Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036) Vol. 2(11) pp. 239-253, November, 2012
Available online@ http://www.interesjournals.org/JRPGD
Copyright ©2012 International Research Journals
Review
From public sphere to hatred sphere and hatred
society: the analysis of another dimension of civil
society
*1
Abdullahel Shafi A.T.M and 2Shanjida Akan
1
Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh and Department of International Studies, University of
South Australia, Australia
2
Department of Philosophy, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abstract
The central theme of this paper is the Public Sphere and its multifarious variations. We would like to
show Habermasian concepts of public sphere and its role in relations to others political, social,
religious, and technological changes at societal and state levels. The first part of this paper would
explore the negative aspects of public sphere created by the negative politics, religious practices and
social practices. The second part would reveal the consequences of technological changes and its
impact on public spheres. The third part would discuss the exploitation of humanity and its
consequences on public spheres. Finally the paper would examine how different strategies of
international government in forming the construction and functions of modern public spheres and thus
instruct social deconstructions and miscommunications.
Keywords: Civil society, public sphere, hatred sphere, terrorism, corruptions.
INTRODUCTION
The Habermasian concept of public spheres has got
great significance now a day for the analysis of the
discourse of different of area of social life and close
proximity of humans with one another. As growing
functions public is as the population of humans on the
planet continues to grow, it is a wonder that we are as
tolerant and co-operative in our interactions as we are.
But the most important thing is that public is not always
making positive circles of images for constructing civil
society. By positive circles of images we understand the
consideration of increasing power to make cohesions and
congregating mutual interests through positive political
participations. Democracy fires the flames of this political
participation through the enlightened debates and social
intercourse.
In this paper, we look at the concept of both public
sphere and hatred spheres which is situated in its main
current proponents, social, political and economic factors
of world politics, in opposition to both the state and
international sectors. We argue that the increasing
international power of politics and politicization of
religions to focus people's attention on some negative
aspects of human associations, especially through the
propaganda and pseudo conflicts created by the
international political factors and the mass medium of
television, has meant a decline in civic engagement. We
discuss the nature and importance of the Public Sphere
and hatred spheres contend that the new medium of the
international politics and economic distribution of wealth
holds some promise as a means of enhancing hatred
public discourse. Following several illustrations of
successful misuse of the international political power and
economy as well as mass media as a renewed public
sphere, We present the case that civil society must focus
more attention on the aspects of international politics and
mass media sector, and call for more research on hatred
spheres on the issues of western politics and economy
and usage of religious aspects to support engagement of
public activists.
Public Sphere
*Corresponding Author Email:shafi78@univdhaka.edu
The originality of this paper lies on the concepts and
240 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 1. Public sphere and its demarcation with the private realm (Source: Habermas/Burger, 1989)
Private Realm
Civil Society (Realm of public commodity and
Social Labor)
Conjugal Families internal space
Public Sphere in Political Realm
Sphere of Public Authority
State (Realm of the “Police”)
Public Sphere in the world of
Letters( Club, Press)
Market of Culture Products (Town)
Court(Courtly Nobel Society)
(Source: Habermas/Burger, 1989)
meaning of public sphere and hatred spheres. As with
public spheres, the readers would take the note that the
central idea of this paper is derived from Habermas,
though it’s not correct. Because Habermasian
“Offentlichket” or the later translation of “public spheres”
are not exactly the same. While analyzing the concept of
hatred spheres, it’s necessary to analyze public sphere to
take into account the public opinion formations and its
effectiveness in creating public spheres.
The public sphere is simply an area in social life where
people get together, have fun and freely discuss with an
easy manner to discuss problems of any kinds, i.e.,
societal, economic, state, international, political, TV
programs and web matters, newspapers, and through
that discussion formed public opinion. It’s a place
between the private individuals and other authorities in
which people could meet and have rational-critical
debates on public matters. Discussions served as a
formation of public opinion and counterweight to other
authorities and happened physically in face-to-face
meetings in coffee houses and cafes and public squares
as well as in the media in letters, books, drama, and art.
It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups
congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and,
where possible, to reach a common judgment"(Hauser,
1998).
By "the public sphere" we mean first of all a realm of
our social life in which something approaching public
opinion can be formed. Access is guaranteed to all
citizens. A portion of the public sphere comes into being
in every conversation in which private individuals
assemble to form a public body (Habermas, 1964).
Individual Citizens behave as a public body with an
unrestricted fashion which is supposed to behave with a
freedom of assembly, association and expression and
publish their opinions-about matters of general interest. In
modern world Newspapers, Magazines, Radio and
Television and information technology are at a large
scale the media of public spheres.
Habermasian Public Sphere and the Dilemma
Jürgen Habermas wrote “The Structural Transformation
of the Public Sphere: An inquiry into the bourgeoisie
Public Sphere” (1962) to explore the status of public
opinion in the practice of representative government in
Western Europe. Habermas defined the public sphere as
a virtual and imaginary community which does not
necessarily exist in any identifiable space. Habermas's
examination is of a kind of publicity that originated in the
eighteenth century, but still has modern relevance. It
begins by attempting to demarcate what Habermas calls
the bourgeois public sphere (Soules, 2008).
Habermasian public sphere unfortunately lies with the
dilemma that Habermas’s term Öffentlichkeit has been
translated as “public sphere.” It is perhaps also
unfortunate that the term bürgerliche has become
“bourgeois”. However, this stock phrase of Habermas’s
really is a translator’s creation. Strictly Speaking,
Öffentlichkeit means public, or publicity, or even, more
literally, “publicness.” “Keit” as a suffix is used with
abstract nouns, such as in the German words for
happiness and thoroughness, for example. If Habermas
had meant to say “public sphere,” he had a number of
words at his disposal, most logically, Sphäre, which
means “sphere.” In fact, Habermas’s term for the “private
sphere” or “intimate sphere,” is exactly that: Intimsphäre.
That reflects more accurately the sense of a sphere, an
intimate, small group, shielded from intrusion, at which
the individual is the center (Grosswiler, 2001).
