Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development (JRPGD) Vol. 4(2) pp. 21-26, March, 2014
DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/jrpgd.2014.012
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/ JRPGD
Copyright © 2014 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
The use of social capital among Urban Poor: A study of
the displaced
Nuba group in Khartoum, Sudan
*1Abdel Raouf Suleiman Bello and 2Shadia A. M. Daoud
1
College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
School of Extension, Training and Rural Development, Ahfad University for Women, Sudan.
*Corresponding author’s email: raoufbello@yahoo.com
2
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to investigate the process of social capital that hold Nuba group together to
survive their difficult situation in Khartoum State. A purposive sampling technique was adopted to
select 105 respondents from the displaced Nuba in the area of the study. Data were collected in the
face-to-face interviews by using a pretested questionnaire, observations and group discussion. The
study findings indicate that: All respondents work on low paid jobs and have large family size. Most of
respondents interact with other members of the group. The results also reveal that 93.3 % of
respondents interacted frequently with each other. The degree of trust among Nuba group was high.
Social networking helps the poor Nuba people especially when they first arrived to urban area. The
group support and backed up each other during social events. The study results also indicate that the
Nuba culture plays an important role in people interaction. Cultural activities such as Wrestling
(Musara'a), ceremonial practices on occasions such as circumcision, weddings and rituals brought
people together. Most of the respondents claim that community organizations reflect their identity and
badly needed for mutual benefits to solve task(s) that are difficult for individual to perform it alone. The
study concluded that social capital is the mean by which Nuba group have their identity and solidarity to
cope with their difficult situation as an urban poor group.
Keywords: Social Capital, Nuba Group, Social interaction, Identity and Solidarity.
INTRODUCTION
The Nuba ethnic group referreds to in this study are black
Africans dwellers of Western Sudan in the region that is
traditionally known as the Nuba Mountains (NMs), in
South Kordofan State (Bello, 2008). In terms of ethnic
composition, the region is dominated by two major tribal
groups, the Nuba and the Baggara Arab group. The term
Nuba came to denote all non-Arab groups inhabiting the
NMs region.
The Nuba claim to be the original
inhabitants of this region, despite the fact that they are
not living in isolation from the Arabic tribes. In connection
with their kinship systems, the Nuba are divided into
matrilineal and patrilineal decent tribes. The patrilineal
decent groups are presented by the Moro, Otoro, Tira,
Hieban, Kawalib, Nyimang, and Delling tribes. The
Korongo, Mesakin, Tullushi, Katcha, and Shatt are
matrilineal decent tribes (Salih, 1979). This classification
is not rigid and they overlap due to their contacts
with the Arabs ethnic groups such as the Hawazma.
The Nuba are a diverse ethnic groups comprising
more than (90) ethnic or tribal groups, each one of these
groups has its own local dialect, and traditions, which are
slightly different from each other, but the Arabic
Language is a lingua franca in the region (Bello, 1998).
According to Bello (1998), the majority of the Nuba have
professed Islam, some are Christians, and a few are still
pagans, having their own religious priests locally known
as the Kujurs, who play a very important role in the
traditional Nuba communities, and is believed to ensure a
favorable future, and better material rewards (i.e. rainmaking, minimizing hazards ...etc). Other smaller groups
from far northern Sudan, the Jallaba (Arab traders),
Fullani, Hausa and Barno, who are collectively known (in
Sudan) as Fall at a and other minorities are also inhabit
the region. The Nuba are sedentary peasants residing in
22 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
small traditional villages practicing subsistence farming.
Very few of them are nomads, who keep animals, mainly
ruminants and small number of cattle, as well as dogs to
guard their animals from theft and to be used for hunting,
which is considered an important activity practiced by the
young men especially during the early rainy season.
Some poultry and pigs are raised by the Nuba, though;
the latter is decreasing with the spread of Islam
throughout the region (Bello, 1998).
