Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development (JRPGD) Vol. 4(3) pp. 38-47, June, 2014
DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/jrpgd.2014.018
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/ JRPGD
Copyright © 2014 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
A gendered view of intergenerational sex, and
materialism in predisposition to HIV/AIDS: implications for Adult Higher Education in Botswana
Prof. Wapula N. Raditloaneng and Ms. Keneilwe Molosi
Department of Adult and Continuing Education University of Botswana Main Campus.
Corresponding author email: Raditloa@mopipi.ub.bw, Tel: 00-267-55-2066, Fax: 00-267-3918474;00-267-72474403
ABSTRACT
The interface of intergenerational sex, gender inequality, materialism and how they disproportionately
affect global peace amongst men and women is a matter of grave concern to the authors of this article.
Botswana is one of the countries hardest hit by the global HIV infection and AIDS epidemic. Botswana’s
Central Statistics Office, in collaboration with the National AIDS Coordinating Agency (NACA), and
other development partners undertook a Botswana AIDS Impact Survey (BAIS II) in 2004, and the 2007
Sentinel survey. The 2007 Sentinel survey recorded a slight decline in the HIV/AIDS epidemic due to
multiple interventions geared towards illuminating basic facts about HIV transmission, positive living,
prevention, treatment and care of people affected and infected by HIV and AIDS. Amongst the many
factors that aggravate HIV/AIDS and deaths from opportunistic infections, intergenerational sex and
materialism as disproportionately affecting men and women, were cited as crucial in predisposing
women, and to a lesser extent, men, to HIV and AIDS. This analysis of the importance of
intergenerational sex, and materialism in sexual behaviours among adolescent is based on
deliberations of a workshop held under the auspices of the Women’s sector within the Women’s Affairs
Department of the Ministry of Labour and Home affairs. The sector was created in response to the
increasing vulnerability women and girls face in Botswana to HIV and AIDS. The paper, is based on
deliberations of a series of four sensitization workshops conducted in four areas of Botswana, namely
the two towns of Gaborone and Lobatse and the two villages of Tsabong and Serowe, from the
perspectives of adolescents aged 10 to 29 years since 2008 to- date. An understanding of the
importance of intergenerational sex, and materialism is expected to inform theory; programmes and
best practise in promoting conducive behaviour changes essential in tackling HIV and AIDS with a
special focus on adolescents.
Keywords: Intergenerational sex, materialism, HIV/AIDS and higher education.
INTRODUCTION
Problems of gender inequality as typified in the
occurrence of different forms of gender-based violence,
HIV and AIDS, unemployment, gender- based poverty
and illiteracy, to name a few, are a threat to global peace
and development. Global peace cannot be enjoyed as
long as the global community is infested with life
threatening social problems. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is
one of the most challenging problems that the global
community, including Botswana, has ever confronted
from the 19-21st century. This is a threat to global
longevity and peace as the world is interconnected in
many ways.
Of all the major modes of HIV/AIDS transmission,
heterosexual sex is the main factor that predisposes the
risk of HIV/AIDS infections. Several studies have
however shown that HIV/AIDS infections and rate of
transmission are generally skewed towards young
women and girls rather than young men and boys.
According to Oyediran et al (2011), HIV prevalence rate
among young women is approximately 2.5 times that of
Raditloaneng and Molosi 39
young men within the same age group. UNAIDS (2006)
reports that in general, young women age 15-24 in subSaharan Africa are three times more likely to be infected
with HIV than young men of the same age .HIV infection
rates in Botswana are now estimated to be nine times
higher in females than males in this age group (Mookodi
et al., 2004)
Although women’s biological make up can be blamed
for the high risk of infection among girls and young
women, sexual partnerships between older men and
young girls can be blamed as there are sexual power
dynamics involved that may not favour young girls
involved in the partnership. For instance, they may be
unable to negotiate safe sex due to skewed balance of
power in intergenerational sex and the poverty- induced
quest for the basics of survival. In Botswana, these
relations are loosely termed ‘sugar daddy/mummy’
relations because of the age of people involved.
Internationally, these relationships are known as
intergenerational sex relationships. Intergenerational sex
is commonly defined as sexual partnerships between
someone who is very young and someone who is very
old. According to Oyediran et al (2011), intergenerational
sex is similarly referred to as cross-generational sex or
age-mixing or age disparate relationships. The Journal of
sex Education (1989), defines intergenerational sex as
sex between two people of diverse ages. Although it is
difficult to define ‘very young’ and ‘very old’ in this
instance, some studies conceptualise the age as 10years
and above while others say 5 years and above. It should
however be noted that in some cultures, intergenerational
sexual relations are a normal thing that is encouraged.
Mostly parents may encourage intergenerational sex
looking at its economic benefits for them and their
daughters and in instances where a girl cannot consent
they may consent on her behalf as according to some
cultural practices.