The translation of bürgerliche as “bourgeois” also
presents the problem of overlooking the larger context for
the word as “civil,” or “citizen.” As the translator notes,
“for better or worse,” the term “bürgerliche Öffentlichkeit”
is rendered as “bourgeois public sphere” (Burger, 1989:
xv–xvi).
But in the original text of Habermas shows the blue
print of bourgeoisie public sphere and its demarcation
with the private realm as follows (table 1):
With this explanation, Habermas actually initiated the
space /spheres where public sphere coexisted with the
private spheres. The private spheres comprised of civil
society in the form of commodity exchange and labor and
embedded it with the family with its interior domain like
families. Even those of “tischgesselschaften” has a
greater role in forming public opinion to form that public
spheres.
But the most important thing is that Habermas initiated
several types of “Öffentlichkeit” like Politische
Shafi and Akan 241
offentlichkeit, literarische Öffentlichkeit or representative
Öffentlichkeit which are different from each other’s. But
the most problematic dilemma lies with the English
translation and interpretation of the terms.
So what actually Habermas means is not exactly the
public sphere and our analysis of hatred sphere is a bit
different in terms which connotes the meaning differently
from the texts of Habermas.
Even with the analysis of the private and public sphere
from Habermas, the two lies with the deeper connection
with each other whereas our explanation of hatred
spheres lies with the conceptual linkage between forming
public opinion and creating hatred which does not
necessarily link the two spheres. But true to say, it has
deepest connections with the world political, religious,
social and economic orders which creates these different
spheres.
Hatred Sphere
By hatred we mean an intense feeling of dislike. Hatred
may occur with a wide variety of reasons and contexts.
The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology defines hate as a
"deep, enduring, intense emotion expressing animosity,
anger, and hostility towards a person, group, or object.
By hatred spheres we mean to understand the public
sphere which creates hatred for state or personal gains.
This sphere is also interactive and contains the exact
elements “Public” to construct public opinion formations
through several events in politics, society, economy or
religions. It’s the public which gathers and formed
opinions in different events and creates a civil society.
But the questions, can a negative state like hatred create
civil society? The answer is yes. As per our definition of
hatred sphere, it’s not the negative spheres like hatred
creates civil society; rather the sphere itself is created by
the components of civil society. It depends on several
factors of society, economy, politics, religions and other
dynamics.
Habermasian
definition
of
public
sphere
(Habremas/Burger, 1989) guided us to think in this
manner of hatred society.Habermas discarded the idea of
public sphere in a vacuum space like in the webs, but he
has agreed that public sphere would be formed in both
private and public spheres. If we take into account the
original definition of public sphere of Habermas, it would
be more justifiable that a negative state of society can’t
create public sphere, rather the hatred sphere itself would
be created by the components of the civil society with its
individual components as well as political, social,
economic and other factors of the society.
This hatred sphere is created within a vacuum space
without direct interactions among individuals in coffee
shops or like or in a society, economy or politics. It’s like
a virtual space and surely not a virtual space, rather a
concrete space. By thus a hatred sphere is created within
a sharply driven arena of interactions which is the
reluctant outcomes of the interactions among individuals
among world societies.
To provide authentic examples of such theoretical
constructions from Habremas, we have taken into
account several examples of world politics, societies and
economies.
Hatred Sphere in Law and State Levels
In today’s Russia, freedom of expression is not respected
at the level required by international law. Amongst a
range of violations of the right to freedom of expression,
over the last year has witnessed the use of legislation
prohibiting the incitement of religious hatred to suppress
critical and dissenting voices in the arts. At face value,
Russian law is in line with international requirements. The
Russian Constitution protects the right to freedom of
expression (Article 29), freedom of religion (Article 28)
and the principle of non-discrimination (Article 19), while
Article 13 prohibits the incitement of “religious
strife”(Russian Constitutions,1993).
Whereas, the Article 282 of the Criminal Code
criminalizes the incitement of hatred on grounds of
religion:
(1)
Actions aimed at inciting national, racial or
religious hostility, humiliation of national dignity and
propaganda of superiority or inferiority of citizens on the
basis of their religious, national or racial affiliation, when
carried out in public or through the media: Are punished
through a penalty amounting to 500 to 800 minimum
wage units or the convicted offender’s salary or other
income for a period of five to eight months, or restriction
of freedom for a period of up to three years, or
deprivation of liberty for a period of two to four years.
(2)
The same acts carried out:
a) Through violent means or threat of its use;
b) Through the use of one’s official position;
c) By an organized group;
Are punished by deprivation of liberty for a period of
three to five years.
In practice, however, Article 282 of the Criminal Code
has been applied in a discriminatory fashion and has
been used to curtail freedom of expression. It is rarely
applied in attacks against religious minorities by ultranationalist, neo-Nazi and anti-Semitic groups, instances
where it could justifiably be used to safeguard
democracy. Instead, we have witnessed its use against
artists, including the Sakharov Museum (ARTICLE 19,
1995).
The second instance we can cite from USA is under the
very coverage of the constitutions and law which
accounts increases over the years. The numbers of
hatred against blacks and other religious groups
accounted for 56% of the 7783 hate crimes in 2008 which
is a 2% increase than that of the previous year 2007. The
242 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
number of attacks on blacks increased 8% to 2,876,
accounting for seven of every 10 race-motivated crimes.
Hate crimes based on sexual orientation increased 3% to
1, 297, although the number of people victimized went up
13% to 1,706. Hate crimes based on religion rose 9% to
1,519. Most, 67% were against Jews. Incidents involving
Catholics increased 23% to 75(USA Today, 24th
November 2009).
Such hatred in USA is not against any particular
groups, rather hatred is against the blacks, the Jews, the
Muslims and the most important issue is that the hatred
sphere exists in any forms and this is not at all
unaccountable that anyone can ignore. Like the previous
discussions, this public sphere is not automatically
formed; rather this public sphere comes into being with
the growing tendency of hatred with the previous
generations or the tendency of the USA from its
conceptions today. Now the question is that is this hatred
sphere formed in Coffee houses or Families? The
question is again yes. Surely the family and public places
has the biggest role in initiating these hatred spheres
against the blacks, the other religious peoples. It’s not
simply education which can make peoples conscious
about the scenario of making a negative spheres of the
society, rather its childhood education too which would
make peoples aware of making such negative state of
public spheres too. At least in American case, this is
surely happening. Though in American case, most would
disagree, racism or hatred is not at all extreme like
Europe, despite the facts; the whole world has seen
American white’s hatred against the blacks not much
before, during 1960s too.
