Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036) Vol. 1(5) pp. 166-172, June 2011
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/JRPGD
Copyright © 2011 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Empowering Teachers for Leadership in Conflict
Transformation and Peace Building in Kenya
Judah Mualuko Ndiku, Judith Achoka, Kennedy Onkware
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology P.O. Box 190 – 50100, Kakamega, Kenya.
Accepted 17 June 2011
Violent conflicts have been on the increase in Kenya. However, despite the occurrence of violent
conflicts, the Government of Kenya is committed to ensure that human societies move from violent
and destructive patterns of life toward the potential for creative, constructive and non-violent
capacities. This means replacing patterns of violence and coercion with respect, creative problemsolving, increased dialogue, and non-violent mechanisms of social change. To accomplish these
aspects, a complex web of change processes under-girded by a transformational understanding of
life and relationship is needed. Hence, a conflict transformation process which can be achieved
through several processes, among them: capacity building for peace educators, curriculum
developers, and trainers is imperative. This study investigated the skills, capacities and strategies
required by teachers to effectively participate in violent conflict transformation in Kenya. The study
adopted a descriptive design. Teachers and Education officers in Mt. Elgon District were the
respondents. It was found out that for teachers to effectively participate in conflict transformation
there is need to train them in relevant skills such as peace education, counseling among others. It
was concluded and recommended that there was need to train teachers and support them to
effectively participate in conflict transformation through peace education and other processes.
Key words: Conflict transformation, peace building, teacher empowerment, training
INTRODUCTION
Conflict is part of human societies. Though not all conflict
is negative, when conflict breeds violence, it brings in
negative aspects especially the suffering which goes with
violent conflict like; deaths, destruction of property,
displacements, trauma among others. That is why violent
conflict should be avoided in society where possible.
However, when violent conflict erupts, societies have to
look for ways to overcome the situation. In view of the
need to help societies come out of violent conflict, this
study was carried out to generate information that would
form the basis of strengthening the existing conflict
transformation and peace building processes in Kenya.
In Kenya, violent conflicts have been experienced
since the pre-colonial days (Okoth, 2010; Republic of
*Corresponding Author E-mail: ndikuyuda@yahoo.com
Kenya, 2006). The conflicts in Kenya range from internal
disputes between groups and cross border confrontations
with groups of people from the neighbouring countries
such as Uganda, Ethiopia and Sudan. The root causes of
the conflicts are varied and complex and can be
attributed to a number of factors which include: colonial
legacy, poverty, competition for resources, inadequate
governance structures and institutions, ethnicity, skewed
development strategy and politics of exclusion (Mwaniki
et al., 2007; Republic of Kenya, 2006).
Where violent conflicts have been experienced in
Kenya, inhabitants’ lives and livelihoods have been
disrupted as well as their economic lives, while their basic
services such as health and education are reduced
(Lwaminda, 2009). Some of the effects of violent conflict
include: loss of life, physical injury, and psychological
trauma. Such effects negatively hinge on the psyche of
the inhabitants, hindering their social and economic
progress.
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
Ndiku et al. 167
According to Kamungi (2001), most conflicts in Kenya
take place in the Rift Valley and the North Eastern region.
Whereas the violent conflicts which manifest themselves
as ethnic clashes appear to be politically motivated,
economic factors are mostly the prime moving factors
(Mwaniki et al., 2007). In the northern part of Kenya, for
example, inter communal violence over natural resources, mainly land and water, have been escalating.
Sometimes such violence has involved societies living
across the Kenyan borders especially, for example:
Uganda, Ethiopia and Somalia. Importantly, it has been
noted that, such violent conflicts, have been enhanced by
the proliferation of small arms and light weapons;
inadequate security to deter cross border armed
incursions; high poverty levels; drug abuse; and,
unemployment among other critical causes (Mwaniki et
al., 2007; Republic of Kenya, 2006).
In the recent past, a serious incursion of violent
conflict occurred in the Mount Elgon District of Kenya and
for a period of about two years, from 2006 to 2008, the
district was under siege of local militia gangs until the
government intervened and ceasefire achieved.
