux among
and maximize
on the
If they had a
system,
their fission
and fusion proc-
as they ~re, for there wo~ld
in a minority
whenever
one was outside
This is not the case however,
to move around
and are accepted
of social control
or functional
This
hostilities.
of being
the traditional
kin system
to reduce
kinship
one's own band.
They lack
same name relationships.
esses would not be as adaptive
be a feeling
family.
owing to the importance
of peoples
complex
have no kinship
obligations
whose
sanctions
to kinsmen
for families
into any band.
are based on
are hardly
possible
among the Mbuti Pygmies.
Lugbara
The kinship
nature;
is one of a segmentary
i. e. each level or group of organization
ther divided
into smaller
related.
Within
of social
cQntrol
distance
system of the Lugbara
between
this system,
whose members
the effectiveness
based on kin obligations
related
One type of social
ship exert
groups
peoples
control
is the obligation
can be fur-
are more closely
of techniques
decrease
as the
increases.
that the closer
to settle
ties of kin~
all disputes
peace-
fUlly and to support
putants,
one's kinsmen
and elders
one of the most sacred duties
is to support a fellow kinsman
man feels compelled
to do so if possible
in the future
support
not only of arguing
kinsman,
but also helping
cided guilty.
settlement
is operable
as a means
'The most
where
appeal
is effective
self-help
if he is de-
for correct
only to a certain
Beyond
operable
determines
the point
is the use of religious
that are a part of the cult of the dead.
~elations
throughout
the lineage,
well-being
the levels of organization
sanctions
of the social
The techniques
are used as sanctions
Since the Lugbara
events
ment
on earth,
(sickness)
against
believe
invocation
disputes
In kinship
up to and in-
for the maintenance
order are exercised
of both ghost
point,
this point,
sanctions
cluding
dispute
settlement.
factor which
becomes
This
force in the form of self-help
of dispute
important
1965:46).
pay the compensation
approved
he in turn
in favor of the accused
from one tribe to another.
the use of socially
system
and a Lugbara
because
(Middleton
This very practical
among kinsmen
which varies
of the kinship
in his troubles,
may need support
consists
of the dis-
of the
by the ancestors.
and ghostly
vengeance
among close kinsmen.
that the dead are conscious
this fear of provoking
acts as a deterrent
their
of all
anger and punish-
to offenses
against
kinsmen.
Arusha
Arusha
kinship
techniques
of social control
system are very similar
is first of all the appeal
connected
with the
to those of the Lugbara.
for cooperation
and mutual
There
aid among
brothers
of the same father and among all similarly
kinsmen.
This has a very practical
inheritance
and economic
obligations
of kinship
tical usefulness
upbringing
desire of wilful
.rather a general
when required
members
interdependence.
are justified
interests.
intervention
readiness
(Gulliver
of joint
The ties and
due to " ...their pracarising
There
out of common
is neither
in another's
right nor
affairs,
but
to give as well as to seek help
1963:79
of their families
of behavior
basis of appeal
allied with sentiments
and common
related
&
82)."
Arusha men and all
are encouraged
so that their claims
to conform
to norms
on assistance
from kinsmen
" ...reciprocal
aid and the
will be honored.
'Secondly,
correct'be~avior
value of corporate
the dead father,
_lineage unity
action are ...reinforced
which provides
and, through
both a conceptualisation
the ancestor
force which
cannot be ignored without
All Arusha,
whether
members
by the image of
cult, a positive
danger
of a single
(ibid:7~)."
family or of an entire
lineage are subject
to the power of the ancestors
certain
connected
obligations
avoided.
The importance
such as helping
support
with bridewealth
in a dispute,
by the desire
ancestors,
whether
inherent
payments,
assistance,
not to incur the displeasure
or most
in rituals,
importantlY,
the traditional
in the kinship
these obligations,
economic
it be by negligence
to settle a dispute,
and to
cannot be
or compensation
or furnishing
sanctioned
to and maintain
with them which
of fulfilling
system.
of
obligations
failure
is
of the
refusal
to respond
and relations
Among the Jie, kinship
two principles:
natural
secular cooperation
sanctions
herd, while
affection
this unity
is usually
the more
between
the authority
proper behavior
however,
or ignoring
level and the settlement
many households,
authority,
upon
the order
system.
At the household
ant in maintaining
are again based
and unity and the super-
against disrupting
set up by the kinshi~
includes
sanctions
important
of elders
between
limited
level,
which
is import-
kinsmen.
This
to the use of the
sanction
is the desired
and unity of the kinsmen.
lies not only in its practical
The basis
values
for
of coopera-
tion and the right of inheritance,
but also in its moral
value.
and Arusha,
Here, as among the Lugbara
obligations
of kinship
are fulfilled
offer secur~ty
by correct
behavior
the ties and
and well-being
and a refraining
if they
from con-
flict,
Inherent
brother
in the authority
or a senior age-group
supernatural
retribution
of his decisions.
of misfortune
of the elder, whether
member
follows
and sickness
he has been alerted
usually
to the disobedience
Conflicts
and hostilities
punished
by Akuj by his refusal
ing for his favor and good will,
with rain and crop success.
of disputes
takes
the form
by the elders
among kinsmen
to respond
As mentioned
and animosity
those
con-
appeal-
concerned
previously,
makes rituals
after
also are
to rituals
especially
that
disobeying
sent by the high god Akuj,
cerned.
presence
is the firm belief
the deliberate
This retribution
he be a
the
fail, and
thus there is a very powerful
with kinsmen
inducement
by living up to one's responsibilities.
As with the Jie, Lugbara,
of social
to get along well
and Arusha
the techniques
control which are based on the kinship
quite similar
to those of the Nuer.
