Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development (JRPGD) Vol. 4(3) pp. 38-47, June, 2014 DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/jrpgd.2014.018 Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/ JRPGD Copyright © 2014 International Research Journals Full Length Research Paper A gendered view of intergenerational sex, and materialism in predisposition to HIV/AIDS: implications for Adult Higher Education in Botswana Prof. Wapula N. Raditloaneng and Ms. Keneilwe Molosi Department of Adult and Continuing Education University of Botswana Main Campus. Corresponding author email: Raditloa@mopipi.ub.bw, Tel: 00-267-55-2066, Fax: 00-267-3918474;00-267-72474403 ABSTRACT The interface of intergenerational sex, gender inequality, materialism and how they disproportionately affect global peace amongst men and women is a matter of grave concern to the authors of this article. Botswana is one of the countries hardest hit by the global HIV infection and AIDS epidemic. Botswana’s Central Statistics Office, in collaboration with the National AIDS Coordinating Agency (NACA), and other development partners undertook a Botswana AIDS Impact Survey (BAIS II) in 2004, and the 2007 Sentinel survey. The 2007 Sentinel survey recorded a slight decline in the HIV/AIDS epidemic due to multiple interventions geared towards illuminating basic facts about HIV transmission, positive living, prevention, treatment and care of people affected and infected by HIV and AIDS. Amongst the many factors that aggravate HIV/AIDS and deaths from opportunistic infections, intergenerational sex and materialism as disproportionately affecting men and women, were cited as crucial in predisposing women, and to a lesser extent, men, to HIV and AIDS. This analysis of the importance of intergenerational sex, and materialism in sexual behaviours among adolescent is based on deliberations of a workshop held under the auspices of the Women’s sector within the Women’s Affairs Department of the Ministry of Labour and Home affairs. The sector was created in response to the increasing vulnerability women and girls face in Botswana to HIV and AIDS. The paper, is based on deliberations of a series of four sensitization workshops conducted in four areas of Botswana, namely the two towns of Gaborone and Lobatse and the two villages of Tsabong and Serowe, from the perspectives of adolescents aged 10 to 29 years since 2008 to- date. An understanding of the importance of intergenerational sex, and materialism is expected to inform theory; programmes and best practise in promoting conducive behaviour changes essential in tackling HIV and AIDS with a special focus on adolescents. Keywords: Intergenerational sex, materialism, HIV/AIDS and higher education. INTRODUCTION Problems of gender inequality as typified in the occurrence of different forms of gender-based violence, HIV and AIDS, unemployment, gender- based poverty and illiteracy, to name a few, are a threat to global peace and development. Global peace cannot be enjoyed as long as the global community is infested with life threatening social problems. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is one of the most challenging problems that the global community, including Botswana, has ever confronted from the 19-21st century. This is a threat to global longevity and peace as the world is interconnected in many ways. Of all the major modes of HIV/AIDS transmission, heterosexual sex is the main factor that predisposes the risk of HIV/AIDS infections. Several studies have however shown that HIV/AIDS infections and rate of transmission are generally skewed towards young women and girls rather than young men and boys. According to Oyediran et al (2011), HIV prevalence rate among young women is approximately 2.5 times that of Raditloaneng and Molosi 39 young men within the same age group. UNAIDS (2006) reports that in general, young women age 15-24 in subSaharan Africa are three times more likely to be infected with HIV than young men of the same age .HIV infection rates in Botswana are now estimated to be nine times higher in females than males in this age group (Mookodi et al., 2004) Although women’s biological make up can be blamed for the high risk of infection among girls and young women, sexual partnerships between older men and young girls can be blamed as there are sexual power dynamics involved that may not favour young girls involved in the partnership. For instance, they may be unable to negotiate safe sex due to skewed balance of power in intergenerational sex and the poverty- induced quest for the basics of survival. In Botswana, these relations are loosely termed ‘sugar daddy/mummy’ relations because of the age of people involved. Internationally, these relationships are known as intergenerational sex relationships. Intergenerational sex is commonly defined as sexual partnerships between someone who is very young and someone who is very old. According to Oyediran et al (2011), intergenerational sex is similarly referred to as cross-generational sex or age-mixing or age disparate relationships. The Journal of sex Education (1989), defines intergenerational sex as sex between two people of diverse ages. Although it is difficult to define ‘very young’ and ‘very old’ in this instance, some studies conceptualise the age as 10years and above while others say 5 years and above. It should however be noted that in some cultures, intergenerational sexual relations are a normal thing that is encouraged. Mostly parents may encourage intergenerational sex looking at its economic benefits for them and their daughters and in instances where a girl cannot consent they may consent on her behalf as according to some cultural practices. Historical and