Despite the occurrence of violent conflicts in society
and in Mt. Elgon in particular, the Government of Kenya
is committed to management of violent conflict and
promotion of peace nationwide (Republic of Kenya,
2007). To achieve this, several strategies have been
proposed; among them is the idea of inculcating a culture
of respect of sanctity of human life and restraining from
use of violence as an instrument of resolving personal
and community disputes. This means replacing patterns
of violence and coercion with respect, creative problemsolving, increased dialogue, and non-violent mechanisms
of social change (Republic of Kenya, 2007; Republic of
Kenya, 2006). Thus a conflict transformation process
which can be achieved through several processes,
among them: capacity building for peace educators,
curriculum developers, trainers and learners (Otieno and
Mwakio, 2009) is imperative. This situation comes at a
time when it has been noted that less emphasis has been
placed on the role attached to education towards conflict
transformation and peace building (Seitz, 2004).
It is important to note that, the school which houses
the formal structures of schooling forms an important
institution where instruction is carried out. The school is
also the centre of imparting attitudes, values and
behaviour among the learners. The training is achieved
through curriculum implementation which is carried out in
a three tier framework: formal, informal and non–formal
within the school. The importance of the teacher in this
process is thus indispensable. For instance, the teacher
has the onus to play a crucial role in the curriculum
implementation processes that lead to change in attitudes
and behaviour of the learners who in turn affect the
communities and societies at large.
Statement of the Problem
Following the violent conflict experienced in Mt. Elgon
District in Kenya, peoples’ lives were affected
(Wakhungu, Nyikuri and Huggins, 2008). Thereafter, the
circumstances that emerged called for creativity,
adaptability and placing a high value on the needs and
capacities of the people to manage violent conflicts and
transform societies into peaceful co-existence.
One of the pillars of enhancing conflict transformation
is education. For this reason, teachers and trainers are
central in successful implementation of conflict
transformation programs in society and in schools. Not
surprisingly, it is noted that, more than during peaceful
times, education in times of violent conflict and thereafter
is too critical to be ignored among the people and
countries affected (World Bank, 2002). While the
appropriate school curricula, materials, equipment,
supplies and buildings may not be readily available, if
teachers are present and able to positively respond by
educating the learners in the right direction and
alleviating the pangs of pain and sorrow borne out of
violent conflict, such strategies can enhance the healing
processes and safeguard affected communities from
further and future conflicts, violence and war. This is
because, teachers have education, time and space, as
well as the learners with whom they frequently interact
and also, they are influential persons in their respective
communities.
However, in Kenya, teaching and training for peace
have been found wanting (Achoka, 2009; Marete, 2008;
Marete and Ngare, 2008; Simotwo, 2008). Further,
Okanga (2009) observes that teachers, who by virtue of
their education and experiences are agents of change in
ensuring a culture of peace among the communities
especially those that are prone to conflict and violence in
Kenya, do not seem to be proactive.
In so far as Kenya appears to be susceptible to violent
conflicts, there was therefore, need to study some of the
various
aspects that surround teachers in
such
circumstances with a view to suggest useful paradigms to
alleviate negative forces and boost teachers’ attention to
advocacy for peace at the expense of violent conflict.
Specifically the new knowledge, skills and attitudes that
teachers require to manage conflict transformation and
peace building were researched.
Conceptual Framework
To institute a strategy to transform violent conflict through
the teachers, this study adopted a Conflict
Transformation Framework proposed by Lederach and
Maiese (2003). This framework has three components.
Each component represents a point of inquiry in the
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
168 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Figure 1 Conflict Transformation Framework
Source: Lederach and Maiese (2003)
development of a response to conflict. The components
are: the presenting situation, the horizon of preferred
future, and the development of change process linking
the two. In the opinion of this argument the presenting
case/situation of the violent conflict in Mt. Elgon, the
movement from violent conflict and the effects of the
same towards the desired future is not a straight line, but
rather a set of dynamic initiatives by several actors.
Teachers may be part of the many actors where through
teaching, training and participating in professional
activities they can set in motion, change processes and
create a sustained platform to pursue long-term change.
Such a framework emphasizes the challenge of how to
end something not desired and how to build something
that is desired.
The Horizon of the Future
The second point of inquiry (Figure 1) is the horizon of
the future. This is the image of what conflict
transformation wishes to create. It requires consideration
be made about what ideally should be in place.