There
tical appeal to live up to the obligations
ties and to behave properly
privileges
of support,
rightfully
gained
towards
with compensation
if a dispute
effort
payments,
leads to a feud.
or fighting,
an effective
sanction
against
kinsmen
to punish
As mentioned
justice
obligations
improper
of others'
to kin.
and to help
disputes
however,
to heavy
behavior
kinsmen.
and
of the dead
the social
of a ghost
from his grave
and fulfillment
system.
avenging
serves
in that it emphasizes
right,
acting as
toward
is the power
much
settlement
results
actions
for correct
the possibility
of social control
consideration
leading
among kinsmen
or unreasonable
technique
in disputes
the living for disrupting
before,
can be
a man is expected
Among kinsmen,
sanction
of disputes
in kin
and economic,
the fear of violent
The most powerful
avoidance
inherent
but also to fight by their side
is made to avoid disputes
penalties
is the same prac-
With the Nuer,
not only to side with his relation
are
one's kin so that the
both political
in return.
system
in-
as a
justice,
of one's own
any formal
initial ceremonies.
children
are encouraged
expected
to be disciplined
Throughout
to imitate
adult behavior
on the hunt and to gather
edibles
more adult responsibilities.
i. e. by killing
immediately
which
and are given more and
Punishment
With the onset of puberty,
a large animal.
a member
There
of the Lusumba,
as a formal
This public
hunter and adult acts as a sanction
an association
and
to this, and "the only
token of initiation
slits on the forehead ...
recognition
and responsibility
to
boy;
their maturity
of sets of three vertical
(ibid 1960:436)."
adult behavior
but from now on the
Upon doing this, he is
is no formality
thing that might be regarded
is the cutting
this age is
the Mbuti boy is required
all males who have proved
hunting prowess.
until
in much the same way as a Bushman
proclaimed
includes
actions.
to go with their parents
in the form of a sound slapping,
show his adulthood
and are
by any adult for improper
By the age of nine, they are expected
usually
childhood,
of his status
for the pursuance
as a
of correct
among the Mbuti.
Lugbara
The Lugbara
of Uganda
rites nor age-grade
values
have neither
organization.
and norms of behavior
any formal
The children
by their families
antly by their father, who beats his children
uses religious
sanctions
the more serious
against
offenses.
initiation
are taught
and most
the
import-
when small, but
them when they are grown
for
There does exist among the Lugbara
seniority
whose
men the proper
levels are instrumental
behavior
and important
The ideal of responsible
dignified,
deliberate
in support
for his
(Middleton
1960:16).
behavior
behavior
youth looks out for himself
big youth who is married
but also be responsible
the elders
exercise
(ibid 1965:74).
system
in teaching
the young
values of the society.
and just and ready to act
this is the ideal, the expected
levels of seniority
should protect
his wives'
control
politeness,
listening
importantly,
punished
possible
by ghostly
technique
vengeance
of social
control
within
is that by the time a man has reached
elder,
he is assumed
both secular
tion, his attempts
itimate
to have complete
to maintain
and therefore
ignored.
authority.
and
or
one of the
are
A second
this seniority
the status of
social maturity
both of whidh validate
and supernatural
from arguing
and are very serious.
inherent
one.
to the opinions
These offenses
system
depth of experience,
the senior
considered
(ibid 1960:21).
group
found in this
refraining
with a senior man, this being
worst offenses
a
land rights
for the good of the entire
One aspect of social
advice given, and most
fi~hting
a
to the larger kin group; and finally,
authority
involves
varies:
but should obey his seniors;
is the idea that the junior man respects
This respect
of
of the same grade as himself
Although
of men at different
system
for a man is to be quiet,
in decision,
'brothers'
an informal
and a
his exercise
Without
of
this valida-
the social order would
be illeg-
Arusha
The Arusha
formal
have an age-grade
than that of the Lugbara,
control
are similar;
society
and validation
virtue
of the leadership
successfully
and social maturity.
the following
of the senior men by
ceremony
several parishes.
has a formal
The system is organized
is the age-group
at about 6 years of age.
which contains
concurrent
in
which
The grades
are briefly
who have no part in pUblic
r~le is herding
stock and playing.
who have been formally
life.
They supervise
and, enjoying
who, although
processes.
next grade
or political
They marry
affairs,
and spend much
in
time
Next are the senior murran,
enough to fully participate
may attend them to learn the
elders who participate
for they are quickly
and ceremonials,
Members
Their main
and begin farming their own lands.
is that of junior
ritual procedures
life.
First
Second are the junior murran,
the herding
themselves.
obliga-
as follows:
but still play no part
they are not mature
affairs,
precedents.
initiated
from
each grade
status and a group of norms of behaviors,
are the youths,
in ritual
The next
age-groups
The last level is the age-grade;
tions and privileges.
public
level
all boys of the same age in a parish who are initiated
level is the age-set
dancing
the required
way:
by a circumcision
public
of social
of the norms of the
reached
The first level of organization
contains
is much more
but whose techniques
i. e. the learning
of their having
of physical
system which
learning
judicial
of the next grade,
The
in all
the customs,
techniques
senior elders,
and
partici-
pate
in public
affairs only a little less than junior
They are regarded
being
experts
as repositories
in the procedures
settle many delicate
retired
matters.
tion with the ancestor
is a definite
increase
elders
in the exercise
by this progressive
however,
ward-patron
relationship
men can proceed
of the patrons
and ~ehaving
a further
given to the junior
for the age-grades
which determines
learn the social norms,
are linked
whether
process
and developed
undertake
(ibid:30).
The need
correctly
pressure
properly
in the next level
on those
to do so so that
(ibid:44).
exerted
on the
until the age of seven when the boys are expected
help with the herding
of all animals
and
that mark the trans-
Among the Jie, there is little discipline
children
the younger
men in learning
the men to perform
as do the rituals
they may join their mates
in a
It is the responsibility
ition from one grade to the next by exerting
who have not conformed
is validated
so that they can legitimately
encourages
and
The progression,
to guide and assist the younger
for such approval
indicates,
and authority
of knowledge.
stage in the maturation
but
in connec-
of their authority
to the next grade.
properly
affairs
1963:26ff).
in both knowledge
acquisition
is not automatic
in public
of the age-grades
The respect
to
is that of the
due to their authority
cult (Gulliver
as the levels progress.
and as thus
necessary
The last grade
As this brief examination
senior
and diplomacy
elders, who do not participate
still wield much influence
there
of experience
elders.
to
and to begin to spend much
time in the cattle
this time, physical
to encourage
camps,
away from their homesteads.
and verbal
correct behavior.