Animals play a vital role in the Nuba's life (especially
the goats), which are valuable for milk supply for the
household members, and as means for storing wealth
(investment). Goats also provide part of bride wealth,
and constitute ceremonial expenditure on occasions such
as circumcision, rituals performed by traditional priests
(the Kujur), on behalf of the community (i.e. harvest
festivals), or a particular individual or a group (Bello,
1998). In respect to agriculture, such rituals performance
is related to increasing agricultural production, and
productivity, as well as the ability to protect farms from
pests, birds, and locusts (Nadel, 1947; Salih, 1979;
Bauman, 1987; Adam, 1989).
The region witnessed severe civil war since the 1980s,
ended with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA) in 2005. The war resulted in the loss of
lives of innocent persons, property loss and complete
damage of social services and natural resources. The
conflict also compelled thousands of people to flee their
homeland to other areas in and/or outside the country in
search of safety and/better living conditions. It has also
enforced the nomads to resettle around the urban centers
as sedentary population making new mode of production
of the pastoral life in the area (i.e. practice agriculture
together with their traditional activity), competing with the
traditional farmers in the limited resources (i.e. the land),
as well as the poor social services in the urban centers.
The new ongoing war was started in June 2011 ended
the almost six years 2005 CPA (Rottenburing et al.,
2011).
Today despite the fact the Sudan government started
negotiation with the Nuba rebels in Addis Ababa, the
capital of Ethiopia, under what called the two areas (the
Nuba Mountain and the Blue Nile), the war still rages at
the region and the situation is getting worse. According to
the GlobalPost visited the Nuba Mountains last year,
entire villages had decamped to the caves and hills,
where huge boulders and deep crevices offered
protection from the bombers (www.globalpost.com)
The latest round of talks between the government and
SPLM-N rebels(February 2014) failed, because the
rebels raised the problems of the Nuba Mountains, the
Blue Nile, the outskirts’ issues and Darfur, while the
government remained committed to resolve the issue in
accordance with Security Council Resolution 2046, which
specifies how to address the local conflict(http://www.almonitor.com/pulse/security/2013/11/nuba-mountainsseek-secession-from-sudan.html#ixzz2xRY9Y77Z).
This worsening security and humanitarian situation
may require an international intervention that will pave
the way for autonomy, and probably for a referendum to
decide the fate of the inflamed Nuba Mountains region.
Khartoum State was and is still one of the attracting
areas for the war displaced people to migrate to join their
relatives and/or secure better job, and peace
opportunities. Considerable numbers of those migrants
were targeted Khartoum State and live in the periphery of
Khartoum City.
Various studies conducted on displacement and
displaced people to Khartoum State indicate that the
displaced people there are suffering, because they live in
poor shelters, extreme poverty, experience poor health
and lack the social services (Pantuliano et al., 2011;
Pantuliano et al., 2011; Nour, 2010; El Hassan, 2006;
Daoud, 2005; Ali, 2002). The transition from a rural
farming and/or herding background to cash based
economy on the city has been highly stressful for job
opportunities. The government and the non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) are providing little or no food
security for the displaced people. This situation caused the
displaced Nuba group to rely heavily on social capital to
meet their daily family basic needs.
According to Dekker and Uslaner (2001), social capital
is about the value of social networks, bonding similar
people and bridging between diverse people, with norms
of reciprocity. Social capital is also fundamentally about
how people interact with each other. This argument is
consistent with Oakley et al (1991) who proposed the
following six dimensions: a- Animation: Assisting local
people stimulate their own critical awareness, to examine
and explain issues in their own words, and to realize what
they can do to bring about change; b- Structuring: The
development of internal cohesion and solidarity among
people, and some form of structured organization; cFacilitation: A service role which assists people to
undertake specific actions; these actions include the
acquiring of particular technical and managerial skills,
gaining access to available resources or translating their
own ideas into feasible projects; d- Intermediary: To
serve as a go-between in relation to other external
services. To establish contacts with existing services and
introduce people to the procedures and mechanisms for
dealing with these services; e- Linking: To help develop
links between people in similar contexts and facing
similar problems; and f- Withdrawal: A progressive
redundancy of external intervention.