Historical and Psychological Perspectives
Historically, Botswana as nation has culturally tolerated
intergenerational relationships of a marital nature
between men and relatively younger spouses. Men were
encouraged to marry younger women who would bear
children and remain younger and attractive to their
spouses even in adulthood. However, this historical
competition was not backed by the need for male fidelity
given the beauty and attractiveness of the partner.
Traditionally it is accepted that men like a “melon seed
have to spread” by having more than one woman as a
way of celebrating their masculinity. With the influence of
modernisation, such historical conceptions have become
totally unacceptable especially with the HIV and AIDS
pandemic. Women as individuals and as members of
various coalitions and pressure groups have, since the
th
19 century started questioning the relevance of sociocultural practices (in modern day Botswana) that demean
and dehumanize women.
The authors’ work on gender issues, observations of
the proceeds of the gender, HIV and AIDS workshops are
consistent with the contents of the gender mainstreaming
resource book by Chilisa (2008) that, historically:
Women are socially vulnerable to HIV infection
because of their subordinate position in society, and lack
of sexual and reproductive rights. While infidelity on the
part of men is not condoned, it is nevertheless
tolerated….Older men often choose younger women as
sexual partners. This means that women often get HIV
and AIDS at younger ages than men (p. 130).
Psychologically, men and women who willingly have
intergenerational sexual relationships may feel young and
develop very high self esteem backed by the fact they are
able to make a breakthrough across decades of age
gaps. This individual psychological assertion of their
attractiveness and “young” make them inflate their worth,
especially if they can materially spoil their intimate
partners with cash, cars and cell phones. Most studies
assert that mainly young women and girls engage in
intergenerational sex because their partners are able to
spoil and provide for them. (Mookodi et al., 2004;
Oyediran et al., 2011).
Understanding Historical Materialism
Historical materialism is a methodological approach to
the study of society, economics, and history, first
articulated by one of the world’s greatest thinkers, Karl
Marx, between 1818 and 1883. Marx referred to his
approach as "the materialist conception of history."
Historical materialism looks for the causes of
developments and changes in the means by which
human societies collectively cultivate the means to live,
thus giving an emphasis, through economic analysis, to
everything that co-exists with the major economic base of
society. Examples of Marxian analysis include his view of
conflict, social classes, political structures, and ideologies
as centered on materialism. The fundamental proposition
of historical materialism is premised in the materialist
conception that throughout human history, economic
factors determine and motivate how people exist.
Whatever they do in their quest for existence is motivated
by material wealth.
“It is not the consciousness of men that determines
their existence, but their social existence that determines
their consciousness.” Karl Marx, Preface to A
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy.
Historical materialism as an explanatory system has
been expanded and refined by thousands of academic
studies since Marx’s death. Although Marx said he was only
40 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
proposing a guideline to historical research, by the
twentieth century the concept of historical materialism
became a keystone of modern communist doctrine.
While the "historical" part of historical materialism
does not cause a comprehension problem (i.e., it means
the present is explained by analysing the past), the term
materialism is more difficult. Historical materialism uses
"materialism" to make three separate points, where the
truth or falsehood of one point does not affect the others.
First there is metaphysical or philosophical
materialism, in which matter-in-motion is primary and
thought about matter-in-motion, or thought about
abstractions and the superstructure, is secondary.
Second, there is belief that economic processes form
the material base of society upon which institutions and
ideas derive and rest. While the economy is the basic sub
structure of society, it does not follow that everything in
history is determined by the economy, just as every
feature of a house is not determined by its foundations.
Third, there is the idea that in the capitalist mode of
production, the behavior of actors in the market economy
(means of production, distribution and exchange, the
relations of production) plays the major role in configuring
society. The relationship between people who own the
means of production (the capitalists) and those who sell
their labor (the workers) is characterized by conflict and
exploitation.
Historical materialism started from a fundamental
underlying reality of human existence: that in order for
human beings to survive and continue existence from
generation to generation, it is necessary for them to
produce and reproduce the material requirements of life.
While this may seem obvious it was only with Marx that
this was seen as foundation for understanding human
society and historical development. Marx then extended
this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that,
in order to carry out production and exchange, people
have to enter into very definite social relations, most
fundamentally production relations.
The Marxian conception of the superstructure as
subordinate to the substructure is applicable to the
impact of globalisation and desire for wealth by the youth
and adolescents. In his analysis, Marx argued that the
capitalist world is about accumulation of wealth, hence,
adolescents in Botswana are also materialist in making
decisions on who to have as an intimate partner. They
are inclined to focus on material possessions: devotion to
material wealth and possessions at the expense of
integrity, spiritual, moral or intellectual values. Marxian
concept of the physical (matter) suggests that the reality
and the psychological states such as love, emotions,
reason, thoughts, perceptions, and sexual desire are best
conceived within the context of physical functions.