Jie is not as complicated
only on generations,
inherent
punishment
are administered
The age-grade
and the only element
initiation,
The initiation
an ox and a feast acknowledging
Seniority
by initiated
the ritual
men.
The longer
and political
he is believed
instruction
concerning
the initiation,
erly towards
by observing,
exercised
the more supernatural
there
participating,
in
power
is no formal
before
or after
and behaving
one may ultimately
and ritual power.
prop-
become
a
This ultimate
goal acts as a positive
sanction
restraint
and thus is an effective
from disputes
of
of the initiate.
in the control
norms or values
kin and age-mates,
sen~or man of much respect
authority
of the killing
Thus, although
social
ritual
a man has been participating
affairs,
to acquire.
consists
factor
control
a man is classified
the new status
is an important
of the
being based
of social
as an adult and gains the right to exercise
in his homestead.
system
as that of the Arusha,
in it is that upon
At
for courteous
behavior
and
technique
of
social control.
In the enculturation
both a formal
also contain
initiation
techniques
The initiation
ation in which
processes
of the Nuer,
and an age-set
system,
there occurs
both of which
of social control.
ceremony
the foreheads
consists
of a rather
severe
oper-
of boys the ages of 14 to 16 are
cut to the bone with six cuts stretching
from ear to ear.
This ceremony
not only makes
set, but also marks
accompanying
them a member
them as full adults,
responsibilities
of the present
herdsmen
and obligations
age-
with all the
for correct
behavior.
Although
of relative
requires
latter,
the age-set
junior
and senior status between
some respect
and obedience
the most important
ent in the system
obligation
is operable
for approval
encourage
of social control
to that of the kinship
hospitality
omic and political
from fighting
from the former to the
technique
the range of kinship
as mutual
support,
as a sanction
and sharing,
and most
In attempting
to determine
whether
different
patterns
of subsistence,
ed that although
whatever
conclusions
are specific
Although
the curse
behaviors,
are used by African
the desire
sufficient
to
in Africa,
general
are arrived
agricultural,
to separate
having
at in this
discussed,
implications
In order to determine
again
peoples
tech-
it must be remember-
to the six societies
in their broad,
it is beneficial
econ-
a refrain
or not various
vastly
hunting-gathering.
such
of age-set obligations.
of social control
societies
and
It ex-
good manners,
in status are usually
niques
different
system.
importantly,
for these proper
and elevation
can be applied
inher-
ties, but still requires
with those of a senior set.
fulfillment
examination
every man, which
is that it sets up an idiom of behavior
very similar
tends beyond
things
system does include the establishment
to many
pastoral,
these
they
and
implications,
the techniques
into the
arbitary
categories
defined
earlier.
In the area of secular
the dominant
tinued
appeals
whether
or lineage,
fragment
to all the societies
is the use of public
ior.
Ridicule,
gossip,
opinion
and public
the right all act as sanctions
in hunting
herding
often
camps.
bands,
Another
aura of authority
by virtue
against
agricultural
which
counsellor,
respect
for age and wisdom
and encroachment
the strongest
control
among people
which might
is the respect
warrant
headman,
of other's
rights
and most universal
everyday
which
technique
from anti-social
that might
result
of
the same.
of social
is the fear of
behaviors.
arrows
blood
In
among
feud of
from Lugbara
leads to loss of life and disruption
life acts as a very powerful
ful settlement
Whether
to prolonged
remains
the long, destructive
the Nuer, or the homicides
help, violence
it.
an Arusha
of all modes of livelihood
and Pygmies,
and
is given to men and women who,
the form of face to face combat with poisoned
the Bushmen
of disputes
in
and cattle
acting as a deterrent
result
behav-
of the social
or a Nuer tut, the basic principle
Perhaps
violence
correct
for those people
villages
of their age and/or experience~
lineage
One of
violation
common technique
which
by three
discussed.
to encourage
this be in the form of a !Kung Bushman
disputes
of disputes
support
is
band, homestead
These two goals are achieved
these
order
family,
and for the swift resolution
common
are for the con-
level of social organization
it be the nuclear
this unity.
techniques
of social control,
of most such methods
unity of whatever
concerned,
techniques
sanction
selfof
for the peace-
and for the avoidance
of future
ones whenever
possible.
The dominant
control
either
factor among religious
is the appeal not to offend
a high god or the ancestors,
improper,
in most cases bad manners,
adultery,
and homicide.
The
techniques
the supernatural
beings,
by actions which
they deem
offenses
!Kung Bushmen
against
control
are controlled
and their religious
appeal
to quiet a dispute
an entity which provides
threat
of supernatural
the Arusha,
made
Lugbara,
inadequate
the basic
offenses
survival
punishment
incurred
possess
social
such a system,
peaceful
entire
community.
of rituals
against
sins or
only the Mbuti Pygmies
which offers
do
some tech-
such a system would
it would make their very effective
as a means of separating
Within
the one dominant
among kinsmen
The emphasis
antagonistic
the societies
element
is the stress that is placed
relations
the
among the Jie, all carry
For the Mbuti,
to avoid disputes.
control
the
by a curse among
punishment
examined,
because
of flux useless
elements
the
of peace and order.
of social control.
process
control
the Forest,
and Nuer, and the possibility
the societies
not be functional
which
techniques,
for the Mbuti Pygmies,
not have a system of social organization
niques
secular
for fear of disturbing
of supernatural
disruptive
Their concerns
In the other societies,
by human hostilities
sanction
Among
by powerful
system has no ancestors
living by sending punishment.
kin,
are the only one
of these groups who do not use this sanction.
for social
of social
which do
effective
on cooperative
which are beneficial
is placed
for
and
to the
on the necessity
of
maintaining
an atmosphere
able to pursue
Among kinsmen
among relatives
their daily economic
there are inherent
met in order to preserve
and social
obligations
peaceful
go privileges
The fulfillment
of these obligations
support
ful sanctions
have a right.
and the economic
which are their counterpart,
Nuer for the avoidance
activities.
but along with
to which kinsmen
among the Bushmen,
all are
which must be
relations,
the obligations
political
in which
Lugbara,
of hostilities
and
act as power-
Arusha,
Jie,
and peaceful
and
settlement
of disputes.
