Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development (JRPGD) Vol. 4(1) pp. 1-7, February, 2014
DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/jrpgd.2014.001
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/ JRPGD
Copyright © 2014 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Perceptions of Internally Displaced Girls of Being
Illiterate and Poor in an Urban Community: A Case from
Khartoum, Sudan
1
Shadia Abdelrahim M. Daoud and *2Abdel Raouf Suleiman Bello
1
School of Rural Extension Education and Development, Ahfad University for Women, Sudan.
*2College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
*Corresponding author email: raoufbello@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the perceptions of illiterate girls of being illiterate in an urban poor community.
A sample size of 30 illiterate girls was selected by the use of snowball non portability sampling
procedure. A comprehensive interviewing schedule and focused group discussion were used to collect
the necessary primary data. In addition five girls narrated their stories of being illiterate. The study
findings show that all mothers of the respondents are illiterate and most of their fathers are also
illiterate. About 53.3 of the respondents their mothers were the head of the households, and are working
in very low income jobs. About 86.7 of respondents did not have sisters enrolled in education, 60%
contribute to family income through work as domestic servants, tea and/or vegetable sellers. Poverty
was the major barrier that hindered girls’ education. Inferiority and household chores discrimination
between girls and their brothers are expressed by the narrated stories. The study concluded that
barriers to girls’ education are primarily economic and social/cultural. Poverty remains the single major
deterrent to education, and lack of education is a major cause of poverty. The study recommended the
need for effective strategies to close the gender gap in education to focus on poor communities and
address specific obstacles.
Keywords: Perceptions, Illiterate Girls, Poverty and Gender Inequality Displaced People.
INTRODUCTION
Despite the global commitment to achieve gender
equality of girl’s education, millions of girls are still out of
school specifically among poor communities in
developing countries. Although most developing
countries have made considerable progress in reducing
the gender gap in school enrollment, significant gender
gaps remain (Randell, 2009). Gender inequality in
education has generated considerable research.
Numerous studies are being carried on especially in the
developing countries where illiteracy and discrimination
against women are major issues of contemporary
relevance (Klasen et al., 2008). Gender inequalities in
education exist in almost all poor countries and among
the poor within these countries. There has been a
considerable increase in gender inequality in education in
low income countries over the last three decades (World
Bank, 2001). Gender inequality is now considered as an
essential concept for the analysis and alleviation of
poverty because of its adverse impacts on a number of
valuable development goals. Girl's access to education is
influenced by poverty in various ways.
Studies in many developing countries show that girls
are at an educational disadvantage compared to boys.
For example, Worku (2001) has examined gender role
problems in education in Ethiopia and has found that
while girls’ enrolment has increased, the gap is
nevertheless widening due to various social, economic
and cultural factors that hinder participation and
performance of girls.
In Sudan the spread of primary education reduces the
gender gap in education but still some girls from poor
communities are denied access to education. Conflicts
2 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
and displacement increases the number of out of school
girls in urban displaced communities. According to the
UNESCO (2008), Sudan has approximately 2,700,000
young persons out of school, the majority of whom are
female.
Various studies conducted on displacement and
displaced people in Khartoum State indicate that the
displaced people there are totally suffering, because they
live in poor shelters, extreme poverty, and poor health
and lacking the social services (Pantuliano et al., 2011;
Nour, 2010; El Hassan, 2006; Daoud, 2005; Ali, 2002).
The transition from a rural farming and/or herding
background to cash based economy on the city has been
highly stressful for job opportunities. The government and
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are providing
little or no food security for the displaced people. This
situation enforced the displaced women especially the
widowed who headed their households to accept inferior
and low paid jobs in the informal urban sectors like
casual labors, street vending and selling to meet their
basic family needs.
education. Part four explores the perception of girls on
their feeling resulted of lack of education. In part five, five
respondents' narrated stories of being illiterate girls.
Socio economic status of illiterate girl
The age of respondents lies between 15-19 years old.
About 86.7% were single, their mothers are illiterate,
while majority of their fathers are also illiterate. The
families of the respondents were displaced form Darfur
(33.3%), South Kordofan9476.7%) and Blue Nile States
(20%), (the conflicts areas). Most of the interviewee their
mothers are the head of the households and work in very
low income jobs, such as domestic servants, tea and
food sellers. Majority of respondents are belonging to big
family size (90% having more than 5 family members).
About 86.7% having no sisters enrolled in education.
Most of respondents (60%) contribute to family income
through the work as domestic servants, tea and/or
vegetable sellers. It is observed that they are vulnerable
and live in poor shelters.
Barriers to girls’ education:
METHODOLOGY
This study was conducted in May- June, 2013 in Alsalam
Administrative Unit of Umbada Locality, Khartoum State,
Sudan.