Even the most recent debate in USA politics is the
building up of mosque on ground zero, the place where
terrorist attacks has been happened on September 11,
2001 caused the same hatred against particular religious
community, the Muslims. The USA Today on 16th August
201011 in its editorial- “New York mosque fight stirs all the
wrong passions,” wrote-“Perhaps those seeking to build
the New York mosque will defuse the situation by seeking
a less controversial site”. But if they do not, the mosque,
like the calm that has prevailed since Sept. 11, 2001, will
stand as a marker of the USA's enduring commitment to
religious freedom.
The French government has passed another bill to
create hatred sphere in the country by banning the veils
of the Muslim women. France is the second nations to
ban this veil of the Muslim women. Similar measures
have been discussed, but not passed, in Spain, Italy,
Switzerland and the Netherlands. In addition, a number of
European cities have enacted municipal bans, prohibiting
the veils in public buildings and imposing other
restrictions. Though the Council of State of France has
warned that an outright ban would be vulnerable to a
challenge on constitutional grounds. Similarly, legislators
in the European Parliament have warned that it could be
struck down in the European Court of Human Rights
(Washington Post, July 14, 2010). This clearly indicates
the ban of women veils is contradictory to the state law of
France and the European Court of Human Rights and it
creates hatred among 5 millions of Muslim populations in
France.
Before France, Belgium has initiated the similar
measures too. In Belgium, the Chamber of
Representatives voted April 29 to impose a nationwide
ban on full-face veils in public, making the country the
first in Western Europe to pass such a measure. The
legislation, which needs Senate approval, has yet to take
effect. Some municipalities, including Brussels, have
local anti-veil regulations. But legislators explained that
they wanted to "send a signal" to fundamentalist Muslims
and preserve the dignity and rights of women
th
(Washington Post, May 15 , 2010).
Before these events, Switzerland, through a
referendum has banned the minarets of mosques of the
Muslims. The referendum, which passed with a clear
majority of 57.5 percent of the voters and in 22 of
Switzerland’s 26 cantons, was a victory for the right. The
vote against was 42.5 percent. Because the ban gained a
majority of votes and passed in a majority of the cantons,
it will be added to the Constitution (The New York Times,
29th November, 2009).
All these decisions against Muslim created hatred
because a veil of the Muslim women lies with the
teachings of the holy Quran. This is not at all implied to
make Muslim women covered into house; rather their
teachings of religion strongly support it. There are certain
verses in the holy Quran and hadith which supports the
proper clothing though there are certain debates whether
women should cover their face too. Despite the fact,
Veils/Hijab is necessary parts of Muslim women while
outing. We could check a few verses from the holy Quran
like – “O ye who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses,
- until leave is given you, - for a meal, (and then) not (as
early as) to wait for its preparation: but when ye are
invited, enter; and when ye have taken your meal,
disperse, without seeking familiar talk. Such (behavior)
annoys the Prophet: he is ashamed to dismiss you, but
Allah is not ashamed (to tell you) the truth. And when ye
ask (his ladies) for anything ye want, asks them from
before a screen: that makes for greater purity for your
hearts and for theirs. Nor is it right for you that ye should
annoy Allah’s Messenger, or that ye should marry his
widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in
Allah’s sight an enormity”. (Quran 33:53).
“And say to the believing women that they should lower
their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not
display their beauty and ornaments except what (must
ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their
veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty
except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's
fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or
their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women,
or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male
Shafi and Akan 243
Figure 1. Restrictions on religions, Courtesy: Pew Global Forum
servants free of physical needs, or small children who
have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should
not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their
hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! Turn ye all
together towards Allah, that ye may attain Bliss”. (Qur'an
24:31)
“And those who annoy believing men and women
undeservedly bear (on themselves) a calumny and a
glaring sin. O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and
the believing women, that they should cast their outer
garments over their persons (when abroad): that is most
convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not
molested. And Allah is Oft- Forgiving, Most Merciful”.
(Qur'an 33:58–59)
(Source: Translations of the Holy Quran by Yusuf Ali)
So all these verses from the holy Quran clearly tells
about the proper clothing of Muslim women. As we have
discussed earlier there are debates about the exact
clothing ,whether they should cover the face or not or
cover only heads matters nothing to the European
governments which has created pain, anger and anguish
and by thus created a hatred sphere to Muslims.
Yet, anyone would raise the questions easily, since the
governments of these European countries are not Muslim
and their countries are not run by the Islamic law. So,
they have the rights to initiate laws relating to their
societal and constitutional regulations. We do agree, too.
But still it covers a wide range of controversy as it has
taken certain regulations and laws against its particular
minority, Muslims. The simple question would strike the
minds of the readers again, is hijab/veils creating any
controversy to run the constitutional governments or is it
just hatred against the Islamic regulations of the women?
Because the same kind of veils is also worn by the
Christian nuns and none of these countries are banning
the veils of those Christian nuns. The controversy of such
decisions of the government lies here.
Hatred sphere and Religions
Although each and every country has ensured religious
freedoms of their citizens by the specific articles of their
own constitutions, still there are certain problems in each
and every society with regards to religions which created
growing hatred in the religious spheres (figure 1).
The figure shown here from pew global clearly depicted
the world scenario on restrictions on religions. At the first
parts of this paper, we have shown certain statistics
about the hatred of the USA peoples on blacks and other
religious peoples. Still this is astonishing because no one
could believe in a society like USA has had the strong
mentality against any particular religions or against the
blacks. The study covered 64 nations which is almost 1/3
of the total populace of the world and has high
restrictions on religion either as a result of government
restrictions or social hostilities involving religion, or both.