Among the two agricultural
discussed,
there is another common
based on the kinship
members
system.
of the community
ship structure,
natural
and two pastoral
This
technique
a great deal of superthe relations
The fear of supernatural
sanction
ship ties are fulfilled
control
are still very much a part of the kin-
power as a means of controlling
very powerful
of social
is the idea that since dead
they can and do exercise
their living kin.
societies
between
retribution
for seeing that the obligations
and that disputes
is a
of kin-
with kinsmen
are
avoided.
Initiation
societies
examined
common which
element
ceremonies
and age-set
all have one technique
is enculturative
in nature.
of these two institutions
of the societies
systems
are informally
either when they are ritually
among
of social
This
the six
control
is the inherent
by which the cultural
instilled
initiated
in the youths
or gradually
values.
Whether
the occasion
mores
so that
elevated
to the status of adult, they are aware of and expected
by these social
in
to live
be the scarifica-
tion of a !Kung Bushmen boy after his first big kill, the
transition
of an Arusha youth
into an age-grade
given more of a part in public
affairs,
a Nuer boy as an adult, the common
them into adults responsible
settling
disputes,
he is
or the initiation
function
for fulfilling
and generally
where
behaving
of
of transforming
kin obligations,
in a manner
agreeable
with the social norms is present.
The age-set
organizations
found in the agricultural
an additional
physical
common technique
exists
a man reaches
of practical
processes
elders,
These
organizations.
The ritual powers
these men are believed
clusion
acquired
to possess
and often fear; reactions
the validation
this final analysis
Arusha,
a good deal
important
such men
usually
roles,
through
rainmaker,
by
one of the two
and vast amount
are regarded
of knowledge
with respect
without
processes.
and comparison
of the techniques
found among the !Kung Bushmen,
Jie and Nuer,
both
are all validated
which would be impossible
of the maturation
control
he is usual-
and has gained
or senior,
and wisdom
Lugbara,
in these
that by the time
roles in their societies,
and religiously.
have
In the
At this level of maturation,
this experience
of social
examined
inherent
phenomenon
in many matters
wisdom.
counsellor,
After
societies
the upper levels of the organization,
play very important
po~itically
of seniority
of social control.
the recognized
ly very experienced
lineage
and pastoral
and social maturation
two systems
and the systems
it seems correct
that there exists only a small amount
Mbuti Pygmies,
to say in con-
of correlation
between
the subsistence
and the techniques
cularly
trols,
patterns
of social
in the categories
several
respect
techniques
for the elders,
by means
of initiation
to be common
religious
of secular
peoples;
system designed
peoples
that they utilize.
Parti-
and enculturative
and the instillation
peoples
and/or
age-set
practicing
for social
any type of broad kinship
structure.
lihood
details
urging
hunting-gathering
a pastoral
and
society
lacks
cases appear
between
Although
vary little
to one agricultural
society of Sub-Saharan
Africa.
to
of cases,
mode
of live-
specific
basis of the techniques
their implementation
society
societies
control,
for in the majority
of social control.
may vary, the general
sanctions
These
to be almost no correlation
and techniques
categories,
it lacks a religious
the hunting-gathering
there appears
appear
in common with the agricultural
sanctions
however,
mores
each of the three
in the other case because
be only exceptions,
opinion,
systems
In both of the other
in one case because
to provide
con-
of societal
one of the hunting-gathering
does not have any techniques
or pastoral
African
such as the use of public
of subsistence.
and kinship,
control
ceremonies
to African
main patterns
of Sub-Saharan
and the
from one
society
or to
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1974.
Storl, Wolf-Dieter.
"The Structural
Spiritualist Camp."
1967.
in
Among the Karamojong
Anthropology
of a
Wright, Elyse.
1970.
Bry-ant, Carol Anne.
"Out-Migration
Ireland."
1973.
of Youths
in Western
Potter, Robert O.
"Micronesia:
An Examination of the Geographical, Historical and Cultural Antecedents Affecting
Potential Independence."
1973.
Van Nieuwerburgh, Paul.
"An Investigation of the Knowledge
of Venereal Diseases in a Population of College
Freshman."
1974.
Wyss, James D.
"Wild Plant Utilization,
Identification,
and
Classification Among Selected Low-Income Central Kentucky
Families."
1973.
UNIVERSITE
LAVAL,
Beaucage, Pierre.
les Caraibes
QUEBEC,
CANADA
"Ethno-Histoire et Changements
Noir du Honduras."
1965.
Bergeron-Coulombe,
Joclyne.
"Les Structures
Chez les Bassa du Cameroun."
1969.
Sociaux
de la Parent~
Chez
Bibeau, Gilles.
"Les M~canismes de Coh~sion dans une Secte
Etablie:
Une Observation Participante des T~moins de
Jehovah."
1972.
Bonenfant, Michele.
"Fort-Chimo:
Transition."
1966.
Un Groupe
d'Esquimaux
en
Bouchard, Serge.
"Classification Montagnaise de la Faune.
Etude en Anthropologie Cognitive .sur la Structure du
Lexique 'Animal Indiens' chez les Montagnais de Mingan."
1973.
Borque, Diane.
1969.
Breton, Yvan.
1967.
Charest, Paul.
la Colline
"Traditions
"La Culture
Orales Yombe
Materielle
et Historicite."
des Blancs
"Les Reseaux de Relations
de Mpore, Rwanda, Afrique
Sablonais."
Intra-Familiales
sur
Centrale."
1965.
Chartrand, Francine.
''L'Id201ogie de Survivance
Acadiens de Portsmouth."
1963.
chez
les
Dominique, Richard.
'Dans ce Temps-La ...Pi Ast'heure'
Histoire de la Moyenne Cote-Nord."