The relevance of historical materialism to the spread
of HIV and AIDS amongst adolescents in Botswana is
that adolescents are motivated by materialism in the form
of “cars, cash, cell phones”, expectation of help from
partners in any transaction that would generate
properties of all kinds. This posits that history of human
societies is made as a result of struggle between different
social classes rooted in the underlying economic base.
Adolescents, especially girls, and to a lesser extent boys,
are attracted to partners who can relatively provide for
their well being. This scenario results in persistence to
stay in intimate relationships that are severely mentally
and physically abusive, and toxic, as long as their
material needs are met. Persistence to stay on no matter
how unhealthy the intimate relationship is predisposes
adolescents to the risk of HIV and AIDs, especially where
ether is infidelity, fear of intimate partner violence,
multiple partners, and sour relationships leading to
inability to effectively negotiate safer sex. Marx
envisioned a historical movement where there would be
the breakdown of capitalism (as a result of heightened
class struggle, a working class revolt leading to the falling
rate of profit. The stage would be followed by the
establishment of a communist society in which classbased human conflict would be overcome. At this stage,
there would be no private ownership of property. The
means of production and property would be held in the
common ownership and used for the common good of all
human societies after transition to socialism, and finally
communism. Marx’s view was that all the social ills would
end with the end of capitalism as there would not be any
class based oppression of those without power.
Classlessness would breed peace and social harmony. A
social revolution led by workers, who are exploited under
capitalism, would lead to classlessness and equality. He
envisioned a world free of oppression and social ills
where the lifestyles associated with the impact of
capitalist consumption and influence would be a thing of
the past. Critiques of Marxian theory argued that it was all
utopian and an unrealistic dream.
METHODOLOGY
The paper is based on a desk review, and the authors’
participation and observations of participatory methods of
deliberations of a workshops methodology under the
auspices of Women’s Sector within the Women’s Affairs
Department (now Gender Affairs Department) of
Botswana’s Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs. The
sector was created in response to HIV/AIDS. Cognizant
of the increasing vulnerability women and girls face in
Botswana, this paper is based on a series of four
sensitization workshops conducted in four areas in
Botswana, namely the capital city of Gaborone, Lobatse
town and two villages of Tsabong, and Serowe.
The broad aim of the gender, HIV and AIDS training
workshops initiative was to address the underlying factors
that fuel gender inequality, HIV and AIDS and contribute
Raditloaneng and Molosi 41
to the sharp increase in women’s vulnerability to HIV
infection rates not only in Botswana but globally.
Workshops were designed to raise the awareness of all
women rights agencies (Women's NGOs, Faith Based
Organisations,
Governmental
and
international
development partners) involved in the region, of AIDS as
a development issue and to mobilize them to respond to
its challenge through breakthrough initiatives at
community, national, regional and global levels.
The specific purpose of the training workshops, held
2008, was to train different service providers in Tsabong,
Serowe, Lobatse and Gaborone and other areas to
understand the relationship between gender, HIV and
AIDS. The workshop hoped to increase knowledge,
sensitivity and understanding of gender issues in general
and the relationship with HIV and AIDS in particular.
Through presentations, small group work and plenary
sessions with discussion, the aim of increased knowledge
and understanding amongst participants was achieved.
As some of the two workshop facilitators, the authors
engaged in observation of the participants especially
those not from local authority offices. The reason for
focusing observation of workshop participants to exclude
the already informed section was to have an
understanding of the interface between gender issues,
including intergenerational sex, materialism, HIV and
AIDS from the perspectives of the less privileged ordinary
people who may be victims or affected by the interface
between gender, HIV and AIDS.
What the author took note of during the process of
observation were the following:o
Participants’
declarative
and
procedural
knowledge of the interface between gender, HIV and
AIDS.
o
Perception of themselves and others in relation to
gender, HIV and AIDS.
o
Patterns of behaviour during the deliberations
and group work sessions.
o
Reactions to questions and comments sections
of the workshop.
Literature review
Literature and research on forms of GBV and how they
disproportionately affect men and women, boys and girls
formed the subject of this review.
Different forms of sexual violence, are a factor in
intergenerational sex with sexual minorities. The list
below provides a classification of different forms of abuse
which are contributory factors in intergenerational sexual
relationships.
Murder: Highest form of abuse leading to termination
of life.
Sexual Violence: Assault, Incest, sexual exploitation of
minorities, rape.
Psychological/Social/Economic: Dehumanizing insults
leading to indignity
Verbal and emotional abuse: Mild or hot slap
Physical: Severe beating
Source: Adapted from Department of Women’s Affairs
(1999). A Study of Violence Against Women in Botswana.