Vayrynen (1991) considers transformation of the
following: actors; where changes in parties, or the
appearance of new parties is considered; altering the
agenda of conflict; rules where changes in the norms or
rules governing a conflict takes place and structural
transformations where the entire structure of relationships
and power distribution in the conflict is transformed. In
the same argument Lederach (1997) sees peace building
as a long-term transformation of a war system into a
peace system, inspired by a quest for the values of peace
and justice, truth and mercy. The key dimensions of this
process are changes in the personal, structural, relational
and cultural aspects of conflict, brought about over
different time-periods (short- mid- and long-term) and
affecting different system levels at different times. This
study considered transforming the personal, structural,
relational and cultural aspects in Mt. Elgon region to bring
about lasting peace. Where the role of various actors is
crucial, the role of the teachers was the point of reference
in this study. However, creating the change is not linear,
in which there is movement from the present situation
(violent conflict and its effects) to the desired future
(Lederach and Maiese, 2003). While the presenting
issues act as an impetus toward change, the horizon of
the future points toward possibilities of what could be
constructed and built. It represents a social energy that
informs and creates orientation. The arrows (figure 1)
suggest that conflict transformation is a process structure
and it is cyclic in nature (Miall, 2004; Lederach and
Maiese, 2003).
The Development of Change Processes
This is the final major inquiry is the design and support of
change processes. This component requires that actors
think about response to conflict as the development of
change processes that attend to the web of
interconnected needs, relationships, and patterns.
Because the change processes should address both the
immediate problems and the broader relational and
structural patterns, the need to reflect on multiple levels
and types of change rather than focusing on a single
operational solution is paramount. Change processes
must not only promote short-term solutions, but also build
platforms capable of promoting long-term social change
(Lederach and Maiese, 2003). Among other methods,
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
Ndiku et al. 169
Table .1 Frequencies and Percentages of Strategies required enabling teachers to Effectively Participate in Conflict
Transformation
Item/responses
To enhance peace;
1.
School curriculum should introduce
peace education lessons
2.
Schools in Mt. Elgon should design
school based activities to promote peace
3.
There is need for support and
guidance through quality assurance services
4.
There is need for training in new
methods of teaching affected children
5.
There is need for training in
handling affected parents
6.
There is need for enhanced skills in
counseling
7.
There is need for skills to
implement peace education curriculum
8.
There is need for new skills in
conflict resolution and peace mediation
SD
D
U
A
SA
4(2.2)
3(1.6)
12(6.6)
66(36.3)
97(53.3)
8(4.4)
67(36.8)
103(56.6)
7(3.8)
54(29.7)
111(61.0)
6(3.3)
52(28.6)
122(67.0)
2(1.1)
2(1.1)
3(1.6)
7(3.8)
1(.5)
1(.5)
12(6.6)
8(4.4)
8(4.4)
49(26.9)
105(57.7)
11(6.0)
4(2.2)
10(5.5)
64(35.2)
93(51.1)
2(1.1)
2(1.1)
7(3.8)
67(36.8)
104(57.1)
0(0)
4(2.2)
49(26.9)
1(.5)
128(70.3)
Figures in brackets ( ) are percentages
training and facilitating the future generations to avoid
violence and conflict is key hence the role of teachers in
this process. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between
the three components of the conflict transformation
framework.
Taken as a whole, this framework provides a lens that
enables people to envision the possibilities of immediate
response and long-term constructive change. It requires a
capacity to see through and beyond the present issues to
the deeper patterns, while at the same time seeking
creative responses that address real-life issues in real
time. The defining characteristic of the conflict
transformation platform is the capacity to generate and
re-generate change processes responsive to both
immediate episodes and the relational context. It is in this
way that an adaptive process-structure, one that can
produce creative solutions to a variety of problems is
created (Lederach and Maiese, 2003).
Objective
The main objective of the study was to determine the
strategies required to empower teachers participate
effectively in conflict transformation and peace building.
began in December 2006 between the Soy and Mosop
sub-ethnicities of the Sabaot ethnic group over
allegations of unfair land allocation. A Sabaot Land
Defense Force was formed, which led to a number of
killings in the region. As of late 2007, over 300 people
had died in the conflict, while over 60,000 people were
displaced from their homes (Wakhungu et.al, 2008). One
hundred and eighty (182) primary and secondary school
teachers and 8 education officers participated in the
study. A Questionnaire was used to collect data. The
questionnaire had closed and open ended items. The
close ended section of the questionnaire used a Likert
scale model (Bordens and Abbott, 2005) of a rating scale.