1974.
Drapeau, Bertrand.
"La Persistence
Sacoanha."
1973.
Durand, Pierre.
Communaute
L'Ethno-
a
de la Paquelance
"La Reproduction Economique et Politique
Paysanne Mexicaine:
Nanocotlon."
1973.
LaChance, Denis.
"L'Acculturation
et Maliotenam."
1969.
des Indiens
de Sept
d'une
lIes
LaRochelle, Gilles.
"L'Organisation Communautaire et ses
Fondements Historiques chez les Esquimaux de Kangirsuk
(Ungava)."
1972.
LeClerc, Yves.
Economique
"Aspects de l'Organisation Sociale
l'Ile d'Orleans."
1967.
a
Lemelin, Bernard.
"Changement Culturel
du Nord de l'Inde."
1971.
a
LePage, Andre.
"Du Mouvement ~ la Secte.
Prophetisme Konga."
1970.
Senapour,
et
Village
L'Organisation
du
Pleau, Pierre.
"Relations
Canadienne-Francaise."
,
Sociales
1967.
dans Une Communaut~
Renaud, Jean-Paul.
"Anthropologie Economique des Paysans
de la 'Baixada' (Moronbao, Bresil)."
1973.
Roberge, Andree.
"La Socialisation Chez les Bassa: Une
Etude sur Ie Processus d'Identification."
1969.
Santerre, Renaud.
"Langage et Survie
Gustave Guillaume."
1963.
du Congage
Trudel, Francois.
"La Population de l'Archipel
Une Culture Insulaire?"
1971.
Chez
des Belcher:
Valois, Jocelyne.
"Les Changements Socio-Culturels
l'Interieur de la Famille Agricole CanadienneFrangaise."
1965.
a
Genest, Ferna.ldr;B.
"Etude du Comportement Chez des Individus
Poss€dant un Genotype Aberrant 47, XYY."
1974.
Jourbert, Pierre.
"L'Intervention des Acadiens de Havre
St. Pierre dans Ie Developpement fconomique de la
C'dte Nord."
1973.
Senechal, Claude.
"Enseignements
Vaillageois du Nord Cameroun
et Milieux.
Un Example
(Balaza-Alkali)."
1974.
Byrd, Kathleen.
"Tchefuncte Subsistence Patterns:
Morton
Shell Mound, Iberia Parish, Louisiana."
1974.
Weinstein, Richard Alan.
"An Archaeological
Lower Amite River, Louisiana."
1974.
Survey
of the
McCloskey, Marilyn.
"Women in Law:
A Study of Attitudes
Leading to Role Conflict."
1974.
Richling, Barnett.
1974.
Ridout-Stewart,
Caroline.
"Communitas to Structure:
A Dynamic
Social Network of an Urban Jesus People Community."
1974.
"Structural
Hawkins, James E.
Americans."
1970.
Assimilation
McClarence, Canute.
"Garvey's V.N.r.A.,
the United States."
1972.
Among Fra-nco-
in Jamaica
and
Onaka, Alvin Takashi.
"Reproductive Time Lost from Sexual
Unions Due to Sexual Union Dissolution in San Jose,
Costa Rica."
1971.
Piampiti, Suwanlee.
in Thailand."
"Age and Sex Patterns
1970.
of Migration
Shaw, Clayton T.
"A Comparative Study of Equal Health
Care of Black Americans and White Americans in
'Professional Activity Study' Hospitals."
1969.
Sheley, Roslyn Strokoff.
Appraisal."
1973.
"Ethnomethodology:
Summary
and
BrashIer, Janet G. "A Forma! Analysis of Prehistoric
Ceramics from the Fletcher Site (Michigan).
1973.
Bartel, Bradley.
"Mortuary Practices
Western Anatolia."
1973.
Born, Phillip.
"Cultural
'l2echnology." 1973.
Hall, Janice.
American
Anthropology:
"A Descriptive
Indian Moccasin
in Early Bronze
Age
The Study of
Survey of Selected
Styles."
1973.
North
Ridgeway, Sharon Goad.
"The Aegean and the Caucasus
Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age."
1973.
Smythe, Charles.
"Environment in the Universe:
Identity in Central Australia."
1973.
in the
Totemic
Bertrand-Mineau,
Doroth~e.
"De l'Habitation au Quartier:
Etude de l'tvolution d'Vn Lotissement Foncier
la
Martinique."
1974.
a
Chatillon, Colette.
"Le Developpement
au Quebec."
1974.
de l'Agriculture
Duval, Michelle.
"Les Mouvements Sociaux Engendr€s
R~gion de Mont-Laurier par la Crise de Sogelor
1973.
Jacques, Madeleine.
une Coop~rative
"Analyse de la Condition
du Nord de la Tunisie."
Kirsch, Chantal.
"La Division Sexuelle
l'Inf€riorit~ Sociale des Femmes."
dans la
en 1971."
de la Femme
1974.
du Travail
1974.
dans
et
Landriault, Martine.
"Rapports Amoureux
Entre les Hommes
et les Animaux dans la Mythologie Montagnaise."
1974.
Leavy, Norman.
"Le t Comple:xedu Forgeron'
Occidentale."
1973.
Lehouillier, Richard.
"Classification
de Viv~ II, Martinique."
1974.
en Afrique
de Mat~riel
C~ramique
Lessard-Plante,
Diane.
"Les Rapports de Production
l'Agriculture Qui:!b€coise1945-1973."
1974.
dans
Sirois-Maheu, Michele.
"Les' Changements Occupationnels
.Residentiels ~ St-Jacques-Ie-Mineur."
1974.
Hudak, J. Gary.
"The Pedersen
-:Minnesota." 1974.
Site
(21LN2), Lincoln
et
County,
Hunt, William J. Jr.
"Late Woodland-Mississipian
Relationships at the River East Site (23SL79), St. Louis, Mo."
1974.
Nickel, Robert E.
"PlaI}t Resource Utilization at a Late Prehistoric Site in North-Central South Dakota."
1974.
Ruppert, Michael E.