Gaborone: Department of Women’s Affairs
Forms of sexual violence above are common in
Botswana and disproportionately affect sexual minorities
who are men and women, boys and girls. The types of
sexual relationships involved in intergenerational sex as
mentioned above are careless in that there is no
consideration, by perpetrators, to preservation of human
life and dignity. The United Nations Universal Human
Rights Charter, adopted in 1948, serves as one of the
global charters to which Botswana subscribes.
On December 10, 1948 the General Assembly of the
United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights the full text of 30 articles
which cover all human rights. Following this historic act
the Assembly called upon all Member countries to
publicize the text of the Declaration and "to cause it to be
disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally
in schools and other educational institutions, without
distinction based on the political status of countries or
territories" (United Nations Charter on Human Rights,
1948).
The rights include, amongst others, recognition of the
inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family is the foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world, regardless of
colour, creed, political opinions, associations, and
HIV/AIDS status. Botswana as a nation upholds the
Human Rights Charter of the United Nations. As the
Charter is about to reach its 60th birthday in December
2008, the development of the training of trainers’ manual
will add voice to the Human Rights legacy.
The types of sexual relationships involved in
intergenerational sex are also silent in most cases;
intergenerational sex goes unnoticed or underreported
out of fear of public embarrassment, invasion of privacy
by bringing the usually private matters of sexuality to the
public domain. Silence among individuals, communities
and nations may also be a sign of oppression as
expressed by Freire (1973), that oppressed people have
a “Culture of Silence” and lack voice to speak against
societal injustice.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Workshop Content and interactions
The workshop comprised major topics on the interface
between gender, HIV and AIDS. Among these were the
42 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 1. Workshop deliberations on the interface of gender, HIV and AIDS as factors in intergenerational sexual relationships.
Material Factors that predispose youth (18-29 years) to HIV and AIDS
Tsabong
The love of money
Lack of education
Alcohol use and abuse
Contamination by blood and blood
products during sickness and car
accidents
Unprotected sex, and different forms
of sexual violence.
Money: madi – youth love money,
(cash), cars, and cell phones.
Lack of Lack of education and
information on HIV and AIDS
Unemployment and idling leading to
conditions often identified with poverty.
Contamination by blood and blood
products during sickness and road
accidents.
Casual sex with people from
construction and other companies of
people away from their normal residence
and with quick money to buy sex.
Over focus on HIV and AIDS
prevalence/incidents rather than alcohol
abuse – escapist to impair vision, rape,
failure to disclose HIV status to intimate
partners, significant others who are
caregivers.
Gaborone
1. Lack
of
education
2. Excessive use
of alcohol leading to
impaired
vision
towards unprotected
sex.
3. Various forms
of sexual violence
including rape
Lobatse
1. Peer pressure
2. Alcohol and drug abuse
3. Migration in search of
employment to address material
needs.
4. Poverty and unemployment
5. Teenage stage changes
6. Sugar
daddies
and
mummies who attract partners
with money, cars and celll
phones.
7. Technology development
8. Circumcision
9. Defilement of
minor
children, youth and people living
with disabilities.
Serowe
Girls are having sex for a
variety of reasons, at an earlier
age than boys.
Condom use attitude among
school youth
Non-disclosure of HIV status
Stigma and discrimination in
schools
HIV positive clients wanting
to get married before their HIV
status is known to the potential
spouses.
Girls’ lack of control over
safer sex decision-making
Youth, especially girls love
money a lot
Poverty at family level forces
girls to have relationships with
different men
Lack of guidance from
parents
Lack of respect for parents
by youth, citing that they have
rights.
Negative role modelling by
other youth into intergenerational
sex.
Girls who are breadwinners
due to orphanage (after 18years)
are vulnerable to early sexual
involvement and lack of power to
negotiate safer sex.
Intergenerational sex with
partners who are relatively
potential
providers
or
breadwinners.
Early
marriage
and
unplanned pregnancy in some
religious sects
Adapted from Modie- Moroka T. and Raditloaneng W.N. (June 2008). P. 8.
following:•
Gender Issues, definitions, scope and types.
•
Gender- based violence, HIV and AIDS.
•
Predisposing factors to HIV and AIDS for
different age groups.
•
Gender rand high risk sexual behaviors.
In all the four major workshop content areas, there was
overview session for each of the presentations. An
intergenerational sexual relationship was perceived as a
cross cutting factor in the perpetuation of gender
inequality and the spread of HIV and AIDS.
The following is a checklist of interactions and
observations made in relation to intergenerational
sex:a)
Women engage in intergenerational
sex account for a growing proportion of HIV and AIDS
cases.
b)
Sexuality matters are not openly
discussed with older people. Older men have the
tendency to refuse to be tested and use age and anger to
Raditloaneng and Molosi 43
avoid it.
c)
There is a misconception that key
actors in intergenerational sex, nicknamed“ Sugar
Mummies and Daddies” need each other to cleanse their
blood by sex with relatively younger partners.
d)
Culture makes it difficult for arranged
marriages between older women to younger men.