Psychological Perspectives Historically, Botswana as nation has culturally tolerated intergenerational relationships of a marital nature between men and relatively younger spouses. Men were encouraged to marry younger women who would bear children and remain younger and attractive to their spouses even in adulthood. However, this historical competition was not backed by the need for male fidelity given the beauty and attractiveness of the partner. Traditionally it is accepted that men like a “melon seed have to spread” by having more than one woman as a way of celebrating their masculinity. With the influence of modernisation, such historical conceptions have become totally unacceptable especially with the HIV and AIDS pandemic. Women as individuals and as members of various coalitions and pressure groups have, since the th 19 century started questioning the relevance of sociocultural practices (in modern day Botswana) that demean and dehumanize women. The authors’ work on gender issues, observations of the proceeds of the gender, HIV and AIDS workshops are consistent with the contents of the gender mainstreaming resource book by Chilisa (2008) that, historically: Women are socially vulnerable to HIV infection because of their subordinate position in society, and lack of sexual and reproductive rights. While infidelity on the part of men is not condoned, it is nevertheless tolerated….Older men often choose younger women as sexual partners. This means that women often get HIV and AIDS at younger ages than men (p. 130). Psychologically, men and women who willingly have intergenerational sexual relationships may feel young and develop very high self esteem backed by the fact they are able to make a breakthrough across decades of age gaps. This individual psychological assertion of their attractiveness and “young” make them inflate their worth, especially if they can materially spoil their intimate partners with cash, cars and cell phones. Most studies assert that mainly young women and girls engage in intergenerational sex because their partners are able to spoil and provide for them. (Mookodi et al., 2004; Oyediran et al., 2011). Understanding Historical Materialism Historical materialism is a methodological approach to the study of society, economics, and history, first articulated by one of the world’s greatest thinkers, Karl Marx, between 1818 and 1883. Marx referred to his approach as "the materialist conception of history." Historical materialism looks for the causes of developments and changes in the means by which human societies collectively cultivate the means to live, thus giving an emphasis, through economic analysis, to everything that co-exists with the major economic base of society. Examples of Marxian analysis include his view of conflict, social classes, political structures, and ideologies as centered on materialism. The fundamental proposition of historical materialism is premised in the materialist conception that throughout human history, economic factors determine and motivate how people exist. Whatever they do in their quest for existence is motivated by material wealth. “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness.” Karl Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Historical materialism as an explanatory system has been expanded and refined by thousands of academic studies since Marx’s death. Although Marx said he was only 40 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. proposing a guideline to historical research, by the twentieth century the concept of historical materialism became a keystone of modern communist doctrine. While the "historical" part of historical materialism does not cause a comprehension problem (i.e., it means the present is explained by analysing the past), the term materialism is more difficult. Historical materialism uses "materialism" to make three separate points, where the truth or falsehood of one point does not affect the others. First there is metaphysical or philosophical materialism, in which matter-in-motion is primary and thought about matter-in-motion, or thought about abstractions and the superstructure, is secondary. Second, there is belief that economic processes form the material base of society upon which institutions and ideas derive and rest. While the economy is the basic sub structure of society, it does not follow that everything in history is determined by the economy, just as every feature of a house is not determined by its foundations. Third, there is the idea that in the capitalist mode of production, the behavior of actors in the market economy (means of production, distribution and exchange, the relations of production) plays the major role in configuring society. The relationship between people who own the means of production (the capitalists) and those who sell their labor (the workers) is characterized by conflict and exploitation. Historical materialism started from a fundamental underlying reality of human existence: that in order for human beings to survive and continue existence from generation to generation, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of life. While this may seem obvious it was only with Marx that this was seen as foundation for understanding human society and historical development. Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, most fundamentally production relations. The Marxian conception of the superstructure as subordinate to the substructure is applicable to the impact of globalisation and desire for wealth by the youth and adolescents. In his analysis, Marx argued that the capitalist world is about accumulation of wealth, hence, adolescents in Botswana are also materialist in making decisions on who to have as an intimate partner. They are inclined to focus on material possessions: devotion to material wealth and possessions at the expense of integrity, spiritual, moral or intellectual values. Marxian concept of the physical (matter) suggests that the reality and the psychological states such as love, emotions, reason, thoughts, perceptions, and sexual desire are best conceived within the context of physical functions. The relevance of historical materialism to the spread of HIV and AIDS amongst adolescents in Botswana is that adolescents are motivated by materialism in the form of “cars, cash, cell phones”, expectation of help from partners in any transaction that would generate properties of all kinds. This posits that history of human societies is made as a result of struggle between different social classes rooted in the underlying economic base. Adolescents, especially girls, and to a lesser extent boys, are attracted to partners who can relatively provide for their well being. This scenario results in persistence to stay in intimate relationships that are severely mentally and physically abusive, and toxic, as long as their material needs are met. Persistence to stay on no matter how unhealthy the intimate relationship is predisposes adolescents to the risk of HIV and AIDs, especially where ether is infidelity, fear of intimate partner violence, multiple partners, and sour relationships leading to inability to effectively negotiate safer sex. Marx envisioned a historical movement where there would be the breakdown of capitalism (as a result of heightened class struggle, a working class revolt leading to the falling rate of profit. The stage would be followed by the establishment of a communist society in which classbased human conflict would be overcome. At this stage, there would be no private ownership of property. The means of production and property would be held in the common ownership and used for the common good of all human societies after transition to socialism, and finally communism. Marx’s view was that all the social ills would end with the end of capitalism as there would not be any class based oppression of those without power. Classlessness would breed peace and social harmony. A social revolution led by workers, who are exploited under capitalism, would lead to classlessness and equality. He envisioned a world free of oppression and social ills where the lifestyles associated with the impact of capitalist consumption and influence would be a thing of the past. Critiques of Marxian theory argued that it was all utopian and an unrealistic dream. METHODOLOGY The paper is based on a desk review, and the authors’ participation and observations of participatory methods of deliberations of a workshops methodology under the auspices of Women’s Sector within the Women’s Affairs Department (now Gender Affairs Department) of Botswana’s Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs. The sector was created in response to HIV/AIDS. Cognizant of the increasing vulnerability women and girls face in Botswana, this paper is based on a series of four sensitization workshops conducted in four areas in Botswana, namely the capital city of Gaborone, Lobatse town and two villages of Tsabong, and Serowe. The broad aim of the gender, HIV and AIDS training workshops initiative was to address the underlying factors that fuel gender inequality, HIV and AIDS and contribute Raditloaneng and Molosi 41 to the sharp increase in women’s vulnerability to HIV infection rates not only in Botswana but globally. Workshops were designed to raise the awareness of all women rights agencies (Women's NGOs, Faith Based Organisations, Governmental and international development partners) involved in the region, of AIDS as a development issue and to mobilize them to respond to its challenge through breakthrough initiatives at community, national, regional and global levels. The specific purpose of the training workshops, held 2008, was to train different service providers in Tsabong, Serowe, Lobatse and Gaborone and other areas to understand the relationship between gender, HIV and AIDS. The workshop hoped to increase knowledge, sensitivity and understanding of gender issues in general and the relationship with HIV and AIDS in particular. Through presentations, small group work and plenary sessions with discussion, the aim of increased knowledge and understanding amongst participants was achieved. As some of the two workshop facilitators, the authors engaged in observation of the participants especially those not from local authority offices. The reason for focusing observation of workshop participants to exclude the already informed section was to have an understanding of the interface between gender issues, including intergenerational sex, materialism, HIV and AIDS from the perspectives of the less privileged ordinary people who may be victims or affected by the interface between gender, HIV and AIDS. What the author took note of during the process of observation were the following:o Participants’ declarative and procedural knowledge of the interface between gender, HIV and AIDS. o Perception of themselves and others in relation to gender, HIV and AIDS. o Patterns of behaviour during the deliberations and group work sessions. o Reactions to questions and comments sections of the workshop. Literature review Literature and research on forms of GBV and how they disproportionately affect men and women, boys and girls formed the subject of this review. Different forms of sexual violence, are a factor in intergenerational sex with sexual minorities. The list below provides a classification of different forms of abuse which are contributory factors in intergenerational sexual relationships. Murder: Highest form of abuse