Moreover, social capital refers to the institutions,
relationships, and norms that shape the quality and
quantity of a society's social interactions. Increasing
evidence shows that social cohesion is critical for
societies to prosper economically and for development to
be sustainable. In this regard Narayan and Pritchett
(1997) describe five mechanisms for how social capital
affects outcomes. They are: i- Increase possibilities for
co-operative action in solving problems with a local
common property element;ii- Facilitate the diffusion of
innovations by increasing inter-linkages among
individuals; iii- Reduce information imperfections and
expand the range of enforcement mechanisms, thereby
Bello and Daoud 23
Table 1. Socio economic profile of the respondents
Socio economic profile
Age:
20 - 30 year
31-40
41-50
More 51 years
Total
F
%
32
40
10
23
105
30.5
38
9.5
22
100
Educational level:
Illiterate
Primary education
Secondary education
Total
70
27
8
105
Marital Status
Married
Single
Widowed
Divorced
Total
The enough of income
Enough
Not enough
Total
Family size
7-9
10-12
More than 12
Total
Socio economic profile
Gender :
Male
Female
Total
F
%
55
50
105
52.3
47.7
100
66.7
25.7
7.6
100
Place of birth
Nuba Mountains
Khartoum State
Other
Total
95
3
7
105
90.7
2.8
6.7
100
65
28
8
4
105
62
26.6
7.6
3.8
100
Source of income
Casual labor
Street vending and
selling
Total
76
29
105
72.4
27.6
100
4
101
105
3.8
96.2
100
24
54
27
105
22.9
51.4
25.7
100
Duration of stay in
Khartoum
10-14
15-19
20 and more
Total
24
36
45
105
22.9
34.3
42.8
100
increasing transactions in output, credit, land and labor
markets; iv- Increase informal insurance (or informal
safety nets) between households, thereby allowing
households to pursue higher returns, but more risky,
activities and production techniques; and v- Improve
society’s ability to monitor the performance of
government, either because government officials are
more embedded in the social network or because
monitoring the public provision of services is a public
good. According to Sander (2002) Social capital is not
just the sum of the institutions which underpin a society it
is the glue that holds them together. In her study titled the
socio-economic
change
of
displaced
women
fromWestern Sudan to Khartoum State, El Hassan
(2006), commented that the poor mostly maintain their
relationships with relatives, friends and village fellows
who areliving in the same community. She also
concluded that the poor households who are living in the
city for a long periodof time have wider social network
among themselves.
Social support, social network, arts and institutional
arrangement (local organizations).
METHODOLOGY
This study was carried out in 2013 in Karure squatter
area of Omdurman Locality, Khartoum State. The
squatter is one of the Khartoum city sections inhabited
mainly by the war affected groups from different civil war
affected areas of the country, namely Darfur, Eastern
Sudan, Blue Nile and the Nuba Mountains region.
A sample size of 105 respondents from the displaced
Nuba group was specifically selected. Data was collected
by a face-to-face interview using a pretested
questionnaireas the main instrument of data collection
that addressed each sample unit of the study. The
questionnaire was administered through oral interview,
because literacy was very low among respondents.
Observation and group discussion were also adopted to
collect the relevant data to meet the objectives of the
study.
Objectives
The specific objectives of this study are to:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1.
Identify the socio economic status of displaced
Nuba of the study area.
2. Explore the use of social capital among urban poor in
term of: Social interaction, trust,
Socio economic profile
Table 1 showed that 52.3 and 47.7 of respondents are
males and females respectively, 78% of werein age
24 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 2. Frequency distributions of respondents according to their frequent interaction with each others, Trust, social/means
of support, social network mechanisms, benefits they received from social network, and Cultural Activity utilization to
promote social network.
Classifications
Interaction with each others:
Frequently interact with each other
Interact only during events
Total
F
%
98
7
105
93.3
6.7
100
Means of Support:
Money contribution
Personal and moral
In kind contribution(food items)
Total
105
100
90
105
100
95.2
85.7
100
Social network Benefits:
Provision of related information
Cope and/ or Adaptation to city life
Provision of initial accommodation
and/employment
Total
46
49
10
105
43.8
46.7
9.5
100
group of 20 –50, and 22 % are over 50 years of age. This
indicates that all respondents are economically active
and they are subject to change. Regarding schooling, the
table indicates that 66.7 % of the respondents were
illiterates and only 25.7 % completed basic primary
education. Sixty percent were married, 26.6 %, 7.6% and
11.43.8 % are single widowed and divorced respectively.