Because some of the most restrictive countries are very
populous, that means about 70% of the world's
population lives in countries with high or very high
restrictions on religion, the brunt of which often falls on
religious minorities. Certainly there are two types of
restrictions on religious practices of peoples, i.e., the
governmental restrictions and Social hostilities in
observing religious practices by peoples (figure 2).
We have seen several governmental initiatives to
restrict religious practices all over the world as well as
social hostilities. The United States Department of State
Annual Report on International religious Freedom, 2009
reported USA has given political Asylum to Jewish and
244 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Figure 2. Governmental restrictions and Social hostilities in observing religious practices by peoples,
Courtesy: Pew Global Forum
Christians from different countries like Eritrea and
Yemen. They reported that no Muslims are given political
asylums in USA. In terms of violations of constitutions of
the religious rights of peoples, in East Asia, Burma,
China, Vietnam, Laos has marked violations against
religious groups. In case of Burma, the Rohingya Muslim
refugees are still in Bangladesh in the face of torture by
the military government. Human Rights Watch and
Human Rights China reported20 "crushing campaign of
religious repression" against Muslim Uighurs in the name
of anti-separatism and counter-terrorism in Xinjiang
province of china. Almost 8 million of Uighurs Muslims
are suffering the governmental threats and religious
suppressions in the name of counter terrorism. Even
other parts of the world, its common scenario and its
continuing, despite the facts peoples are more conscious
now.
Even with the dangers of the world next, Peoples still
believed that religious and ethnic hatred contributed to a
huge portion to make this world dangerous place to live.
21
Pew Global Forums in 2007 has surveyed 47 nations
on the dangers of the world today and astonishing to
believe still most peoples believe religious and ethnic
hatred occupied the place of second threats to humanity
by most of the nations. Canadian peoples placed it a
major threat (24%), British peoples placed at second
major threat (22%), Swedish peoples placed at the first
positions (25%) and USA placed it too as one of the
Shafi and Akan 245
major threats. Even the other nations placed it to the top
priority which is making this world dangerous for human
being.
Hatred Sphere in Politics
In political spheres, the biggest hatred lies with Hitler, the
former Nazi President of Germany during the World War
II, who killed 17 millions of peoples of which 6 million are
Jews. After World War II, there are more events
happened in world politics which spreaded hatred in the
minds of peoples of the world. If we discuss the politics of
the Indian Sub-continent, Most of the peoples still believe
today that the hatred amongst Muslims and Hindus in the
region was increased by the divide and rule policy by the
British government. This divide and rule policy was a
“Politics of Hatred” which afterwards created riots
amongst Muslims and Hindus and the whole world
watched dividation of the two countries on the basis of
religion. Both the two countries Pakistan and India are
still in conflicts on the basis of the hatred politics spared
over the regions. Even more specifically none of the
religious leaders have ever spread hatred amongst
peoples in terms of religions; rather it’s the political
leaders who spread hatred in the name of religions to
gain personal gains and interest.
It might be silly to discuss the killings of Hitler, who had
been a Christian or Jews matters nothing and he had
killed so many peoples in the name of spreading his
regions and at the same times there had been another
event happened in 2001 which is widely known as
9/11.Todays world has declared an “Undeclared War”
against Muslims and Muslims are suppressed
everywhere of the world in the name of counter-terrorism
and their connections with Al-Qaeda ,the groups which is
supposed to be responsible for the attack on 9/11.The
world have seen Uighurs Muslims killed in china,
Muslims killed in Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam, Iraq, Afghanistan, Somalia, Nigeria etc. In 1948,
The United Nations has proposed a Referendum for the
Kashmiri Muslims and this has not yet implemented by
the Indian Government. But at the same times, the world
has watched the separation of East Timor, a Christian
majority nations from their ancestor Indonesia. Till today
Muslims believe East Timor had got independence so
hurriedly due to their religious beliefs, not anything
otherwise as well we can see the other province Aceh
which was also fighting and they are given self-rule, not
independence.
This is true in the cases of Bosnia and Herzegovina
which has faced lots of pains and suffering on the eve of
her independence though the other parts like Croatia,
Serbia and Montenegro and Yugoslav Republic did not
face the same and now Kosovo has been facing the
same (Jagirdar, 1996).
The next is the bombing in 1995 in the Oklahoma City
center where immediate after the bombing the US
government charged the Muslims for the bombing and
after years of investigations, Timothy McVeigh has been
charged for this bombing and has been sentenced to
death (Washington Post, 14th June, 1997).
Even in case of Israel and Palestine it’s also true. After
World War II, to compensate the Jews, a land has been
given to them by throwing the Muslims of the Palestinian
lands (figure 3).
We have presented two different maps of the world to
show the Israel state before and after World War II. The
very aim to show it is to explain the Israel state and its
origination which is still having some political conflicts
with the Palestinian peoples. In this case the very
interesting thing is that the violent inhuman killings had
been done against the Jews was by the Europeans.
Afterwards they were compensated by giving them a
separate Jews state by the westerners throwing the
Palestinian Muslims from their lands. Westerners
(Europeans) are now Jews free. Throwing 75% of the
total Jewish populations, Westerners, more specifically
Europeans are enjoying Jews free populations
strategically. We can show the Jews population in table
2:
The 75% of the total Jewish populations have the huge
amount of Muslims of the Middle East under daily threats.
By thus, the Jewish are at the stakes of the hatred of
Muslims. More specifically currently, of the 203 sovereign
states today, Israel has diplomatic relations with 157
states. Some states recognize Israel as a state, but have
no diplomatic relations. Israel has no diplomatic relations
with the following 36 states;
Africa: Algeria, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Guinea,
Libya, Mali, Morocco (1994–2000), Mauritania (1999–
2009), Niger, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia.
Americas: Bolivia (1950–2009), Cuba (1950–1973),
Nicaragua (1992–2010), Venezuela (1950–2009).
East Asia: North Korea.
Middle East: Bahrain (1996–2000), Iran (1948–1951,
1953–1979), Iraq, Lebanon, Kuwait, Oman (1996–2000),
Qatar (1996–2009), Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen, United
Arab Emirates.
South, Central Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Pakistan.
Southeast Asia: Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia. (Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Israel).