Umbada Locality was chosen because it
accommodates the bulk of the displaced persons in
Khartoum. A sample of thirty illiterate girls who had
never enrolled in a school was selected by the use of
snow ball non portability sampling method. Both
secondary and primary data were collected and used in
this study. The former were obtained from the relevant
sources, while the latter were collected by using interview
schedule and three focus group discussions. Narrative
method was also adopted to collect five stories from five
girls who have special stories analyzed their challenges
of being illiterate. Descriptive statistics such as frequency
count and percentages were used to analyze the data
gathered on the socioeconomic characteristics of the
respondents. Content analysis was used to analyze the
qualitative data collected from group discussions as: All
the group discussion transcript was coded, comment of
respondents that simplify points to be discussed was
highlighted, and finally the outline of the report based on
themes was arranged.
RESULTS
This section is divided into five parts. Part one describes
the socio economic status of illiterate girls and their
families. Part two presents the opinion of girls on barriers
hindered them to join the schools. Part three focused on
respondents' opinions and perceptions on the benefit of
Barriers to girls’ education take differential forms across
nations and /or societies depending upon the socioeconomic, religious and cultural contexts. Girls
interviewed (table 1 and 2 below), mentioned different
reasons of being illiterate and out of school. Poverty was
the major barrier that led to other barrier, contribution of
girls to family income (both constitutes 53.3%).
Economic reasons were repeatedly cited by
respondents as the main barrier that hinders them from
being sent to school. Two barriers related to gender in
equality also mentioned by the respondents; namely the
household chores and discrimination between girls and
their brothers. This indicates the awareness of girls of the
relationship between gender in equality and their access
to education. As some of them said:
-Priority is given to boys over girls
-Girls do not get education most often because families
give priority to the boys and therefore send only boys to
schools.
-Girls are expected to do housework.
-Mothers encourage girls to remain home and attend to
the domestic chores.
-The mother cannot do the house work alone
-Our parent did not send us to school because of lack of
financial capability.
-One girl wished to be a boy to have more freedom as
she mentioned.
“If I was a boy that could have settled everything for me. I
would have done everything."
Barriers to girls’ education can take differential forms
Daoud and Bello 3
Table 1. Frequency distribution of the respondents according to their socio economic status
Characteristics
Age
10-14
15-19
Total
Education of the Mother
Illiterate
Literate
Total
Place of origin
-Darfur
- South Kordfan
- Blue Nile
Total
Household occupation(mother)
Domestic servant
Tea sellers
Food sellers
Total
Family size
Less than 5
5-9
10 and above
Total
Respondents contribution to
family income
Yes
No
Total
F
%
17
13
30
56.7
43.3
100
30
0
30
100
0
100
10
14
6
30
33.3
46.7
20
100
7
6
3
16
43.8
37.5
18.7
100
3
17
10
30
10
56.7
33.3
100
18
12
30
60
40
100
Characteristics
Marital Status
Single
Married
Total
Education of the father
Illiterate
Literate
Total
F
%
26
4
30
86.7
13.3
100
20
Head of the household
Father
Mother
Total
14
16
30
46.7
53.3
100
Household occupation (father)
Construction labor
Shoes maker
Tailor
Total
8
3
3
14
57.2
21.4
21.4
100
Sisters enrolled in education
Yes
No
Total
4
26
30
13.3
86.7
100
Respondents work type
Domestic servant
Selling tea and/or vegetable
Total
12
6
16
66.7
33.7
100
Table 2. Frequency distribution of respondents according barriers of education
Barriers
Poverty
Contribute to family income
Household chores
Because I am girl
Total
F
10
6
9
5
30
%
33.3
20
30
16.7
100
across nations/societies depending upon the socioeconomic, religious and cultural contexts. Girls
interviewed mentioned different reasons of being illiterate
and out of the schools. Poverty was the major barrier that
led to other barrier contribution of girls to family income.
This means poverty and girls contributions to family
income are interrelated barriers that hinder girls’
education)
One girl said:
“The educated woman is more useful than the
uneducated woman. She knows more about the
importance of good sanitation and how to prevent
diseases that harm the health of the children. She
also looks after the general sanitation of the house.”
Perceptions on the benefit of education
"Educated girls are very easy to get a job. They will
have good future for their children. Literacy helps to
understand things of life and to solve problems of
daily life"
Role of girls as future mothers was of large consideration
of benefits of their education. Respondents believed that
an educated girl would help her family with health
matters.
Other girls mentioned:
4 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
One of girls
commented:
who
presented
different
opinion
"Reading doesn't make a woman socially acceptable or
useful, we women grow up to marry and have children.