The table also shows that 90.7% of were born in Nuba
Mountains the place of origin of Nuba group. About 42.8
% of the respondents moved to Khartoum for 20 years
and more ago, 34.3 % moved for 15-19 years ago, while
22.9 % moved recently for about 10to 14 years ago. All
the respondents work on low paid jobs in the informal
urban sectors like casual labors (72.4%), street vending
and selling (27.6 %), 96.2 % of respondents commented
that their income not enough to satisfy their basic family
needs. Family size is very large among the respondents,
because they usually live in extended families.
Social Interaction
Social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of
social actions between individual and/or groups. It is notmarket mechanisms as such interactions are not
regulated by price or mechanism. Social interaction is
usually controlled by reference to group such as an
individual's family, neighbor, friends and/or peers. By
interacting with one another people design rules,
institutions and systems within which they seek to
live(www.boundless.com/sociology/understanding-socialinteraction).
Table 2 shows that all of the respondents expressed
interaction with other members of the group. It indicates
Classifications
Degree of trust :
Trust each other because we are
relatives
Trust more old people
Total
Social network mechanisms:
Through the old people
Through the local leaders
Public, cultural meetings and/social
events
Total
Cultural Activity:
Sport Wrestling
Native dances and songs during
social events
Total
F
%
62
60
43
105
40
100
52
40
13
49.6
38
12.4
105
100
56
49
53.3
46.7
105
100
that 93.3 % of respondents frequently interacted with
each other, while only 6.7 % interacted during social
events. This also indicates that the displaced Nuba group
in Khartoum State still maintains their own social
mechanisms to cope with new situation. Thus it is
observed that they established their own communities
and social organizations (local committees) with closer
ties in search of better opportunities. This result is
consistent with Oakley et al (1991) who suggested six
dimensionsto strengthen social capital – self-help groups.
These include inter alia the development of internal
cohesion and solidarity among people and some form of
structured organization.
Trust
Social researchers are increasingly using trust to explain
various levels of cooperation evidenced in differing social
and political environments. For people to cooperate to
achieve their goals, they need not only to know one
another, but also to trust each other so that they will not
exploit or cheat in their relationship, and can expect truly
to benefit from their cooperation (Field, 2005). Therefore,
the concept of trust cannot be neglected in the social
capital.
Table 2 presented the degree of trust among Nuba
group. It indicates that 60 % of the respondents stress
their trust to each other because they are relatives, while
40 % trust more the old people. The result indicates that
the Nuba people as a group of rural background still
respect and trust wisdom and guidance provided by old
people whose advice and input is increasingly being
appreciated. This result is supported by the view of
Bello and Daoud 25
Fukuyama (1996:26), who stated:
"Trust is the expectation that arises within a
community of regular, honest, and cooperative
behavior, based on commonly shared norms, on the
part of other members of that community … Social
capital is a capability that arises from the prevalence
of trust in a society or in certain parts of it. It can be
embodied in the smallest and most basic social
group, the family, as well as the largest of all groups,
the nation, and in all the other groups in between.
Social capital differs from other forms of human
capital insofar as it is usually created and transmitted
through cultural mechanisms like religion, tradition,
or historical habit.”
Social support
It is observed that the displaced Nuba group in Khartoum
State is very poor and vulnerable .Hence they support
and back up each other during social events (death,
marriage and sickness). Respondents identified two to
three ways by which they support each others during
social events. These include contribution in kind (85.7%),
in form of small amount of money (100%), while 95.2% of
respondents commented that they offer personal and
moral support as indicated in table 2. These results
support Narayan and Pritchett’s (1997) argument which
described five mechanisms for how social capital affects
outcomes. These mechanisms include Increase
possibilities for co-operative action in solving problems
with a local common property element.
Social Networks
Social networking plays an important role in coping with
urban life and it works as social capital' (Meikle, 2002).