So the most a notable part is sending Israel at the face
of Hatred of so many nations, Europe is almost
implementing the same agenda which had been
implemented by Hitler. Now anyone can argue that Jews
are not thrown from Europe by force. But despite the
facts, Jews have left Europe happily by being killed by
the tigers of Europe during World War II, though they are
living in Israel leaving themselves in the hands of the
Muslims. Whereas, the European westerners are
enjoying their lands without Jews upper hands.
These hatred spheres become prominent in politics
246 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Figure 3.Israel state before and after World War II, Source: Khella: 2008
when we observed the shoes thrown at former President
of USA George W.Bush. Iraqi Journalist, the shoethrower -- identified as Muntadhar al-Zaidi, an Iraqi
journalist with Egypt-based al-Baghdadia television
network -- could be heard yelling in Arabic: "This is a
farewell ... you dog!"(CNN.com, 15th December 2008).
Even world would see more instances like such hatred
against politicians. Asif Ali Zardari, the president of
Pakistan faced such shoes at the brisk of his visit to
United Kingdom leaving crores of peoples suffered from
intense flood in Pakistan (The daily Telegraph, United
Kingdom, 07th August 2010).
A man hurled a shoe at India-controlled Kashmir Chief
Minister Omar Abdullah during the Indian Independence
Day function amid tight security arrangements. The man
has intense hatred against the chief minister as the
Indian police had been killing and arresting innocent
Kashmiri peoples who were protesting police invasion
and arresting peoples who are demanding their
independence. The man also waved a black flag and
shouted 'we want freedom’. The shoe thrower has been
identified as police officer of region's police force
(People’s Daily Online, China, and 15th August 2010).
Hatred Sphere in the Web and Media
The internet generates a centrifugal force. It releases an
anarchic wave of highly fragmented circuits of
communication that infrequently overlap. Of course, the
spontaneous and egalitarian nature of unlimited
communication can have subversive effects under
authoritarian regimes. But the web itself does not
produce any public spheres. Its structure is not suited to
focusing the attention of a dispersed public of citizens
who form opinions simultaneously on the same topics
and contributions which have been scrutinized and
filtered by experts (Habermas, 2007).
Though Jürgen Habermas did not recognize internet or
web as public sphere, still there is debate on it. Even
theorists believe it can be a dispersed public sphere. But
along with our analysis of hatred sphere with certain
examples it can be a subject of hatred spheres. With the
ongoing critical debates on web and internet as public
spheres, certain events on the media and web have
become spheres of hatred of certain groups of peoples.
The first instances we could see are about the drawing of
cartoons by a Danish journalist. The Jyllands-Posten
Shafi and Akan 247
Table 2. Jews population
Country
France
Germany
United Kingdom
Sweden
Denmark
Uzbekistan
Hungary
Belgium
Netherlands
Spain
Italy
Russia
Ukraine
Moldova
Poland
Turkey
Switzerland
Latvia
Austria
Georgia
Azerbaijan
Romania
Greece
Kazakhstan
Lithuania
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Ireland
Norway
% of Jewish
0.8%
0.14%
0.5%
0.2%
0.13%
0.065%
0.4%
0.3%
0.28%
0.12%
0.05%
0.44%
0.16%
0.7%
0.065%
0.025%
0.025%
0.397%
0.1%
0.17%
0.1%
0.027%
0.05%
0.027%
0.1%
0.03%
0.056%
0.031%
0.045%
0.027%
% of all Jewish
4.2%
0.9%
2.3%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.2%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
1.7%
0.6%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Less than 0.5%
Source: Jewish population of the world, 2006
Muhammad cartoons controversy began after 12 editorial
cartoons, most of which depicted the Islamic prophet
Muhammad, were published in the Danish newspaper
Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005 and early months
th
of 2006( The Sunday Times,06 February 2006).
Afterwards, The Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings
controversy began in July 2007 with a series of drawings
by Swedish artist Lars Vilks which depicted the Islamic
prophet Muhammad as a roundabout dog (a form of
street installation in Sweden). Several art galleries in
Sweden declined to show the drawings, citing security
concerns and fear of violence. The controversy gained
international attention after the Örebro-based regional
newspaper Nerikes Allehanda published one of the
drawings on 18 August to illustrate an editorial on selfcensorship and freedom of religion (Lars, 18th August
2007).
The
Norwegian
newspaper
Aftenposten
has
reproduced the controversial Danish cartoons of the
Prophet Mohammed. Aftenposten first published copies
of the cartoons in 2005 but did not join newspapers in
many other countries when they reprinted in 2006 some
or all of them, citing freedom of expression (The
Telegraph, 08th January 2010).
But the events increased tensions and hatred among
the Muslims and even Muslims drew processions against
the cartoonists in the streets of several countries, not only
in the Muslim majority countries of Middle East, rather in
the countries like Sweden, Denmark, and Norway where
the cartoons are published. This hatred has got greatest
consequences in terms of religions, societal and political
relationships and economic relationships with the Muslim
countries.
While many Muslims and supporters took part in
protests throughout the world, many more took part in
one of the single biggest boycotts of all time. Consumers,
especially Arab nations, began a process of boycotting all
Danish goods. This was then followed by the government
248 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
of Iran issuing boycotts and restrictions on consumer
products imported from Denmark. Denmark is concerned
about the potential loss of 11,000 jobs resulting from
boycotts against Danish products in the Islamic world.
However, Danish exports to the Middle East only made
up 1.1 percent of total exports in 2005 meaning that the
overall economic impact of even a full boycott would be
limited (Broder, 2005).
The biggest single loser of the boycott was SwedishDanish Company Arla Foods. Arla, Denmark's biggest
exporter to the Middle East, has been losing 20 million
kroner (3.2 million dollars, 1.3 million euros) per day
since its products were taken off the shelves in several
countries, and has had to temporarily lay off 125 workers.
In response, Arla began to sell its product without its
brand name being present and in large containers. Other
companies have replaced their "Made in Denmark" label
with a "Made in the EU" label. Others still have used
foreign subsidiaries to camouflage the origin of Danish
production, according to the Confederation of Danish
Industries’ (DI).