That is our role in life. Anything else is a luxury."
Feeling of being Illiterate
Most of respondents expressed regret about not having
been able to learn to read and write. Typical reactions to
questioning about how their lack of education made them
feel included self-criticism, insignificance and a sense of
missing out on a valuable social and life skill. One girl
said:
“I feel I am ignorant, and don’t have a contribution to
make to my people. I blame myself. I have now seen the
importance of education.”
Many girls were pessimistic and felt that their lack of
education was a lost opportunity, and an unalterable
condition:
“I feel that I am behind people, today since, I did not learn
[earlier], and do not know what I can learn and how I can
adopt to it.”
Illiteracy creates many problems for girls. Girls
interviewed believed that being illiterate increased their
work load especially household chores.
Narrated Stories:
This part of present’s five stories narrated by five illiterate
girls expresses their situation feelings, perceptions of
being illiterate.
Story 1:
I am eighteen years old, was born in remote village in
South Kordofan. My family moved to Omdurman city (in
Khartoum) when I was four years old, and settled in Dar
Elsalam displaced area. My parents hardly find source for
living, because they are illiterate and used to work as
farmers. Our livelihood was difficult and became worse
after my father left us .Hence our household is headed by
my mother (a poor illiterate woman), we are hardly meet
the basic needs. Therefore my two older sisters and two
younger brothers included me could not joined schools.
We are all illiterate living in very poor family.
My mother has to work for long hours outside the house
so I have to look after the house and my younger
brothers. I do all the household chores for this could not
join the literacy classes. I keen to, become literate that
can read and write. I feel sad some times jealous when
see one of the girls read and write. I would not be good
mother,
because
would
not
be
able
to revise the lessons of my sons and daughters. Girls who
educated will have good future for their children.
I feel that if a girl is well educated she can express
her feelings fearlessly. An educated girl can support
herself she need not depend on her parents or
husband. Education can help a girl get employment
being educated will help the mother of the family in
carrying the day-to-day activities. Educated girls can
decide what is right and what is wrong for they being
illiterate face many problems of could not find good job
and too much household chores.
When I have children would work hard to educate
them no discrimination between girls and boys.
Story 2:
I am 13 years old my family displaced from Northern
Kordfan twenty years ago. Icould not join school
,because of the circumstances of my father and the
low family income. The opinion of my father was that
education for me was not necessary because I am a
girl. So I cried every day when I saw my colleagues go
to school every mornin,. but to no avail. All my friends
succeeded and moved on to primary school, while I
remained status quo. I very much want to go to
school, but my family cannot afford to pay for the
school fees, and clothing.
Then I heard that an eradication of illiteracy class of
uneducated girls and school drop-outs will be opened
in my area .My parent allowed me to attend the
literacy classes. Only then, did I feel that I was joining
school one more time like all my colleagues and I
realized my dreams. .
When I first joined the class I knew nothing at all
because I had never gone to school but now I know
how to read and write. I cannot describe my emotions
… at first it was like. I was blind and incapable of
seeing anything … Now, Thank God, I can see, read
and understand everything. Literacy helps in
understanding children's homework, speaking with the
teacher, speaking with the doctor, writing one's name,
reading and writing letters, reading the destination of
the bus, and checking change in the market.
Story 3:
I am17 years old girll ,come from small village in the Blue
Nile state . Unlike other children, I and my sister always
wanted to go to school when we were younger, but we
never had the chance. Every day, brothers go to the
school, and every day I and my sister stay home to help
our mother with the household chores.
“My mother tried to send me to school, but my father
didn’t listen to her at all instead, my father emphasized that
we learn how to perform household chores so we could
run home homes
Daoud and Bello 5
when we get older. When I heard that a class for
eradicating illiteracy will be opened by in my area and that
it could be in any home of the girls who want to join. I
asked my father if I could join and he said 'No., because
my mother needs me to look after the children. I felt
jealous when my father allow my two younger brothers to
go to school and asked myself why not me because Aim a
girl I wish to be a boy.
Story 4:
I am 12 years old girl born and live in Daressalam in
Omdurman area for displaced people .My family moved to
this area twenty years ago from the Southern Kordofan ,
looked for better quality of life . My father work as casual
labor and my mother is selling tea in the near market
.Their income do not meet the needs of family consist of
ten members. We are three sisters and young brothers.
The two sisters are older than me .All are out of school. My
two older sisters work as domestic servants to the survival
of the family. My father inspires my three brothers younger
than me to join the school. Working members of my family
work hard to keep my two brothers in the school.
I was disparate to go to school as my peers go to
school, but I have to look after the house as my mother
and older sisters work outside the house for long hours. .