The Displaced Nuba groups to Khartoum State utilize
different mechanisms to connect to each other and
receive information. Table 2 shows that49.6% contacted
through the old people. Thisis indicated that the old
people are still major actors on social network, while 38
% comment that they social network through local
leaders only, and 12.4 % of the respondents provided
that they connect and receive information during cultural,
public meetings and or/social events. Social network help
poor Nubian people especially when they first arrived to
urban areas. Provision of related information to the new
arrival displaced person(s), social and economic support
to cope with the citylife and provision of initial
accommodation are the major benefits of the social
networking systems. The Table also shows that 43.8 %
of the respondents stated that the social network
provided them with needed information , 46.7 and 9.5
commented that it helps them to copeand/be adapted to
the
city life ,and
to get
accommodations and
employment.
Building Social Capital through the Arts
The arts have a singular advantage in rebuilding social
capital: cultural activities are enjoyable and fun. The
enjoyable nature of the arts makes them perhaps the
most promising, if neglected, means of building social
capital (Maloney et al., 2001: 213).
Nuba culture plays important role in people interaction.
Cultural activities that brought people together presented
in table 2 reflect that 53.3 % of respondents stated they
participate and or attend Sport Wrestling (Musara) as
cultural activities collective action, 46.7 indicated that
they considered cultural dances and songs as cultural
activities that tie them together and give them a feeling
for their identity.
These findings confirm the argument that community arts,
community development programs are said to build social
capital by boosting individuals’ ability and motivation to
be civically engaged in the community, as well as building
organizational capacity for effective action (Daoud and
Bello, 2013). It is observed that other ceremonial
practices on occasions such as circumcision, weddings
and rituals are also practiced by the displaced and plays
vital role in Nuba group social life in Khartoum.
Institutional arrangement
Poor people’s organizations embody a particular and
important form of structural social capital.
As such they constitute a potentially important asset in
people’s livelihood strategies and may therefore have
significant roles to play in poverty reduction strategies
(Uphoff,1999).
The Nuba group in Khartoum State have their own
local leaders and establish their own community
organizations (Popular committees, youth and women
committees and NGOs) like other internally(IDPs)
displaced people in Khartoum State groups for specific
functions such as enter alia conflict management among
the group, promote social interaction and integration.
All respondents say they rely on traditional institutions
(Native Administration, leaders, elders and healers), and
local committees to resolve conflicts and problem
mitigation respectively. This result goes with the findings
of Sander (2002), who indicated that there is abundant
evidence that neighborhood organizations play an
important role in promoting social integration, especially
of marginal populations living in large cities in developing
countries. It is also consistent with Pantuliano et al
(2011), who indicated that the Native Administration (NA)
was an integral part of the IDPs communities in
Khartoum, and its role was to resolve social problems
and solve disputes, and organizing and offering
counseling in matters of marriage and divorce. She also
stated that in some communities (e.g. Hilla Gadida,
Omdorman), the IDPs haves their own courts to resolve
disputes. However, the role of NA is widely
acknowledged to the extent that the police occasionally
26 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
send people to them as cases can be dealt more rapidly
and friendly.
Most of the respondents claim that community
organizations or organizes programs reflect their identity
and is badly needed for mutual benefits to solve task(s)
that are difficult for individual to perform alone. Local
committees are usually headed by local leaders or old
men who perform their roles to keep the ties and increase
the solidarity among Nuba group.
CONCLUSION
The study findings indicate that the displaced Nuba group
in Khartoum State who migrated and resettled in outskirt
areas of the State are poor, isolated and vulnerable, their
social interaction is crucial to overcome their
disadvantages. Trust among members of Nuba group
promotes their social support and network. The study
also indicated that old people are effective actors and
mediators that link members of Nuba group together and
strengthen their ties. The study concluded that social
capital is the means by which Nuba group have their
identity and solidarity to cope with their difficult situation
as urban poor.
REFERENCES
Adam A(1989). Anthropology and Development Planning With Special
Reference To A Large Scale Agricultural Project in the Sudan.
M.Phil Thesis, University of St. Andrews, U. K.
Ali Y(2002). Effect of Poverty on Displaced Women: A Case Study of
Dar-elsalam Camp, Khartoum State. M.Sc. Thesis, University of
Khartoum, Sudan.