However, it is not clear what age difference is acceptable
or tolerated if the woman is older than the man. Culturally
women are old as long as they have children. Men do
not age.
e)
There are instances of infidelity
among women, though not culturally tolerated. Abuse is
a factor in infidelity because the abused look for less
violent partners than what they have, even if those
partners may be of a different age.
f)
HIV and AIDS are more concentrated in
marginalized communities and are worsened by
conditions of poverty (socio- economic), class, and
gender inequality, which aggravate indulgence in
intergenerational sex. The high incidence of child and
adolescent
sexual
abuse
in
intergenerational
relationships in Botswana increases the potential for HIV
and AIDS infection.
g)
Adolescents often engage in unprotected
forced/coerced sex, unwanted pregnancy with older men
or boys their age, unsafe abortion, and substance abuse.
Put together, these increase exposure to HIV infection
and AIDS. Adulthood is epicentre of the HIV epidemic
where many risk factors constellate.
h)
Gender based- violence, sexual
violence in particular, including intergenerational sex are
some of the determinants of HIV infection during teenage
stages and reproductive years. There are instances of
rape across people of different ages: Older women raped
by men in their twenties, and children raped by own
biological and stepfathers.
i)
Tables were drawn by participants,
which indicate intergenerational sex as a predisposing
factor to HIV and AIDS transmission for age groups 0-5
years, and 15-22 years where older men are the key
actors. Participants were asked to show the risk factors
that predisposed people of different age groups to HIV
and AIDS. Intergenerational sex and materialism were
identified as factors in predisposition to HIV/AIDS.
Presentations and group discussions were done
during the workshops. Plenary sessions were held for
participants to report back their group work results on
topics related to gender, HIV and AIDS. At the end of the
workshop, participants were able to articulate a much
better understanding of the interface of gender, HIV and
AIDS than before. They were able to use their personal
experiences and shared with others all what they thought
about issues of gender inequality, HIV and AIDS
transmission. They were better able to present and gave
real life examples of different forms of intergenerational
sex.
Sexual minorities were reported as re the most
vulnerable to intergenerational sex. Sexual minorities
include, but are not limited to children, the poor, minority
ethnic groups, abused men and women, and people
living with mental and physical disabilities. These groups
are
exploited
through
intergenerational
sexual
relationships because of variables such as age, gender,
class, ethnicity, mental and physical disabilities, and thus
they lack empowerment to handle issues of sexual
exploitation.
Intergenerational sex involves child sexual abuse,
forced sex backed by a huge age difference between the
abuser and the abused, coercive control of the spouse by
the stronger one, and intimate partner terrorism. The next
section indicates some of the forms of sexual exploitation
to which sexual minorities are subjected by step fathers,
biological fathers and strangers.
Child sexual abuse was defined as the use of a child
(defined as any person under the legal age of consent)
by an adult for sexual purposes whether or not consent is
alleged to have been given. It includes: acts of exposure;
sexual touching; oral, anal or vaginal penetration; and the
exposing of a child to, or involving a child in, pornography
or prostitution. Any form of direct or indirect sexual
contact between a child and an adult is abusive since it is
motivated purely by adult needs and involves a child who,
by virtue of her or his age and position in life, is unable to
give consent.
Forced sex
Forced sex was taken to be where one person has used
force, coercion or psychological intimidation to force
another to engage in a sex act against her or his will,
whether or not the act is completed.
Forced sex is usually common in intergenerational
relationships and sex.
The act of forcing (or attempting to force) another
individual through violence, threats, verbal insistence,
deception,
cultural
expectations
or
economic
circumstances to engage in sexual behaviour against
her/his will... it includes a wide range of behaviours from
violent forcible rape to more contested areas that require
young women to marry and sexually service men not of
their choosing” (Heise et al., 1995).
Forced sex can be perpetrated by an intimate partner,
relative, friend, acquaintance, or stranger.
Coercive control
Coercive control is characterised by, firstly, behaviours
intended to manipulate another and can be manifested in
several ways e.g. an attack directed against another
person’s self-confidence or self-esteem (constant
criticism, ridicule, accusations of infidelity or humiliation in
44 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
public or in front of the children. Secondly, intimidation as
a dimension of coercive control refers to behaviours
intended to instil fear: subtle, but threatening “looks” or
change in tone of voice, or more severe acts like
swearing, screaming, or throwing things. Finally, coercive
control was characterised by making unreasonable
demands from another person due to self-entitlement to
the spouse or the partner.