leading to termination of life. Sexual Violence: Assault, Incest, sexual exploitation of minorities, rape. Psychological/Social/Economic: Dehumanizing insults leading to indignity Verbal and emotional abuse: Mild or hot slap Physical: Severe beating Source: Adapted from Department of Women’s Affairs (1999). A Study of Violence Against Women in Botswana. Gaborone: Department of Women’s Affairs Forms of sexual violence above are common in Botswana and disproportionately affect sexual minorities who are men and women, boys and girls. The types of sexual relationships involved in intergenerational sex as mentioned above are careless in that there is no consideration, by perpetrators, to preservation of human life and dignity. The United Nations Universal Human Rights Charter, adopted in 1948, serves as one of the global charters to which Botswana subscribes. On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the full text of 30 articles which cover all human rights. Following this historic act the Assembly called upon all Member countries to publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories" (United Nations Charter on Human Rights, 1948). The rights include, amongst others, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, regardless of colour, creed, political opinions, associations, and HIV/AIDS status. Botswana as a nation upholds the Human Rights Charter of the United Nations. As the Charter is about to reach its 60th birthday in December 2008, the development of the training of trainers’ manual will add voice to the Human Rights legacy. The types of sexual relationships involved in intergenerational sex are also silent in most cases; intergenerational sex goes unnoticed or underreported out of fear of public embarrassment, invasion of privacy by bringing the usually private matters of sexuality to the public domain. Silence among individuals, communities and nations may also be a sign of oppression as expressed by Freire (1973), that oppressed people have a “Culture of Silence” and lack voice to speak against societal injustice. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Workshop Content and interactions The workshop comprised major topics on the interface between gender, HIV and AIDS. Among these were the 42 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. Table 1. Workshop deliberations on the interface of gender, HIV and AIDS as factors in intergenerational sexual relationships. Material Factors that predispose youth (18-29 years) to HIV and AIDS Tsabong The love of money Lack of education Alcohol use and abuse Contamination by blood and blood products during sickness and car accidents Unprotected sex, and different forms of sexual violence. Money: madi – youth love money, (cash), cars, and cell phones. Lack of Lack of education and information on HIV and AIDS Unemployment and idling leading to conditions often identified with poverty. Contamination by blood and blood products during sickness and road accidents. Casual sex with people from construction and other companies of people away from their normal residence and with quick money to buy sex. Over focus on HIV and AIDS prevalence/incidents rather than alcohol abuse – escapist to impair vision, rape, failure to disclose HIV status to intimate partners, significant others who are caregivers. Gaborone 1. Lack of education 2. Excessive use of alcohol leading to impaired vision towards unprotected sex. 3. Various forms of sexual violence including rape Lobatse 1. Peer pressure 2. Alcohol and drug abuse 3. Migration in search of employment to address material needs. 4. Poverty and unemployment 5. Teenage stage changes 6. Sugar daddies and mummies who attract partners with money, cars and celll phones. 7. Technology development 8. Circumcision 9. Defilement of minor children, youth and people living with disabilities. Serowe Girls are having sex for a variety of reasons, at an earlier age than boys. Condom use attitude among school youth Non-disclosure of HIV status Stigma and discrimination in schools HIV positive clients wanting to get married before their HIV status is known to the potential spouses. Girls’ lack of control over safer sex decision-making Youth, especially girls love money a lot Poverty at family level forces girls to have relationships with different men Lack of guidance from parents Lack of respect for parents by youth, citing that they have rights. Negative role modelling by other youth into intergenerational sex. Girls who are breadwinners due to orphanage (after 18years) are vulnerable to early sexual involvement and lack of power to negotiate safer sex. Intergenerational sex with partners who are relatively potential providers or breadwinners. Early marriage and unplanned pregnancy in some religious sects Adapted from Modie- Moroka T. and Raditloaneng W.N. (June 2008). P. 8. following:• Gender Issues, definitions, scope and types. • Gender- based violence, HIV and AIDS. • Predisposing factors to HIV and AIDS for different age groups. • Gender rand high risk sexual behaviors. In all the four major workshop content areas, there was overview session for each of the presentations. An intergenerational sexual relationship was perceived as a cross cutting factor in the perpetuation of gender inequality and the spread of HIV and AIDS. The following is a checklist of interactions and observations made in relation to intergenerational sex:a) Women engage in intergenerational sex account for a growing proportion of HIV and AIDS cases. b) Sexuality matters are not openly discussed with older people. Older men have the tendency to refuse to be tested and use age and anger to Raditloaneng and Molosi 43 avoid it. c) There is a misconception that key actors in intergenerational