"Analysis of the Vertebrate
from the King Hill Site, 23BN1."
1974.
Frank, Alan.
"A Functional Analysis of Certain
Artifacts from Steamboat Springs, Nevada."
Faunal
Chipped
1974.
Remains
Stone
Cazares, Mary.
"A Historical and Contemporary
Mexican-Americans."
1974.
of
Healy, Bernard.
and India."
"Patron-Client
1975.
Lillo, Beatriz.
A Municipio
"Ecological Study of Santa Cruz del Quiche,
in the Highlands of Guatemala."
1974.
Uprimny, Elena.
"Archaeological
Perspective."
1975.
Relations
Analysis
Theory
in Latin America
in the Columbian
Weil, Edward.
"Local Chronology of Archaeological
Sites in
the Marismas National, Sinaloa and Nayarit, Mexico."
1974.
Zadran, Alef-Shah.
"Dispute
the Suliman Foothills."
Resolution
1974.
Among the Pathans
Britan, Ronnie.
"The Relevance of the Culture
Sub-Human Primates."
1972.
Concept
of
for
Burwell, Ronald.
"Religion and Social Change in Java:
The
Relevance of Weber's Thesis of the Protestant Ethic."
1972.
Canosa, Jacqueline.
"Hallmarks of Anthropological
Theory:
Functionalism and/or Structural Functionalism."
1975.
Conrad, John.
Owners. "
"Attitudes
1972.
and Values
of Sea Gate Property
Davis, Sonja D.
"A Comparative Analysis
of Women in East, West and Southern
of the Changing Roles
Africa."
1971.
Demegret, Wendy.
"Tradition and Modernization:
of the Sierra of Peru in the Mid-Sixties."
A Case Study
1973.
Dworkin, Stanley.
"An Introduction to the Primates and the
Relevance of Primate Behavior Studies to the Anthropologist."
1973.
Eberle, Bruce A.
"A Functional
Tools."
1974.
Analysis
of Unworked
Stone
Gallagher, Christ ine.
"Large Seal e Organiz:ttions and Worl d
View:
A Study of Japan 's FormalSysl.t'lIlor Educn l.ion."
1973.
Gordon, Clifford L.
"Tribal Cohesion in Kampala,
the Copper Belt Cities of Zambia."
1972.
Uganda,
Grossman, Leona.
"Emergency Room Visits for Asthmatic
A Study of Puerto Ricans at Mt. Sinai Hospital."
Harrigan, Lorraine.
1973.
"Effect of Ecology
on Selected
and
Attacks:
1971.
Primates."
Hooglund, Mary.
"Tribesman to Subject:
Influence of Central
Government on Political and Social Organization
of
Iranian Tribes."
1973.
Jennings, Anne.
"The State of Neolithic
Africa."
1973.
Research
in West
Klein, David.
"Cursorial Specializat ions of the Lower
of Erythrocebus 'Ja
tas. " 1,973.
Klein, Joel.
"Thermal Alteration:
Technology."
1973.
Lamel, Marcia.
"The Ejido
in Mexico."
1975.
LeweTJ.en, Theodore.
and Collective
An Aspect
and Change
of Lithic
in Indigenous
"Suicide as Symbol:
Death Rites."
1973.
Hind Limb
A Study
Milton, Katharine.
"Ecology and Social Behavior
of Free-Ranging Anubis Baboons."
1973.
Communities
of Individual
in a Population
Mitchell, Peggy Merber.
(Paper)
"Social Organization Among
Some Living Nonhuman Primates and Hunting and Gathering
Peoples."
1971.
Neff, Lucianne M.
(Paper)
"William A. Ritchie's Revision of
The Archaeology of New York State:
A Critique."
1972.
Osterweil, Marc.
"An Analysis of the Organizaton of the Peasant
Leagues in the Brazilian Northeast until 1964."
1973.
O'Toole, Electa B. "An Analysis of the Life Style of the
Travelling People of Ireland."
1972.
Phillips, Jane.
"Comparative Functional Anatomy of the
Muscles of Mastication in Papio Cynocephalus and
Theropithecus Gelada."
1973.
Pliskin, Karen.
and Artists
"Traditions and Transitions
in Iran."
1973.
of Islamic Arts
Puniello, Anthony J. "Analysis of the Distribution of
'Naiantic' Ceramics in Southern New England and
Long Island."
1974.
Raphael, Emily.
"An Anthropological
Ecology Movement."
1973.
Sancier, Julie.
"Industrial;zation
Role of Women in the Cities."
Understanding
in Nigeria:
of the
The Changing
Shipman, Patty.
"The Osteodontokeratic
Hypothesis
Behavior of Crocuta Crocuta."
1973.
and the
Sills, Lawrence.
1973.
Simp~on, Antony.
"The Incidence of the Hb-S Gene and its
Effect on the North American Negro Population."
1973.
Sockol, Marlene.
"An Examination of the Relationship between
Ecology and the Social Structure and Behavior of Old and
New World Non-Human Primates."
1973.
Staiano, Cathryn.
"Paleo-Indian
Staten
Island."
1972.
Strong, Mary C. "Humor
in Social Change."
Cultures
as a Cultural
1974.
of Southwestern
Transition
Thurman, Blake.
(Paper)
"Survey of the Effect
Contact on Canadian Eskimos."
1972.
Technique
of White-Eskimo
Turner, Trudy.
"A Functional Analysis of the Musculature
the Forelimb of Three Prosimian Species."
1973.
Worssam, Nancy.
"The Ethnohistory of Westchester
Counties, New York and Connecticut."
1972.
of
and Fairfield
Crowe, Patricia W.
Work."
1972.
Grafstein, Israel.
"A Study in Intragroup Conflict:
Consequences of the Emergence of an Organization
Boston's Chinatown."
1969.
Hartweg, Joyce.
"The Value Orientations of Negroes
in Riot and Non-Riot Cities."
1969.
Some
on
and Whites
Henry, Barbara.
"The Process of Conjunctive Ritualization as
a Framework for Approaching the Problem of the Origin of
Speech."
1971.