Intimate partner terrorism
Participants defined intimate partner terrorism as a
manipulative, purposeful violence used as a tool of power
and control, and is usually perpetuated by one member of
the couple against the other. Descriptors include,
amongst others, hurtful spice- like words, amputation of
body parts, stabbing female sexual organs with a knife,
using spouses like beast of burdens, examination of
sexual organs to check for infidelity and evidence of
sexual contact. Women also have several culturally
based desires to love, have stable relationships, endure
marriage or intimate relationship, with the expectation of
love and being loved. Socio- cultural barriers induce
women stay in abusive intergenerational relationships
hoping that the quality of the relationship would
eventually get better. Within Africa, the call for tolerance
in women- men relationships is higher for girls and
women than it is for boys and men.
In addition to intergenerational sex, participants
articulated major setbacks in sex as a factor in HIV and
AIDS transmission, and ultimately, murder as the highest
form of sexual abuse as it entails termination of one’s life.
What is evident is that intergenerational sex with
minorities is usually accompanied by sexual violence
which differs from person to person.
Participants affirmed that intergenerational sex
predisposes younger women, and to a lesser extent,
younger men, to HIV/AIDS, even in marriage. Gender
issues are based on skewed balance of power and
inequality that predispose people to HIV and AIDS which
are relational and disproportionately affect the behavior of
women and men, girls and boys.
Understanding intergenerational sex
During the abovementioned workshop series, participants
were asked to define their meaning of intergenerational
sex. After a lot of debate, participants articulated that the
age difference should not be too disparate, and that a
woman must not be older than a man. Rather, a man
must be older. After a lot of debate, it was not clear
exactly what the cut- off mathematical point should be. It
was however clear that:
Age difference, though not cut in stone, was thus
an important factor to consider in the definition of
intergenerational sex and it was more tolerable if the
man was older, not the woman.
If there is an age difference, it should not be too
big. For instance, a woman must not be old enough to be
a mother of a man who is her intimate sexual partner.
In the case of a man, the women argued that girls
must not have intimate relationships with men old enough
to be their fathers.
Intergenerational sex was also mentioned as a
common manipulation of children and people living with
disabilities of a mental and physical nature.
Participants were asked to state what age difference
would be acceptable between a man and a woman for
intimate relationships. It became apparent that the age
difference of more than five to ten years in cases where
the woman was older was not acceptable, especially that
women, if older, can be very “bully” in marriage and
intimate relationships.
Understanding the Interface between Gender, HIV
and AIDS
Workshop participants in the two urban areas of
Gaborone and Lobatse had a much more understanding
of gender Issues, HIV and AIDS than participants in the
relatively rural areas of Tsabong and Serowe. Facilitators
encouraged all participants to have a balanced
understanding of gender issues in reference to both men
and women in relation to their role in the demographic
processes and the spread of the HIV and AIDS.
Major setbacks in sex as a factor in HIV/AIDS
transmission
a)
Men in prison are not having sex and so they are
regarded as safe partners after release.
b)
Wealthy men are HIV- and poor women are
HIV+.
c)
Women go into relationships for money and
survival. Very little or almost nothing is said about
reasons why men go into relationships.
d)
Men have all the power because they are the
ones who have more feelings for sex than women.
e)
It is socially accepted and preferred that men
have to be older than women in all relationships. The
reason given is that due to their reproductive roles,
women age faster than then so men should get younger
women.
f)
Men are by birth right and socially heads of
families, regardless of their actual contribution to family
life, and therefore need not be abused by their wives or
intimate partners.
g)
In cases of fights and unreasonable behaviour,
women lack physical strength to face men when violence
erupts. Women are usually full of exuberance.
h)
Women are usually expected to tolerate uncouth
Raditloaneng and Molosi 45
behaviour of their spouses especially in marriage.
Women are more blamed in cases of the spread of
divorce, HIV and AIDS than men. Women are also
portrayed as key actors in commercial sex work while
men remain invisible yet they are women’s customers in
the business. Without their male customers, women who
are in commercial sex work would go out of business.
As described in the text above, there are cross cutting
indicators of love of materialism as a factor in
predisposition to HIV and AIDS. The love and desire for
unprotected sex to buy expensive pleasurable social life
in the city, alcohol, expensive cars, housing, and cash for
purchasing power, cell-phones, and wall what is humanly
possible to earn or obtain through materialism were cross
cutting factors discussed during the four workshops as
factors that predisposed adolescents to HIV and AIDS.
globalisation, the cash economy permeated every aspect
of urban and rural areas in Botswana. The love of
materialism is a result of the impact of the cash economy.
Adolescents in all the four workshop areas were said to
find themselves in an environment in which people’s
power is rated by city lifestyles, the strength of their
material possessions typified in expensive cars, cash to
purchase alcohol, going to the movies and other social
functions, illegal drug deals for money and cell phones for
on the spot communication. Adolescents do various
forms of commercial sex work in return for cars, cash, city
life and cell phones with airtime as needed.