sex, nicknamed“ Sugar Mummies and Daddies” need each other to cleanse their blood by sex with relatively younger partners. d) Culture makes it difficult for arranged marriages between older women to younger men. However, it is not clear what age difference is acceptable or tolerated if the woman is older than the man. Culturally women are old as long as they have children. Men do not age. e) There are instances of infidelity among women, though not culturally tolerated. Abuse is a factor in infidelity because the abused look for less violent partners than what they have, even if those partners may be of a different age. f) HIV and AIDS are more concentrated in marginalized communities and are worsened by conditions of poverty (socio- economic), class, and gender inequality, which aggravate indulgence in intergenerational sex. The high incidence of child and adolescent sexual abuse in intergenerational relationships in Botswana increases the potential for HIV and AIDS infection. g) Adolescents often engage in unprotected forced/coerced sex, unwanted pregnancy with older men or boys their age, unsafe abortion, and substance abuse. Put together, these increase exposure to HIV infection and AIDS. Adulthood is epicentre of the HIV epidemic where many risk factors constellate. h) Gender based- violence, sexual violence in particular, including intergenerational sex are some of the determinants of HIV infection during teenage stages and reproductive years. There are instances of rape across people of different ages: Older women raped by men in their twenties, and children raped by own biological and stepfathers. i) Tables were drawn by participants, which indicate intergenerational sex as a predisposing factor to HIV and AIDS transmission for age groups 0-5 years, and 15-22 years where older men are the key actors. Participants were asked to show the risk factors that predisposed people of different age groups to HIV and AIDS. Intergenerational sex and materialism were identified as factors in predisposition to HIV/AIDS. Presentations and group discussions were done during the workshops. Plenary sessions were held for participants to report back their group work results on topics related to gender, HIV and AIDS. At the end of the workshop, participants were able to articulate a much better understanding of the interface of gender, HIV and AIDS than before. They were able to use their personal experiences and shared with others all what they thought about issues of gender inequality, HIV and AIDS transmission. They were better able to present and gave real life examples of different forms of intergenerational sex. Sexual minorities were reported as re the most vulnerable to intergenerational sex. Sexual minorities include, but are not limited to children, the poor, minority ethnic groups, abused men and women, and people living with mental and physical disabilities. These groups are exploited through intergenerational sexual relationships because of variables such as age, gender, class, ethnicity, mental and physical disabilities, and thus they lack empowerment to handle issues of sexual exploitation. Intergenerational sex involves child sexual abuse, forced sex backed by a huge age difference between the abuser and the abused, coercive control of the spouse by the stronger one, and intimate partner terrorism. The next section indicates some of the forms of sexual exploitation to which sexual minorities are subjected by step fathers, biological fathers and strangers. Child sexual abuse was defined as the use of a child (defined as any person under the legal age of consent) by an adult for sexual purposes whether or not consent is alleged to have been given. It includes: acts of exposure; sexual touching; oral, anal or vaginal penetration; and the exposing of a child to, or involving a child in, pornography or prostitution. Any form of direct or indirect sexual contact between a child and an adult is abusive since it is motivated purely by adult needs and involves a child who, by virtue of her or his age and position in life, is unable to give consent. Forced sex Forced sex was taken to be where one person has used force, coercion or psychological intimidation to force another to engage in a sex act against her or his will, whether or not the act is completed. Forced sex is usually common in intergenerational relationships and sex. The act of forcing (or attempting to force) another individual through violence, threats, verbal insistence, deception, cultural expectations or economic circumstances to engage in sexual behaviour against her/his will... it includes a wide range of behaviours from violent forcible rape to more contested areas that require young women to marry and sexually service men not of their choosing” (Heise et al., 1995). Forced sex can be perpetrated by an intimate partner, relative, friend, acquaintance, or stranger. Coercive control Coercive control is characterised by, firstly, behaviours intended to manipulate another and can be manifested in several ways e.g. an attack directed against another person’s self-confidence or self-esteem (constant criticism, ridicule, accusations of infidelity or humiliation in 44 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. public or in front of the children. Secondly, intimidation as a dimension of coercive control refers to behaviours intended to instil fear: subtle, but threatening “looks” or change in tone of voice, or more severe acts like swearing, screaming, or throwing things. Finally, coercive control was characterised by making unreasonable demands from another person due to self-entitlement to the spouse or the partner. Intimate partner terrorism Participants defined intimate partner terrorism as a