The scale had items ranging from Strongly Disagree
(SD), Disagree (D), Undecided (U), Agree (A) and
Strongly Agree(SA) and scored as follows; Strongly
Disagree (SD)-1 Disagree (D)-2, Undecided (U)-3, Agree
(A) -4 and Strongly Agree(SA)-5. Open spaces were
provided for the respondents to comment freely on any
other issues related to the study which were not covered
in the closed ended section. Such open ended
responses, enabled the respondents to express their
opinions freely in order to provide in-depth information
(Mouton and Prozesky, 2010). Data were analyzed
qualitatively and quantitatively to make deductions,
interpretations,
conclusions
and
possible
recommendations.
METHODOLOGY
This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design.
Cross sectional studies address themselves to some
phenomenon by taking a cross section of it at one time,
analyzing it carefully and making conclusions and
observations at a time (Bordens and Abbott, 2005). The
study was conducted in Mt. Elgon District. Mt. Elgon
district was purposively selected because of the
experiences of violent conflict where a violent conflict
RESULTS
Table 1 above presents frequencies and percentages of
the teachers’ responses to the items provided in the close
ended questionnaire.
To enhance peace through education, 53.3% teachers
strongly agreed that the school curriculum should
introduce peace education lessons while 36.3% agreed.
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
170 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
The teachers who disagreed and or strongly disagreed
were the minority. These were 1.6% and 2.2%
respectively. On the need for schools in Mt. Elgon to
design school based activities to promote peace, majority
of the teachers strongly agreed and or agreed with the
statement as presented in table 1 where 56.6% strongly
agreed with 36.8% agreeing.
The same was the trend in all the other items of the;
need for support and guidance through quality assurance
services by education officers; need for training in new
methods of teaching affected children; need for training in
handling affected parents; need for enhanced skills in
counseling; need for skills to implement peace education
curriculum; need for new skills in conflict resolution and
peace mediation.
In the open sections of the questionnaire, some
teachers commented on how teachers could be
empowered to participate in conflict transformation and
peace building. Though not all teacher commented, the
few who commented expressed passionately the need to
be accorded recognition and respect by society to
effectively serve in conflict transformation in Mt. Elgon
District. One teacher said:
Teachers need to be respected by all in society if
they are to handle community affairs such as
handling the concerns of the violence and conflict in
Mt. Elgon District. Teachers were intimidated during
the conflict and this made teachers to be scared,
demoralized and de-motivated to perform their
duties.
Another teacher commented,
Teachers cannot participate in changing the situation
in Mt. Elgon District if they are looked down upon
and harassed by the SLDF and other persons in
society. Teachers were forced to participate in the
conflict by paying taxes to support the SLDF… this
has to change if teachers are to be given the
confidence to address pubic issues.
Teachers in some schools required to be supported with
more teaching and learning materials as expressed in the
following statement:
To teach effectively in Mt. Elgon district, schools
need more teaching and learning materials
especially in schools whose population went up
when they housed the victims of the violent conflict.
Another teacher showed concern that there was need for
improved working environment in classes when he stated
that:
Some classes are so crowded to maintain harmony
while teaching. This denies teachers an opportunity
to give quality education to the pupils. There is need
to expand the instructional facilities in schools to
enable teachers work with ease and comfort.”
The above findings from the teachers on the support they
required to actively participate in conflict transformation
were complemented by the education officers in their
responses to the interviews. they recommended
introduction of peace education lessons and teaching of
skills to handle children affected by the violent conflict.
The officers also observed that there was need to create
peaceful teaching environments.
For instance, one of the officers stated as follows:
I recommended rebuilding of the vandalized schools
to ensure enough teaching and learning space in all
school.
This would enhance the creation of
condusive working environments for teachers and
learners. This can be done through concerted efforts
of the communities the Ministry of Education, NGOs
and the Constituency Development funds.