The impact of poverty on materialism
Illiteracy and educational disadvantage are factors often
identified with poverty. Lack of basic education and
training, lack of basic information on fats about HIV and
AIDS, lack of information in general, dysfunctional
characteristics such as alcohol and drug abuse, and
general ignorance impair adolescents’ judgement on the
linkage between unprotected sex, contamination during
care-giving to an AIDS infected and predisposition to HIV
and AIDS. As a result, adolescents engage in day to day
behaviours that predispose them to the deadly HIV.
Poverty is defined as lack of means of survival,
capabilities and participation is a very important factor in
understanding the link to material possessions. In
addition to lack of materialism, human poverty is
interpreted according to Sen’s (1999) concept of
‘capabilities’ and ‘freedoms’ for people to choose the lives
they have reason to value. The theme of this paper is
that poverty is typified in lack of material possessions,
inadequate access to clothing, food, shelter, education,
medical attention as needed, is a factor in adolescents
striving for survival through every means, even selling
themselves sexually for cash and other favors to access
material wealth. These include promotions, social status,
access to decent education and training, accepting
bribes, socialisation to expect marriage to a wealthy
partner, and business transactions to give adolescents an
opportunity to earn or obtain a source of livelihood,
freedom to choose, status and ability to have high self
esteem. The search for survival, freedom, capabilities
and participation in civic life may be through ways that
predispose adolescents to unprotected sex with partners
whose HIV status is unknown, and risky. Although
poverty is more rampant in the rural areas of Serowe and
Tsabong than in the urban areas of Lobatse and
Gaborone, overall the impact of poverty in varying
amounts amongst adolescents was deliberated as an
important factor in the search for materialism. With
poverty, adolescents are able to persist and sty in
abusive relationships for real or expected survival
handouts from their intimate partners.
The search for materialism: Cars, cash, city life and
cell phones
During the pre- independence era, agriculture was the
backbone of Botswana’s economy. With the post
independence and impact of wage employment and
Covariates of Materialism
The impact of illiteracy
The desire for sex, love and belonging
According to workshop participants, the older people
grow, the more they related more with their peers than
their parents. Peer pressure is very important for
adolescents as they spend a lot of time away from their
parents and adapt to lifestyles such as casual and
intergenerational sex, that make them fit better within
their circle of peers. There is stigma and discrimination of
adolescents who do not behave the way the majority of
their peers would like them to. This poses a problem if
the circle of peers and friends are indispensable to the
lives of adolescents.
One participant lamented:
“Bana ba rona ba dira dilo koo. Ba ralala megare le borre
ba batona ba ba sa bolong go e ralala, rona re seyo.”
Translated as; In our absence, our children meet others
and do their own thing. They have sex with men who
have lived longer and have the deadly HIV.” (Lobatse
workshop comments and discussion session, 27th
February 2008).
Adolescents do not establish a dialogue with their
partners to know their HIV status because of fear of
losing them. There is also a fear of rejection and some
may want to hide their already HIV positive status from
the partners they would like to have. The desire for sex,
46 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
love and belonging is also motivated by materialism.
Gender inequality
Gender inequality typified in skewed employment
opportunities, lack of education of the girl child, rape,
incest, defilement, early marriage and early sex, teenage
pregnancy and inability of girls and to a lesser extent
boys, are factors that disproportionately affect adolescent
girls and boys in predisposition to HIV and AIDS. In the
urban areas of Gaborone and Lobatse, it was observed
that in-migration in search of employment, “sugar daddies
and sugar mummies” where men and women dated
relatively younger partners for survival was common
amongst adolescents. During the four workshops,
adolescent girls in particular were observed to love cash,
cars, city life and cell phones more than boys, hence they
went for intergenerational relationships to finance the
“four Cs”. However, such relationships were sociohistorically more tolerated if the man was the older
partner than the woman.
Misuse of Human Rights
With the impact of Human Rights organisations such as
Child line, adolescents have continued to fight against
parental guidance and modelling to claim freedom to live
the way they want, even in cases where they are still
under the custody of their parents and legal guardians.
This makes it difficult for parents to guide adolescents. In
some cases parents loose it all by failing to model good
behaviour, and they in turn do not receive any respect
from adolescents who mimic their behaviour and contact
the deadly HIV.
CONCLUSIONS
HIV and AIDS negatively affect adolescents. Participants
had a common understanding of age as a factor in the
definition of intergenerational sex. A major outcome of
the four workshops was the formation of a number of
‘training groups’ with plans for delivery of training to
specific target groups. Furthermore, participants identified
that there are global issues to redress for combating the
effects of sex as a factor in HIV and AIDS transmission.