Bauman G(1987). National Integration and Local Integrity."The Miri of
the Nuba Mountains in the Sudan". Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Bello A(2008). Development asa Historical Process in the
NubaMountains Region in Sudan. J. DirasatIfriqiyya. 39: 1-12.
Bello A(1998). Some Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts of
Intermediate Technology in Rural Development: A Case Study of the
Nuba Mountains Rural Development Project (South Kordofan StateWestern Sudan).Ph.D. Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
Daoud S, Bello A(2013).Community DevelopmentConcept and
Practices (A Reference Manual). University of Khartoum Printing
Press.
Daoud K(2005).Coping Strategies of the Displaced Women for
Achieving Food Security at Household Level in Mayo Camp,
Khartoum State. M.Sc. Thesis. Universityof Khartoum.
Dekker P, Uslaner E(2001 ).Social Capital and Participation in Everyday
Life.London:
Routledge.
Pp.
45-58,
at
www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107539290.
El Hassan A(2006).The Socio-economic Change of
Displaced Women from Western Sudan to Khartoum
State: A Case Study of SheikhAbuzeid Market .Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Khartoum, Sudan.
Field J(2005) .Social Capital and Lifelong Learning, Policy Press,
Bristol.
Fukuyama F(1996). Trust: The social virtues and the creation of
prosperity. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Maloney A, Smith G, Stoker G(2001).Social Capital and Associational
Life. In: Baron, S., Field, J. and Schuller, T., eds. Social Capital: A
Rev. Critique. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Meikle S (2002). ‘The Urban Context and Poor People’ in Rakodi and
Participation’. (Pp
37-51). Social Capital: A MultifacetedPerspective (Washington DC: The
World Bank.
Nadil, F(1947).
The Nuba."An Anthropological Study of the Hill
Tribes in Kordofan". London, : Oxford University Press.
Narayan D, Pritchett L(1997). Cents and Sociability: Household Income
and Social Capital in Rural Tanzania, World Bank, Washington DC,
USA.
Nour M(2010). Assessment of the State of Women and gender gap in
Sudan .Cairo: Arab Development Center.
Oakley P(1991). Projects With People: The Practice of Participation in
Rural Development. Geneva, International Labour Office, 1991. 284.
Pp. 284.
Paul D, Uslaner M(2001). Social Capital and Participation in Everyday
Life Volume 23 of Routledge/Ecpr Studies in European Pol. Sci.
London Taylor and Francis Group. Pp. 214.
Pantuliano S, Assal M, Elnaiem B, McElhinney H, Schwab M(2011).City
Limits: Urbanization and Vulnerability in Sudan- Khartoum Case
Study. Human Policy Group., Overseas development Institute,111
Westminster Bridge Road,London.UK.
Rottenburing R, Komey G, Ille E(2011). The Genesis of Recurring Wars
in Sudan: Rethinking the Violent Conflicts in the Nuba
Mountains/South Kordofan. University of Halle, Germany.
Salih M(1979).The Socio-economic Basis of Intertribal Conflicts In
Southern Kordofan .M.Sc. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Sander H(2002). “Social capital and new urbanism: leading a civic
horse to water.” National Civic Rev. 91: 213-221.
Uslaner M(2001). “Volunteering and social capital: how trust and
religion shape civic participation in the United States.” Pp. 104 –
117. In Social Capital and Participation in Everyday Life, edited by
Eric M. Uslaner. London: Routledge.
Uphoff N(1999). Understanding Social Capital: Learning from the
Analysis and Experiences of Participation, in Dasgupta and
Seregeldin, Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective, World Bank,
Washington
DC,
USA.
www.boundless.com/sociology/understanding-social-interaction.
www.globalpost.com (2013). http://www.al- monitor.com/
pulse/security/2013/11/nuba-mountains-seek-secession-fromsudan.html#ixzz2xRY9Y77Z.
How to cite this article: Bello A.R.S. and Daoud S.A.M. (2014). The
use of social capital among Urban Poor: A study of the displaced
Nuba group in Khartoum, Sudan. J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. 4(2):2126