The boycott continued, despite hopes that it was a
temporary dispute which would quickly blow over. The
pharmaceutical company Novo Nordisk said that it had
lost a 200-million-kroner insulin contract in Turkey
blaming the ongoing controversy. Jyske Bank has
estimated that the cost of the boycott to the Danish
economy could total 7.5 billion kroner which is in the area
of 0.5 percent of the Danish GDP (Allagui, 2006).
In February, the French international supermarket
chain Carrefour took all Danish products off the shelves
in Muslim countries. Posters with the Carrefour logo
proclaiming a boycott of Denmark resulted in a boycott of
Carrefour in Brussels (The Brussels Journal, 2006).
Iran has announced that it plans to review its trade ties
with all countries where the cartoons were published. A
high level committee involving the Foreign Minister, the
Deputy Foreign Minister, the Deputy Trade Minister and
the Deputy Oil Minister has been set up (The Jerusalem
Post: 2006).
In February 2008, Sudan President Omar al-Bashir
stated that he would bar Danes from Sudan and called
for the Muslim world to boycott Denmark. At a rally, he
stated “We urge all Muslims around the world to boycott
Danish commodities, goods, companies, institutions,
organizations and personalities" and that "not a single
Danish foot will from now on desecrate the land of
Sudan.”(The Globe and Mail: 2008).
Beginning in 2004, accounts of physical, psychological,
and sexual abuse, including torture, rape, sodomy, and
homicide of prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in
Iraq (also known as Baghdad Correctional Facility) came
to public attention. These acts were committed by military
police personnel of the United States Army together with
additional US governmental agencies (Hersh, 2010).
This event has also created hatred by the Muslims for
the peoples involved in the incident. This is inhumane,
heart blowing and nerve wrecking.
The next instance we would see in the case of
“Everybody Draw Mohammad Day”. Everybody Draw
Mohammed Day was a 2010 protest in support of free
speech, specifically in opposition to those who threaten
violence against artists who draw representations of the
prophet Muhammad. It began as a protest against
censorship of an American television show, South Park,
"201" by its distributor, Comedy Central, in response to
death threats against some of those responsible for the
segment. Observance of the day began with a drawing
posted on the Internet on April 20, 2010, accompanied by
text suggesting that "everybody" create a drawing
representing Muhammad, on May 20, 2010, as a protest
against efforts to limit freedom of speech (FOX 9,26th
April, 2010).
In Facebook, one of the popular site in the web
campaigned against the site and till today, the peoples on
the web protested against everybody draw Mohammad
day reached at 274,734.There peoples in this group who
are not at all Muslims. Still they don’t like abusing the
prophet of the Muslims (The Facebook, 26th August,
2010).
As a result of this drawing Mohammad a day, The
Pakistan government immediately banned Facebook and
other six sites from Pakistan and there certain protests
from every corners of the world by the Muslims. In the
consequences of suck protest, Facebook finally banned
th
the pictures from its pages (AOL News, 19 May, 2010).
The last incident which scourges hatred among
Muslims is the photo scandal of an Israel soldiers. Israeli
media carried new pictures on August 18, 2010, of troops
posing with handcuffed Palestinian prisoners, two days
after a former soldier caused uproar for posting such
images on Facebook. Israeli public television
broadcasted pictures of ex-soldier Eden Abargil, which
she had posted on the social networking site Facebook,
posing smirking next to three blindfolded and handcuffed
th
Palestinian soldiers (The Sydney Morning Herald, 26
August, 2010).
This incident has also aroused huge amount hatred to
the soldiers involved in the incident and by thus creating
hatred spheres in the web and media.
Terrorism and Hatred Sphere
Terrorism itself is vague word as it has no universal
definitions. Oxford Dictionary describes the word
terrorism as: ‘the use of violent actions in order to
achieve political aims or to force a government to act.’
The word terrorism was first coined in 1790’s during the
French Revolution. The years 1793 and 1794 were called
as ‘The Reign of Terror’ or ‘Years of Terror.’(Oxford
Dictionary).
After 9/11, it has got international attentions as
Terrorism struck lots of peoples mind after its worldwide
Shafi and Akan 249
Table 3. Chronological terrorists attacks at different places of the world
Time Frame
19th century
1881
1886
6 September 1901
1 October 1910
28 June 1914
16 April 1925
9 October 1934
22 July 1946
1 May 1961
28 August 1968
30 July 1969
3 September 1969
19th April 1995
20 March 1995
World War II(1939-1945)
9th September, 2001
Terrorist Events and Attacks
We hardly find any terrorist attacks done by
46
Muslims.
Tsar Alexander was assassinated in a Bomb
Blast. He was killed by Ignacy Hryniewiecki.47
Bomb Blast at Haymarket Square, Chicago,
during a labor rally. 12 people were killed; one
among them was a policeman. Seven policemen
48
were injured and they died in the hospital.
The US President, William McKinley, was shot
49
twice by Leon Czolgosz.
Bomb blast in Los Angeles at Times newspaper
building by 2 Union Leaders. 21 were killed.50
Archduke of Austria and his wife were
assassinated which precipitated the World War
I.51
Bomb Blast in St. Nedelya Church in Sofia, the
capital of Bulgaria. 10,050 were killed and 500
injured.52
King Alexander I of Yugoslavia was assassinated
by a gunman by the name of Vlada Georgieff.53
First US plane hijacked by Ramierez Ortiz.54
The US Ambassador to Guatemala was
assassinated.55
The US Ambassador to Japan was knifed by a
Japanese.56
US Ambassador to Brazil was kidnapped by
Gabeira.57
Oklahoma Bombing in which a truck loaded with
bombs ran into the federal building of Oklahoma,
in which 166 were killed and 100 were injured.58
Aum Shinrikyo a Buddhist Cult used Nerve Gas in
the Tokyo Subway in which 12 people were killed
and 5700 were wounded and injured.59
Hitler killed17 millions of peoples out of that 6
million were Jews.