Amongst these are gender inequality, gender–based
violence, gender and high risk sexual behaviours
including intergenerational sex, age and gender based
sexual harassment, and the need for gender, HIV and
AIDS mainstreaming as factors in HIV and AIDS
prevention, transmission and management.
There was a recommendation that in future it would be
important to include gender and sexual behaviour topics
to illuminate female to female and male to male sexual
orientation.
Gender is misconstrued to be about women, yet it
includes men as well. The name “Women’s Affairs
Department” may be a factor in the confusion of the
Department’s mandate. Regular training inclusive of
women, men, girls and boys is crucial to illuminate that
gender issues must be part of everybody’s business.
There is also a need to target education for men and
young boys to express feelings in words, and not in
violence.
Materialism is an important factor to understand in the
search for survival to firstly meet the physiological needs
of food, clothing, shelter, media attention and education,
and secondly proceed to meet aspects of life beyond the
basics of survival.
Gender inequality is a factor in ensuring unequal rates
of HIV and AIDS infection of adolescent men and women
in various parts of Botswana. The need to address
gender inequality as one of the key factors in the
distribution of HIV and AIDS is overdue.
Intergenerational sex and materialism are crucial
factors in HIV/AIDS which are conceived to stigmatize the
already disadvantaged women and promote male
supremacy.
RECOMMENDATION
Workshops on gender, HIV and AIDS must not be based
on the assumption that all people are heterosexual.
There was recognition that there was a gay population
that had not gone public about their sexual orientation
due to legal objections to legalise homosexuality.
However, to give them special attention was not within
the scope of the four training workshops.
Mainstreaming gender as mass action in Adult and
Higher educational formal and non- formal institutions is
overdue to save the lives of the most vulnerable and
sexually active teenagers and adolescents.
Implications for adult higher education
This paper poses several implications for the role of
adult higher education.
A lot of strides have been made in getting adolescents to
have basic knowledge about the dangers of unsafe sex,
including intergenerational sex fuelled by the desire for
materialism. Behavioural change remains a very big
challenge for diverse children and adults in and out of
school.
There is a need for a paradigm shift in Adult and Adult
Higher Education to focus more on empowerment
strategies for the teenagers and adolescents to perceive
unsafe sex as toxic and not worth their lives especially
given the HIV and AIDS pandemic which has no cure. As
Botswana as a nation begins processing the results of
the 2012 Botswana AIDS impact survey in 2014, there
Raditloaneng and Molosi 47
will be more additional information to share on threats to
global peace in relation to the area of gender and
development.
Botswana and stop depending on expatriates for
administrative and other jobs where there is a lot of idle
qualified personnel.
Mainstream gender, HIV and AIDS within in and out of
school curriculum
Align training to the needs of Botswana’s economy
Mainstreaming gender in higher education has already
been proposed, but not yet implemented on a nation-wide
scale (Chilisa, 2008). Adolescents are found out of
school and in higher education institutions. Out of school
adolescents are reachable through the National Literacy
Program, and sensitisation work of HIV/AIDS NGOs.
Structurally transform socio- cultural programmes and
practices disempowering adolescents
Unemployment is very common amongst out of school
youth, graduates and adolescents in general. A lot of idle
able bodied men and women cannot be absorbed within
the narrow economic base. It would be important to
deliberately take affirmative action to engage adolescents
to work with already qualified local experts who know
what needs to be done in every field, than always have
adverts looking for experts with “at least 5- 10 years post
qualification experience”.
Changes in the employment structure
As a nation, Botswana cannot indefinitely recruit
expatriates, ignore unqualified adolescents and expect
them to engage in behavioural changes that curb the
spread of HIV and AIDS. Idle adolescents can only be a
nuisance through survival methodologies that are not
conducive for behavioural change.
Enforce retirement age
Without discounting the value of wisdom of retired
Batswana, there is a need for turning the mirror inwards
to create more and better incentives for adolescents who
are still striving for survival. Within the civil service, which
the main source of employment, there must be a
widening of opportunities for formal employment instead
of recycling retired personnel over 60 years and blocking
opportunities of adolescents to take up offices of
responsibility. Retirees can be better utilised by serving in
advisory capacity to groom adolescents to take over
Part of the reason adolescents remain idle and engage in
behaviours that are un-conducive for curbing the spread
of HIV and AIDS is that the unemployment rate is very
high amongst them. Programmes that are already
oversubscribed in tertiary institutions must be offered on
a very small scale as a contingency measure. More
concentration must be on programmes where there is an
acute shortage of personnel.
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How to cite this article: Raditloaneng W.N. and Molosi K.
(2014). A gendered view of intergenerational sex, and
materialism in predisposition to HIV/AIDS: - implications for
Adult Higher Education in Botswana. J. Res. Peace Gend.
Dev. 4(3):38-47