manipulative, purposeful violence used as a tool of power and control, and is usually perpetuated by one member of the couple against the other. Descriptors include, amongst others, hurtful spice- like words, amputation of body parts, stabbing female sexual organs with a knife, using spouses like beast of burdens, examination of sexual organs to check for infidelity and evidence of sexual contact. Women also have several culturally based desires to love, have stable relationships, endure marriage or intimate relationship, with the expectation of love and being loved. Socio- cultural barriers induce women stay in abusive intergenerational relationships hoping that the quality of the relationship would eventually get better. Within Africa, the call for tolerance in women- men relationships is higher for girls and women than it is for boys and men. In addition to intergenerational sex, participants articulated major setbacks in sex as a factor in HIV and AIDS transmission, and ultimately, murder as the highest form of sexual abuse as it entails termination of one’s life. What is evident is that intergenerational sex with minorities is usually accompanied by sexual violence which differs from person to person. Participants affirmed that intergenerational sex predisposes younger women, and to a lesser extent, younger men, to HIV/AIDS, even in marriage. Gender issues are based on skewed balance of power and inequality that predispose people to HIV and AIDS which are relational and disproportionately affect the behavior of women and men, girls and boys. Understanding intergenerational sex During the abovementioned workshop series, participants were asked to define their meaning of intergenerational sex. After a lot of debate, participants articulated that the age difference should not be too disparate, and that a woman must not be older than a man. Rather, a man must be older. After a lot of debate, it was not clear exactly what the cut- off mathematical point should be. It was however clear that: Age difference, though not cut in stone, was thus an important factor to consider in the definition of intergenerational sex and it was more tolerable if the man was older, not the woman. If there is an age difference, it should not be too big. For instance, a woman must not be old enough to be a mother of a man who is her intimate sexual partner. In the case of a man, the women argued that girls must not have intimate relationships with men old enough to be their fathers. Intergenerational sex was also mentioned as a common manipulation of children and people living with disabilities of a mental and physical nature. Participants were asked to state what age difference would be acceptable between a man and a woman for intimate relationships. It became apparent that the age difference of more than five to ten years in cases where the woman was older was not acceptable, especially that women, if older, can be very “bully” in marriage and intimate relationships. Understanding the Interface between Gender, HIV and AIDS Workshop participants in the two urban areas of Gaborone and Lobatse had a much more understanding of gender Issues, HIV and AIDS than participants in the relatively rural areas of Tsabong and Serowe. Facilitators encouraged all participants to have a balanced understanding of gender issues in reference to both men and women in relation to their role in the demographic processes and the spread of the HIV and AIDS. Major setbacks in sex as a factor in HIV/AIDS transmission a) Men in prison are not having sex and so they are regarded as safe partners after release. b) Wealthy men are HIV- and poor women are HIV+. c) Women go into relationships for money and survival. Very little or almost nothing is said about reasons why men go into relationships. d) Men have all the power because they are the ones who have more feelings for sex than women. e) It is socially accepted and preferred that men have to be older than women in all relationships. The reason given is that due to their reproductive roles, women age faster than then so men should get younger women. f) Men are by birth right and socially heads of families, regardless of their actual contribution to family life, and therefore need not be abused by their wives or intimate partners. g) In cases of fights and unreasonable behaviour, women lack physical strength to face men when violence erupts. Women are usually full of exuberance. h) Women are usually expected to tolerate uncouth Raditloaneng and Molosi 45 behaviour of their spouses especially in marriage. Women are more blamed in cases of the spread of divorce, HIV and AIDS than men. Women are also portrayed as key actors in commercial sex work while men remain invisible yet they are women’s customers in the business. Without their male customers, women who are in commercial sex work would go out of business. As described in the text above, there are cross cutting indicators of love of materialism as a factor in predisposition to HIV and AIDS. The love and desire for unprotected sex to buy expensive pleasurable social life in the city, alcohol, expensive cars, housing, and cash for purchasing power, cell-phones, and wall what is humanly possible to earn or obtain through materialism were cross cutting factors discussed during the four workshops as factors that predisposed adolescents to HIV and AIDS. globalisation, the cash economy permeated every aspect of urban and rural areas in Botswana. The love of materialism is a result of the impact of the cash economy. Adolescents in all the four workshop areas were said to find themselves in an environment in which people’s power is rated by city lifestyles, the strength of their material possessions typified in expensive cars, cash to