The total count of people, who died on 9/11 were
2,976. Out of the fatal victims 236 were
foreigners, which makes the total number of
Americans who died to 2,740. In a series of
orchestrated suicide attacks committed by the AlQaeeda, on the morning of September 11, 2001,
the victims were mainly civilians.
Responsible Persons /Religious Groups
Anarchists
8 Anarchists
Anarchist
2 Christians named James and Joseph.
The members of Young Bosnia-most of them were
Serbs.
Bulgarian Communist Party
Christian Gunman
A Christian
Communists
Buddhists
A Christian
Initially in the press it came as 'Middle East
Conspiracy'. Later on they came to know that it was
done by two Christians named Timothy and Terry.
Buddhists
Christian/Jew*60
Muslim Groups
Source: The table is compiled from various sources as numbered
debates and discussions and its relatedness with the
attack on 9/11 and USA president addressed particularly
with this word terrorism (President George W. Bush
speech on 9/11).This speech has got greater influences
among peoples all over the world for the presence of AlQaeda, a Muslim terrorist groups who attacked the twin
tower. Afterwards, all over the west, Muslims are
depicted as terrorist just as a layman’s view. The most
interesting thing is that Muslims all over the world are
horrified by the incidents and they are trying to prove
themselves not as a “Terrorist”. Even certain western
media has glorified “Jihad” as equal to terrorism and are
blaming Muslims as terrorist. The most interesting events
of terrorism do not support the incidents appeared in 9/11
and the conditions of the Muslims. What is depicted as
terrorism today and condemning Muslims lies with the
very blessings of the west and its counterparts?
Table 3 would show the chronological terrorists attacks
250 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 4. Groups involved in terrorist activities
Time
1968 –1992
1970-2007
1900-2009
Terrorist Groups
Baader Meinhoff Gang,
62
Germany.
Red Brigades, Italy
IRA (The Irish
Republican Army),
United Kingdom
1970-2006
ETA, Spain and France65
LTTE (Liberation Tigers
of Tamil Elam),Sri
Lanka66
ATTF (All Tripura Tiger
Force) and NLFT
(National Liberation Front
of Tripura), ULFA, ULFA
(United Liberation Front
of Assam)67
Maoists in India68
2000-2007
Maoists in Nepal69
1977-2008
1983-2009
1990 -2006
Terrorists Activities
Killed several innocent human beings.
Kidnapped and killed Aldo Moro, the former Prime Minister of Italy.
1973, March 8: two IRA car bombs in London explode outside the Old Bailey and
government's agriculture department headquarters, killing one person and wounding
more than 150
1974, October 5: two IRA bombs explode in pubs in the London suburb of Guildford; five
dead, more than 50 injured
November 21: two IRA bombs in Birmingham kill 19 and wound more than 180
1982, July 20: two IRA bombs in Hyde Park and Regent's Park in London kill 11 British
soldiers and wound more than 40, mostly civilian onlookers
1983, December 17: IRA car bomb explodes outside Harrods department store, killing six
people and wounding about 100
1984 October 12: IRA targets conference of ruling Conservative party, killing five and
wounding 24, but narrowly missing the prime minister, Margaret Thatcher
1989, September 22: the IRA bombs the Royal Marines School of Music in Deal, killing 10
soldiers and wounding more than 30
1991, February 7: IRA fires three homemade mortar shells at No 10 Downing Street, the
British prime minister's official residence in London. No injuries
1992, April 10: a massive IRA truck bomb in London's financial district kills three and
causes hundreds of millions of pounds worth in damage
April 24: an IRA truck bomb in London's financial district, killing one and causing heavy
damage
1996, February 9: IRA ends a 17-month ceasefire with a third massive truck bomb in
London's financial district, killing two
February 18: an IRA bomber accidentally kills himself aboard a London double-decker
bus, five injured
June 15: for the first time, the IRA targets a different English city - Manchester - with a
massive truck bomb, wrecking the central shopping area and wounding about 200
2000, September 20: IRA dissidents fire rocket-propelled grenades at headquarters of
MI6 security agency. No injuries.
Conducted 36 terrorist attacks.
For over 25 years, the insurgency caused significant hardships for the population,
environment and the economy of the country, with an estimated 80,000-100,000 people
killed during its course.
- ATTF and NLFT, on the 2 October, 44 Hindus were killed by these Christian terrorists.
- In Assam, ULFA in the 16 years from has conducted successfully 749 confirmed terrorist
attacks.
According to the Indian Government out of 600 districts in India Maoists are present in
150 districts of India. They have done terrorist attacks in one-third part of India. The
Maoists are the biggest dangers to India
Only in Nepal, in the past 7 years they have conducted 99 terrorist attacks.
Source: This statistics is taken from various sources as numbered
at different places of the world: In terms of terrorist
activities, the famous bombing of King David Hotel in 22nd
July, 1946, was conducted under the leadership of
Menachem Begin. 91 were killed, out of which 28 were
British, 41 Arabs, 17 Jews and 5 others. The Ignun group
dressed up as Arabs to show as though the Muslims did
this bombing. Menachem Begin was called terrorist
number one by the British government. Later on after a
few years Menachem Begin, the terrorist number one
became the Prime Minister of Israel and got a Noble
Prize for Peace. Menachem Begin and others were
fighting to get a Jewish state. Before 1945 Israel did not
exist in the World Map. These Jewish groups were
fighting for a Jewish state (Bell, 1996) (table 4).
Shafi and Akan 251
Now we would like show groups involved in terrorist
activities:
The very intentions of serving so many examples lies
on the facts that such terrorists activities are creating
hatred sphere on the minds of the peoples of the world.
Corruption and Hatred Sphere
Corruption is another sphere which creates hatred among
peoples. In most of the economically poorest countries,
corruptions have become cancerous and this is
destroying the economy and life of the peoples and by
thus creating hatred spheres. The transparency
International in 2009 has surveyed 180 countries of the
world with a range from 9-10 as very clean and 0.0-1.9 as
highly corrupted and the data found that only 5 countries
out of 180 countries are very clean. As many as 19
countries are highly corrupted and another 100 countries
are almost corrupted at every sector. (Corruption
Perceptions Index 2009, Transparency International).