Another education officer recommended training
programmes for teachers, learners and the community to
promote safety and security;
“Teachers and other education personnel should be
provided with skills in handling injured persons,
prevention of escalation of war and effects of
conflict. Also, there is need for training on how to
give psychological support and promote learners’
emotional well-being.”
Another education officer observed that teacher
empowerment through training was the only way to
change the society in Mt. Elgon. He said,
“… to make strides in peace building and
development, teachers should be empowered to
advocate for peace in and out of school… because
teachers are opinion leaders and shapers in society
in their own right and they form a critical mass of
agents of change in society.”
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study that there was need for
increased support and training to teachers in conflict
transformation affirms the arguments by Nicolai (2003)
and UNESCO (2006) that the need to support and train
teachers to participate in conflict transformation and
peace building are important. According to Nicolai (2003)
and Ndiku (2007) teachers are the single most important
shapers of student learning and provision of quality
education, therefore, well trained teachers should be
availed in crisis and emergencies. This is because
emergencies like violent conflict not only have many
negative effects in society; they place new and different
demands on children, their communities and education
systems as a whole. Thus, training and support can help
teachers respond to these pressures; cope with
increased duties and responsibilities.
From the comments given by teachers, it was
observed that teachers in Mt. Elgon District may have felt
the impact of the violent conflict as they were intimidated
by the militia, forced to support them financially and
morally. The need to support them through the education
offices and other educational stakeholders to adjust to
their work and where possible perform additional duties in
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
Ndiku et al. 171
dealing with different students, parents, colleagues and
communities who were coming out of the conflict is
crucial. Some teachers may have needed additional time
and space to be with their families, repair their homes, or
deal with changes in their lives. Such situations needed
understanding support and encouragement. The support
can be offered by the school administrators and
educational supervisors such as the education officers
and the Quality Assurance officers.
The teachers and the education officers requested for
increased staffing in schools. This was a sure
confirmation that there was shortage of staff in schools in
the area occasioned by the violent conflict. This situation
may have been brought about by the effects of the violent
conflict on teachers where some were transferred owing
to the pressure from the violent conflict. Worst affected
were the teachers from other ethnic groups in Kenya.
Increased staffing may lead to improved provision of the
education services as teachers may not be overwhelmed
by crowded classes, heavy workloads and lack of
provision of individualized attention to learners.
The findings on the need for training as a strategy for
enhanced teacher participation in conflict transformation
and peace building affirms the fact that there is need for
teachers to get new skills to help the students, parents
and community members affected by the violent conflict
to cope with the crisis, promote new effective ways of
teaching and learning, increase awareness of the impact
of the violence on children and the communities and
promote peace and facilitate restoration by developing
peace skills such as; negotiation, building confidence and
morale among teachers, students and community
members. The training for the practicing teachers can be
done through short courses and the in-service mode of
training. Thus, expanding teaching skills beyond
traditional methods gives opportunities for new and old
teachers alike to gain fresh knowledge, strengthen skills,
and practice new teaching methods (Nicolai, 2003). The
demand for training teachers in new skills calls for
teacher trainers to adjust their teacher education curricula
to accommodate emerging issues like conflicts, disasters
and other emergencies. The implication of this argument
is that the question of teacher education and training is a
long life affair and thus there is need for training of
trainers in emerging issues in society.
The need for teacher support from the Quality
Assurance officers and school administrators stated in
the findings was crucial. This is because emergency
situations call for new methods of instruction especially to
students affected by the hard conditions. Teachers who
are not familiar with new methods of handling affected
children require training and follow-on support from
education officers in order to implement the new methods
successfully (UNESCO, 2006). New subjects or topics
such as peace education may be added to the
curriculum. Methods for measuring teachers’ impact and
providing in-school support with regard to the new topics
needed to be developed hence the need for support by
education officers such as Quality Assurance officers in
this respect.
Other circumstances which call for support by
education officers and school administrators included the
fact that some children may have been out of school for a
long time. Other children may have suffered from hunger
and emotional needs caused by trauma. Other difficulties
which teachers may face after a violent conflict like the
Mt. Elgon violent conflict are large classes which may
make it difficult for them to do their job and for students to
learn. There may also be scarcity of teaching and
learning materials. The situation in Mt. Elgon District
presented such difficulties. Therefore, when teachers and
education officers argue that there were added duties
which may call for additional support to teachers to
effectively participate in conflict transformation was very
valid in this study.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Violent conflict affects communities negatively, and
though teachers may be familiar with their jobs, they may
need additional support to cope with the changes thereof.