Miller, Adrienne.
"An Examination of the Usage of Projective
Techniques in the Study of Modal Personality."
1972.
Thomas, Achukutty.
"Caste and Social
Special Reference to the Concept
Mobility in India with
of Sanskritization."
1970.
Adams, Jeffrey.
"The S-O Ranch Site, A Chiricahua
Multiple Activit
Location."
1974.
Stage
Brooks, Danny.
"Prehistoric Soil and Water Control
American Southwest:
A Case Study."
1974.
Camilli, Eileen.
"Prehistoric Settlement
Mesa, Southeastern, Utah."
1975.
Pattern
in the
on Cedar
Hartman, Dana.
"Third Molar Agenesis in a Selected
logical Population from Northeastern Arizona."
Archaeo1971.
Herbert, Elizabeth J. "Proxemic Patterns
from Flagstaff, Arizona."
1974.
and Whites
of Blacks
Heuett, Mary Lou.
"Boulder Springs:
A Cerbat-Hualapai
Shelter in Northwestern Arizona."
1974.
Rayl, Sandra Lee.
"A Paleo-Indian Mammoth
Silver Springs, Florida."
1974.
Threadgill,
1973.
Randall
Rock
Kill Site Near
H.
Winter, John H.
"Spondylolysis as a Non-Metric
Archaeological Populations."
1973.
Trait
in
Agran, Miriam.
Illinois."
"Wedron Mounds:
1974.
Burrows, Elizabeth J. "Structural Laterality in the Feet
and Its Relationship to Handedness."
1974.
Eastwood, Carolyn.
"Pictographic Art of North American
Indians:
An Interpret ive Study. " 1974.
Kidd, Barbara A. "Aztec Resistance to Assimilation
Spanish Rule:
1521-1810."
1974.
Kolar, John.
"The Facial Muscles
(Macaca Mulatta)."
1974.
Under
of the Rhesus Monkey
Lindquist, Lance T.
"Status, Stress and Senescence:
Culturally Related Stress Factors Involved in
Aging."
1974.
Prohaska, Ellen M.
Institutinn."
"The Garage
1974.
Sale:
"Indian Baskets:
Santeford, Lawrence G.
Identification. ' 1974.
Sherry, Judith L.
"Menominee Termination:
Mis-Directed Culture Change."
1974.
Skala, Sharon Y.
"Chippewa
Windigo."
1974.
Diet and Its Implications
Sowayan, Saad A. "The Position
View."
1973.
Torrey-Hillinger,
Barbara.
Hair."
1974.
A Case Study
"The
of Jinn
for
in the Arab World
Bio-Social
Significance
Blackman, Margaret B.
"The Northern and Kaigani Haida:
Study
in Photographic Ethnohistory."
1973.
Byrnes, Rita M.
Analysis."
"The High School Teacher
1974.
"A Critical
1974.
*Thesis
Analysis
A
Woodland
of Caddoan Unit
no longer required.
of
in Uganda:
Hartley, John.
"The Von Elm Site:
An Early Plains
Complex in North-Central Oklahoma."
1974.
Prewitt, Terry.
Concepts."
in
Alden, John Robert.
Elamite Iran."
"The Question
1973.
of Trade
in Proto-
Anthony, David W. "The Earliest Domestication
Modern Domestic Horse."
1974.
of the
Forbes, Mary H. C. "Gathering in Methana:
A Subsistence
Subsystem in a Greek Agricultural Community."
1974.
Gerdes, John F.
"A Critique of Simplistic
Aggressive Behavior."
1973.
Theories
of
Lathbury, Virginia Locke.
"Textiles as the Expression of
an Expanding World View:
San Antonio Aguas Calientes."
1974.
McFadden, Edward J.
of his Changing
"A. R. Radcliffe-Brown:
An Examination
Concepts from 1910 to 1955."
1974.
Merrey, Karen L. "Patterns of Social Interaction
Juvenile Gorillas at the Philadelphia Zoo."
Among Six
1975.
Reiss, Peter.
"The Continuity of Ethnic
Dyula of the Western Sudan."
1974.
Among
Identity
Turner, Arthur Christopher Robin.
"Other Faces, Other
Studies in Social Boundary Behavior."
1973.
Abed, Bassem.
"Descent, Marriage and Corporateness,
The Case of the Middle East."
1974.
Aldenferfer, Mark.
"Exploratory
Research.". 1974.
Studies
the
Rules:
Sub-title:
in Archaeological
Bedoian, William H.
"Oro y Maiz:
The Economic Structure of
the Mexican Empire and Its Effects on Social Stratification
and Political Power."
1973.
Brennan, Ellen.
Northside,
"Analysis of First Cousin Potential
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands."
1974.
Dutt, Mary K.
"A Study of Acculturation
High Andes."
1973.
and Ecology
Fredlund, Eric.
"Potential Mates Analysis
Study of Marriage Behavior."
1974.
Mates
in the
of the Trio:
A
in
Gage, Timothy.
1974.
Greksa, Lawrence P.
"British and Dutch Guiana Pottery,
The DeForest Collection."
1974.
Grieco, William.
Comparison."
"Statistical
1974.
Harbison, Sarah F. "Change
Patterns."
1973.
Analysis
Sub-Title:
and Cross Cultural
and Adaptation
in Kinship
Harvey, Mary B. "Productive Arrangements and Cultural
Consequences:
Test for Jamaica."
1974.
Hatch, James W.
Patterns."
"Social Dimensions
1974.
of Dallas
Mortuary
Hay, Conran A. "A Preliminary Analysis of the Botanical
Sample from Sheep Rock Shelter."
1973.
Hurd,
James.
"The Socio-Structural
Implications
in Northwescern ColumbL',." 1974.
of Protestantism
Hurtado, Luis.
"Neut:-on Activation Analysis of Obsidian Artifacts
from Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala.
Sub-Title:
Archaeological
Applications and Prospects."
1973.
James, Alice V.
"An Alternative
Choice."
1974.
Approach
to the Study of Mate
McGarvey, Stephen.