purchase alcohol, going to the movies and other social functions, illegal drug deals for money and cell phones for on the spot communication. Adolescents do various forms of commercial sex work in return for cars, cash, city life and cell phones with airtime as needed. The impact of poverty on materialism Illiteracy and educational disadvantage are factors often identified with poverty. Lack of basic education and training, lack of basic information on fats about HIV and AIDS, lack of information in general, dysfunctional characteristics such as alcohol and drug abuse, and general ignorance impair adolescents’ judgement on the linkage between unprotected sex, contamination during care-giving to an AIDS infected and predisposition to HIV and AIDS. As a result, adolescents engage in day to day behaviours that predispose them to the deadly HIV. Poverty is defined as lack of means of survival, capabilities and participation is a very important factor in understanding the link to material possessions. In addition to lack of materialism, human poverty is interpreted according to Sen’s (1999) concept of ‘capabilities’ and ‘freedoms’ for people to choose the lives they have reason to value. The theme of this paper is that poverty is typified in lack of material possessions, inadequate access to clothing, food, shelter, education, medical attention as needed, is a factor in adolescents striving for survival through every means, even selling themselves sexually for cash and other favors to access material wealth. These include promotions, social status, access to decent education and training, accepting bribes, socialisation to expect marriage to a wealthy partner, and business transactions to give adolescents an opportunity to earn or obtain a source of livelihood, freedom to choose, status and ability to have high self esteem. The search for survival, freedom, capabilities and participation in civic life may be through ways that predispose adolescents to unprotected sex with partners whose HIV status is unknown, and risky. Although poverty is more rampant in the rural areas of Serowe and Tsabong than in the urban areas of Lobatse and Gaborone, overall the impact of poverty in varying amounts amongst adolescents was deliberated as an important factor in the search for materialism. With poverty, adolescents are able to persist and sty in abusive relationships for real or expected survival handouts from their intimate partners. The search for materialism: Cars, cash, city life and cell phones During the pre- independence era, agriculture was the backbone of Botswana’s economy. With the post independence and impact of wage employment and Covariates of Materialism The impact of illiteracy The desire for sex, love and belonging According to workshop participants, the older people grow, the more they related more with their peers than their parents. Peer pressure is very important for adolescents as they spend a lot of time away from their parents and adapt to lifestyles such as casual and intergenerational sex, that make them fit better within their circle of peers. There is stigma and discrimination of adolescents who do not behave the way the majority of their peers would like them to. This poses a problem if the circle of peers and friends are indispensable to the lives of adolescents. One participant lamented: “Bana ba rona ba dira dilo koo. Ba ralala megare le borre ba batona ba ba sa bolong go e ralala, rona re seyo.” Translated as; In our absence, our children meet others and do their own thing. They have sex with men who have lived longer and have the deadly HIV.” (Lobatse workshop comments and discussion session, 27th February 2008). Adolescents do not establish a dialogue with their partners to know their HIV status because of fear of losing them. There is also a fear of rejection and some may want to hide their already HIV positive status from the partners they would like to have. The desire for sex, 46 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. love and belonging is also motivated by materialism. Gender inequality Gender inequality typified in skewed employment opportunities, lack of education of the girl child, rape, incest, defilement, early marriage and early sex, teenage pregnancy and inability of girls and to a lesser extent boys, are factors that disproportionately affect adolescent girls and boys in predisposition to HIV and AIDS. In the urban areas of Gaborone and Lobatse, it was observed that in-migration in search of employment, “sugar daddies and sugar mummies” where men and women dated relatively younger partners for survival was common amongst adolescents. During the four workshops, adolescent girls in particular were observed to love cash, cars, city life and cell phones more than boys, hence they went for intergenerational relationships to finance the “four Cs”. However, such relationships were sociohistorically more tolerated if the man was the older partner than the woman. Misuse of Human Rights With the impact of Human Rights organisations such as Child line, adolescents have continued to fight against parental guidance and modelling to claim freedom to live the way they want, even in cases where they are still under the custody of their parents and legal guardians. This makes it difficult for parents to guide adolescents. In some cases parents loose it all by failing to model good behaviour, and they in turn do not receive any respect from adolescents who mimic their behaviour and contact the deadly HIV. CONCLUSIONS HIV and AIDS negatively affect adolescents. Participants had a common understanding of age as a factor in the definition of intergenerational sex. A major outcome of the four workshops was the formation of a number of ‘training groups’ with plans for delivery of training to specific target groups. Furthermore, participants identified that there are global issues to redress for combating the effects of sex as a factor in HIV and AIDS transmission. Amongst these are gender inequality, gender–based violence, gender and high risk sexual behaviours including intergenerational sex, age and gender based sexual harassment, and the need for gender, HIV and AIDS mainstreaming as factors in HIV and AIDS prevention, transmission and management. There was a recommendation that in future it would be important to include gender and sexual behaviour topics to illuminate female to female and male to male sexual orientation. Gender is misconstrued to be about women, yet it includes men as well. The name “Women’s Affairs Department” may be a factor in the confusion of the Department’s mandate. Regular training inclusive of women, men, girls and boys is crucial to illuminate that gender issues must be part of everybody’s business. There is also a need to target education for men and young boys to express feelings in words, and not in violence. Materialism is an important factor to understand in the search for survival to firstly meet the physiological needs of food, clothing, shelter, media attention and education, and secondly proceed to meet aspects of life beyond the basics of survival. Gender inequality is a factor in ensuring unequal rates of HIV and AIDS infection of adolescent men and women in various parts of Botswana. The need to address gender inequality as one of the key factors in the distribution of HIV and AIDS is overdue. Intergenerational sex and materialism are crucial factors in HIV/AIDS which are conceived to stigmatize the already disadvantaged women and promote male supremacy. RECOMMENDATION Workshops on gender, HIV and AIDS must not be based on the assumption that all people are heterosexual. There was recognition that there was a gay population that had not gone public about their sexual orientation due to legal objections to legalise homosexuality. However, to give them special attention was not within the scope of the four training workshops. Mainstreaming gender as mass action in Adult and Higher educational formal and non- formal institutions is overdue to save the lives of the most vulnerable and sexually active teenagers and adolescents. Implications for adult higher education This paper poses several implications for the role of adult higher education. A lot of strides have been made in getting adolescents to have basic knowledge about the dangers of unsafe sex, including intergenerational sex fuelled by the desire for materialism. Behavioural change remains a very big challenge for diverse children and adults in and out of school. There is a need for a paradigm shift in Adult and Adult Higher Education to focus more on empowerment strategies for the teenagers and adolescents to perceive unsafe sex as toxic and not worth their lives especially given the HIV and AIDS pandemic which has no cure. As Botswana as a nation begins processing the results of the 2012 Botswana AIDS impact survey in 2014, there Raditloaneng and Molosi 47 will be more additional information to share on threats to global peace in relation to the area of gender and development. Botswana and stop depending on expatriates for administrative and other jobs where there is a lot of idle qualified personnel. Mainstream gender, HIV and AIDS within in and out of school curriculum Align training to the needs of Botswana’s economy Mainstreaming gender in higher education has already been proposed, but not yet implemented on a nation-wide scale (Chilisa, 2008). Adolescents are found out of school and in higher education institutions. Out of school adolescents are reachable through the National Literacy Program, and sensitisation work of HIV/AIDS NGOs. Structurally transform socio- cultural programmes and practices disempowering adolescents Unemployment is very common amongst out of school youth, graduates and adolescents in general. A lot of idle able bodied men and women cannot be absorbed within the narrow economic base. It would be important to deliberately take affirmative action to engage adolescents to work with already qualified local experts who know what needs to be done in every field, than always have adverts looking for experts with “at least 5- 10 years post qualification experience”. Changes in the employment structure As a nation, Botswana cannot indefinitely recruit expatriates, ignore unqualified adolescents and expect them to engage in behavioural changes that curb the spread of HIV and AIDS. Idle adolescents can only be a nuisance through survival methodologies that are not conducive for behavioural change. Enforce retirement age Without discounting the value of wisdom of retired Batswana, there is a need for turning the mirror inwards to create more and better incentives for adolescents who are still striving for survival. Within the civil service, which the main source of employment, there must be a widening of opportunities for formal employment instead of recycling retired personnel over 60 years and blocking opportunities of adolescents to take up offices of responsibility. Retirees can be better utilised by serving in advisory capacity to groom adolescents to take over Part of the reason adolescents remain idle and engage in behaviours that are un-conducive for curbing the spread of HIV and AIDS is that the unemployment rate is very high amongst them. 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A gendered view of intergenerational sex, and materialism in predisposition to HIV/AIDS: - implications for Adult Higher Education in Botswana. J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev. 4(3):38-47