Related to this therefore, it was concluded that even
those teachers with previous teaching experience, need
training on new topics to be taught in conflict situations
and to handle affected children, parents and colleagues.
Teachers also require professional support especially
from the education officers to effectively participate in
conflict transformation. Such support may include quality
assurance services and management support.
Violent conflict and emergency situation are posing
new challenges in society and in Kenya in particular, in
the recent past. Teacher education curriculum should be
adjusted to accommodate the emerging issues of conflict,
violence, disaster management, safety standards in
schools among other emerging issues. The practicing
teachers should be exposed and trained in the same
issues through other modes of training like in-service
training, conferences and workshops. The government
and other agencies like teacher unions and associations
should take this challenge to sensitize teachers on the
best possible way to handle the emerging issues.
REFERENCES
Achoka JSK (2009). Peace Pre-Requisite for African Development:
Study of Peace education curriculum in secondary
Education, Kenya. Kenya Journal of Education Planning Economics and
Management. 1: 75-81.
Boudens KS, Abbott BB (2005). Research Design and methods (6th ed
). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
Kamungi PM (2001). ‘The current situation of internally displaced
persons in Kenya’. Jesuit refugee services Report.
Kothari CR (2008). Research Methodology and Techniques 2nd edition
reprint. New Delhi New AgeInternational Publishers.
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)
172 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Lwaminda P (2009). “How has the “Ecllesia in Africa” made a difference
in AMECEA Region with Respect to Reconciliation, Justice and
Peace.” Afri. Ecclesial Review. 51(3): p216-241
Marete G (2008). “Peace Studies to be taught in high school”. Daily
Nation 25th June. Nairobi: Nation Media Group.
Marete G, Ngare P (2008). “Karua roots for peace lessons to avert
strife”. Daily Nation 25th June. Nairobi: Nation Media Group.
Mouton EBJ, Prozesky PVB (2010). The Practice of Social
Research.Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Mwaniki TW, Mbuchi PM, Leleruk M, Mwei F (2007). Peace building and
Conflict Management. Joint Case Study of North Rift Region of
Kenya. Nairobi. Paulines Publications Africa.
Ndiku JM (2007). The issue of poverty in the provision o quality of
education in Kenyan Secondary schools. Educational Research and
Reviews 2(7):157-164 http://www.academijournals.org/ERR
Nicolai S (2003). Education in emergencies. A toolkit for staring and
managing education in emergencies. London: Save the children.
Okanga D (2009). “Professionals asked to back culture change.” The
Standard 29th September. Nairobi: Standard Group.
Okoth PG (2010). Kenya and the Contemporary World order.
Kakamega: MMUST Press.
Otieno S, Mwakio P (2009). “Ministries resolve to make teachers agents
of peace.” The Standard 17th September: Nairobi: Standard Group.
Republic of Kenya (2006). National policy on peace building and conflict
Management Draft I.
Republic of Kenya (2007). Kenya Vision 2030. Nairobi: Ministry of
planning and National Development.
Seitz K (2004). Education and conflict. The role of Education in the
creation, prevention and resolution of societal crises Consequences
for development cooperation. German Technical Cooperation.
Federal Ministry for Economic cooperation and Development,
Germany.
Simotwo M (2008). ‘Time Ripe for Major Changes in Primary Teachers’
Education’. Daily Nation 10th June. Nairobi: Nation Media Group.
UNICEF (2007). UNICEF calls for end to violence against children in Mt.
Elgon District. Nairobi. UNICEF.
UNESCO (2006). Guidebook for planning education in emergencies
and reconstruction. Paris: UNESCO.
Wakhungu J, Nyikuri E, Huggins E (2008). ‘Land Tenure and Violent
Conflict in Kenya in the context of Local, National and Regional
legal and policy framework consultative Conference proceedings
Report’. African Centre For Technology Studies. 6th October. Hilton
Hotel Nairobi.
World Bank (2002). Children, Education and war: Reaching Education
For All objectives in countries affected by conflict. Conflict
Prevention and Reconstruction Working papers, paper No. I
Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036)