"A Follow-Up Study on the Biological
Social Status of Quechua Infants."
1974.
Santley, Robert S. "The Painted
Study in Ceramic Technology
and
Pottery from Tepe Siahbid:
and Ecology."
1974.
Steffy, Michael D.
"Attitude Dynamics
Anthropological
Culture."
1974.
in the Transmission
Verstraete, Anthony A.
"The Process of Depopulation
Traditional Agrarian Communities."
1973.
A
of
in
Willey, Lorraine.
"A Functional Analysis of Perishable Artifacts:
During the Late Woodland Period in the Northeastern
United States."
1974.
Willey, Patrick S.
Human Skeletal
"The Effects of Social
Remains."
1973.
Stratification
on
Zangrilli, David R.
"Amino Acid Sequences of Primate Proteins:
A Review of Published Data and a Discussion of Evolutionary
and Taxonomic Implications."
1974.
Salter, John Frederick.
"The Makings
The First Few Years."
1974.
Somerville, Joanne B. "The Cultural
Response and Movement."
1974.
of a Forest
Patterning
Community:
of Kinesthetic
Sparrow, Gloria M. (See Hubbard)
;'Social Affinity of Mothers in
Ateles Geoffroyi San Francisco Zoological Gardens."
1974.
Jones, Tim.
River."
"The Aboriginal
1974.
Dearing, George.
Organization
Abbass, Mazin.
1972.
Rock Painting
"Developmental Processes
of an Arctic Community."
"Skipping
Belmont, Laura L.
Interaction."
Brieschke, Walter
1972.
School:
"Seminole
1973.
of the Churchill
in the Politica.l
1974.
A Social
Kinship
System
Interaction
Analysis."
and Clan
L.
Cair..o,James E.
"In Our Own Image:
of Religion."
1974.
A Physiological
Theory
Daly, Mary Kathleen.
"Architecture and Church Furnishings
the Rio Grande Pueblos:
A Problem in Differential
Acculturation."
1973.
Lafferty, Robert H.
Fortifications."
Luck, Michael F.
Navigational
"An Analysis
1973.
"The Preliminary Foundation
Cognition."
1972.
Moore, Bruce M.
"On Hypothesis:
Archaeology."
1973.
Morgan, John R.
Disjunction
of Prehistoric
"Culture History or Culture
Archaeology."
1972.
Southeastern
of PULOWATAN
Some Implications
of
for
Process:
Mertz, Elizabeth Ralph.
"Manual Preference:
People Right-handed?"
1974.
Saldarriaga,
1974.
Ricardo.
"Review of Colombian
Why are Most
Archaeology."
Somer, Patricia Weiser.
"A Structural-Functional
ation of Ancestor Worship."
1974.
Vorek, Robert.
1974.
"Homo Habilis
Interpret-
and the Australopithecines."
Davies, Saral Louise.
"The Sasswood Ordeal of the West
Atlantic Tribes of Sierra Leone and Liberia:
An Ethnohistoriographic
survey."
1973.
Hanna, Ingrid T.
"A Spectrographic Analysis of Bahasa
Indonesia Vowel Phonemes Under Primary Stress in
CVC Words."
1974.
Graham, Kenneth
1973.
J.
Isham, Dana.
"Conflict and Compromise:
and the American Indian."
1974.
The Archaeologist
D'Azevedo, Kathleen A.
"Kwi Cooking:
Influence
African Cooking Tradition."
1973.
of the West
Hanley, Thomas A.
"Conflict Resolution and the Professional
Human Being (Communal Family) Approach to the Social
Development of the Mentally Retarded."
1973.
Hubbard, Glee Annette (see Sparrow)
"Social Affinity of
Mothers in Ateles Geoffroyi San Francisco Zoological
Gardens."
1974.
Hughes, Edward L.
"Gross Anatomical Atlas of the Common
Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri Sciureus)."
1974.
Jackson, Thomas Lynn.
"On the Economics of Obsidian in
Central California Prehistory:
Applications of X-Ray
Flourescence Spectography in Archaeology."
1974.
Ryan, Geraldine.
"Rituals of Passage Among the Nacirema
Factors for Change and for Social Stability."
1973.
Petraki, Henry Jean.
"The Origin
Southwestern Asia."
1974.
Pickering, Robert B.
logical Material
Prigge, Daniel H.
Participation
of Wheat Agriculture
in
"A Preliminary Report on the Osteofrom Alta Vista, Zacatecas."
1973.
"The Influence of Religion on Social
in a Southern Illinois Community."
1974.
Schwerdtfeger, Dale W.
Japanese Studies."
"A Unified
1972.
Stocker, Terrence L. "The Meaning
Eccentrics at Tula."
1972.
Approach
to Rural
of Crescent
Cole, Nancy Joan M.
"Early Historic Caddoan
Practices in the Upper Neches Drainage,
Shaped
Mortuary
East Texas."
Dolan, Kathryn Jane.
"Metacornmunication in the Play
Captive Group of Sykes Monkeys."
1975.
Marmaduke, William Sherman.
"The Wylie Focus:
by the Analysis of Three Typical Sites."
Lepie, Louise.
"Differential Rates of Change
and State Religion of the Yucatec Maya."
1975.
in a
A Reassessment
1975.
in the Folk
1974.
Pohorilenko, Anatole.
"Olmec Ceremonial Markings.
Olmec
Votive Axes:
Their Typology and Interpretation."
1974.
Crozier, Stewart Neal: "Precontact Archaeological
Contrasts
of Three Valley Systems on Oahu, Hawaii."
1974.
McGilchrist, John.
"Connectedness
Rhesus Macaques."
1974.
Mullens, James G.
Renaissance."
Nelms, Joyce Ethel.
in Mill Creek,
"Configuration
1974.
Within
a Captive
of the Modern
of
Indian
"The Indian Woman and Household
British Columbia."
1974.
Persson, Diane.
"Mask, Myth and Ritual:
Interrelationships
on the Northwest
Group
Structure
An Analysis of
Coast."
1974.
Whitlam, Robert George.
"Tool Kits and Activity'Areas
at
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