But against this corrupted spheres, the peoples are
becoming conscious and creating hatred spheres which
is helping the rulers of those countries to be aware of the
scenario and making anti corruptions policies to combat
corruptions which is a positive sign.
A CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll showed that 49%
Americans believes that most members of Congress are
corrupt. Although 46% believe that most aren't, the
margin of sampling error -- plus or minus 4.5 percent -makes it clear that the perception of congressional
politicians is largely negative (CNNinternational.com, 03rd
January, 2006).
A Gallup poll on the corruptions of the western Balkans
showed that almost 90% peoples in Romania, Serbia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia believe that almost all
the sectors of the country are corrupted. This is the
hatred sphere where peoples can at least show their
opinions and can make themselves aware of the
situations (OCCRP, 2010).
There are such instances of corruptions from Russia,
Bangladesh, The Philippines, and Dominican Republic.
And growing awareness and hatred against corrupted
spheres are severe too.
The United Nations Convention against Corruptions is
another measure which is working to creates awareness
and hatred against corruptions in the world. Attitudes on
corruption are changing. As recently as ten years ago,
corruption was only whispered about. Today there are
signs of growing intolerance toward corruption and more
and more politicians and chief executives are being tried
and convicted. United Nations has declared 09th
December as “Anti-Corruption Day” and most countries of
the world is observing it to initiate changes in their own
society (UNODC, 2010).
CONCLUSION
What we have started with is the hatred spheres in
different sectors like in constitutionalism, state, politics,
religions, terrorism and corruptions. From Habermas
translation of his book Public sphere we have seen public
spheres is grown by integrating the peoples through
communication and integration in different levels by thus
creating public opinions and civil society. But in case
hatred society, we have seen that certain conditions and
situations in religions, politics, media and web events and
terrorism and corruptions has created hatred spheres.
This hatred spheres is automatically created without
having some certain communications among peoples.
Even web and media has created some hypes about
some particular events which has initiated hatred spheres
to form certain different dimensions of civil society.
Immediate after attacks on 9/11, USA has declared Iran,
Iraq, North Korea, and Venezuela on the “Axis of Evil”.
This has created about some hatred spheres and
afterwards American attacks on Iraq and Afghanistan ,in
the name of combating terrorism has created confusions
among peoples all over the world and images of USA has
been certainly damaged with a hatred in mind by the
peoples of the world. After almost 8 years of attacking
Iraq and Afghanistan, the whole world is traumatized
knowing attacking Iraq was on a baseless cause. This
has initiated hatred on USA. By 2006, according to the
74
Pew Global Attitudes Project , the proportion of people’s
higher favorability in USA had fallen to 56 per cent.
Even the faith on USA in doing right things in USA and
all over the world has declined during the last few years
and this has taken whole world united against
USA.(Ferguson:2007). This has created dilemma for the
USA leaderships all over the world.
The most recent controversy of Wikileaks has created
another hatred dilemma for the USA on its leaking reports
“CIA Red Cell Memorandum on United States "exporting
terrorism", 2 Feb 2010”. The report looks at a number of
cases of US exported terrorism, including attacks by US
based or financed Jewish, Muslim and Irish-nationalism
terrorists. It concludes that foreign perceptions of the US
as an "Exporter of Terrorism" together with US double
standards in international law, may lead to
noncooperation in renditions (including the arrest of CIA
officers) and the decision to not share terrorism related
intelligence with the United States(Wikileaks,27th August,
2010).
Even the last controversy on Iranian nuclear projects
depicted hatred on USA policies towards Iran. If USA can
have nuclear projects or Russia, France, Britain, China,
India, Pakistan, then why not Iran?
It’s United States who is every day, in the name of
Globalization and capitalism, killing thousands crores of
peoples all over the world. Even they have thousands of
252 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Atom bombs, Hydrogen bombs and Nitrogen bombs with
which a single one the whole world can be made
vanished. Even let me say you, is it North Korea used
Nuclear Weapons on common peoples? I tell you my
readers the answer is No, No, No. Rather you all know its
United Sates threw atom bombs to take away toll lives in
Hiroshima and Nagasaki to message the whole world –
“We are becoming the Next Super Power of the world”
(Shafi, 2010).
This is the spheres which is automatically created and
is thus communicated by the peoples on webs, Medias,
religious spheres, politics and even corruptions and
terrorist’s spheres. This hatred spheres is by thus
creating a strongest civil society for the generations to
come and still with the peoples of the world who are
active, aware and conscious. Such consciousness and
far communication would lead to broader civil society
which theorists are now saying of “Global Civil Society”.
Notes:
•
Saliva samples taken from 39 relatives of the
Nazi leader show he may have had biological links to the
“subhuman” races that he tried to exterminate during the
Holocaust. Jean-Paul Mulders, a Belgian journalist, and
Marc Vermeeren, a historian, tracked down the Fuhrer’s
relatives, including an Austrian farmer who was his
cousin, earlier this year. A chromosome called
Haplogroup E1b1b1 which showed up in their samples is
rare in Western Europe and is most commonly found in
the Berbers of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, as well as
among Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. "One can from
this postulate that Hitler was related to people whom he
despised," Mr Mulders wrote in the Belgian magazine,
Knack. Haplogroup E1b1b1, which accounts for
approximately 18 to 20 per cent of Ashkenazi and 8.6 per
cent to 30 per cent of Sephardic Y-chromosomes,
appears to be one of the major founding lineages of the
Jewish population. Knack, which published the findings,
says the DNA was tested under stringent laboratory
conditions. "This is a surprising result," said Ronny
Decorte, a genetic specialist at the Catholic University of
Leuven. "The affair is fascinating if one compares it with
the conception of the world of the Nazis, in which race
and blood was central. “Hitler's concern over his descent
was not unjustified. He was apparently not "pure" or
‘Ayran’.”It is not the first time that historians have
suggested Hitler had Jewish ancestry. His father, Alois, is
thought to have been the illegitimate offspring of a maid
called Maria Schickelgruber and a 19-year-old Jewish
th
man called Frankenberger. (Telegraph.co.uk, 24
August, 2010).
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