When I see my friends going to school in uniform, I do also
like to go to school and I know how important education is
for my future. But if I go to school, my mother and sisters
could not work.
I do not have good future; of course I would join my
sisters to work as domestic servant. My dream was to
work as teacher. I would realize my dream on my children
specially girls, I would do my best to educate them to
become teachers to educate other girls and illiterate
women.
Story 5
I am ten years old girl my family headed by mother,
displaced from Darfur six years ago and settled in this
area (Jabrona ). We are five. I am the youngest. My older
brothers and sisters drop out from the school and of
course I could not able join the school. My mother worked
outside home for 12 hours per day and two of my brothers
and one sister also work but we still hardly meet the daily
meals and other needs. My dream is to go to school. I feel
jealous when see girls of my age in their uniform go to
school. My dream would not be realized I have to look for
other opportunity to learn skill that can help me to find job
because I do not want to end up as domestic servant. I
always believed that illiteracy is the cause of my poverty.
When I heard about the literacy program I jumped on the
opportunity, hoping that by getting literacy skills I would be
able to get a job that would allow me to get some money.
Luckily I managed to join literacy class. Poverty was
one factor that pushed me to join the literacy program. I
do believe that illiteracy is the cause of lack of financial
resources and I think that by learning how to read and
write, I could gain rich knowledge and skills, which could
open doors for me.
DISCUSSION
Many authors identify the education as a fundamental
human right and vital to achieving economic growth,
increasing income, and sustaining a healthy society.
Education is important in helping to improve lives, break
the cycle of poverty and ensure that all people,
particularly women have control over their destiny
(Durdhawale, 2004; Nwaobi, 2007) ) Results indicate the
lack of education among illiterate girls is an obstacle to
block them in deprivation and poverty trap.
The vulnerable and poverty situation that
characterized the livelihood of illiterate girls who are
mostly displaced from conflict and poor area is consistent
with Daoud (2005), result who indicated that when a
group of displaced people arrived in Khartoum, the found
no alternative than to resettle in the shantytowns, where
the majority of displaced people and urban poor live.
They were confronted with many obstacles and they
contacted with a mix of varied ethnic, religious, and
linguistic communities. They suffer a lot because they live
in poor shelters, extreme poverty, and poor health and
lack the social services. Similar phenomena have been
observed by Evans (2007) in his study on the internally
displaced persons in the Cassamance conflict, Senegal.
The study findings also indicate that poverty and girls
contribution to family income are interrelated barriers that
hinder girls education. This result confirms with UNICEF
(2010) finding that more than half of the 72 million
primary school-aged children out of school are girls.
These children mostly come from the world’s poorest
communities and, in many cases, from nations with long
histories of conflict. This is also supported by the study
conducted by the Federal Ministry of Education (2008)
which shows that poverty is one of the major factors
hinder children access to education in Sudan, especially
among marginalized and displaced communities.
Illiterate girls are aware of the benefit of education
especially for family heath and children care. This result
is consistent with the World Bank ( 2007) and Klasen et
al., (2008), who concluded that there are many empirical
evidences of increase in female education improves
human development outcomes such as child survival,
health and schooling explored that lower female
education had a negative impact on economic growth as
it lowered the average level of human capital.
The result of four stories has revealed that, gender
socialization ensures that families invest the financial
expense of education in sons rather than daughters,
6 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
based on the idea that education for the girl child is a
waste with eventual marriage inevitable. This result is
supported by Kotwal and Gupta (2006) who stated that
subordination of girls is responsible for the socialization
process that emphasizes the pre-ordained role that she
will assume as an adult. The implications of such unequal
treatment result in limiting the opportunities and choices
that girls may have, both in the present and in the future.
These narrated stories expressed freely and critically
why girls did not have an access to education. All girls
are disparate and feel inferior of being illiterate
.Household chores decided their future that prevented
them to join school and also to eradicate their illiteracy to
get better job to reduce their poverty. Most of them
indicated clearly that they are forced to look after
household to allow their mothers to spend long hour
working outside the house.
They expressed clearly their awareness of gender
discrimination and in equality that resulted to being
illiterate girl loaded with household’s chores. In particular,
the child labor literature often overlooks the potential for
housework and childcare responsibilities to interfere with
educational attainment. In the same regards
Kotwal,
and Gupta ( 2006) argued that young girls around the
world are faced with a very difficult sense of reality. Often
when one or both parents are unable to care for the
home or family, a daughter will have to step in and take
care of the household chores. This also goes with
Magnoli (2006) , who indicated that in many poor
communities there is a lack of knowledge of the potential
long-term benefits educating a girl can bring. The low
status of women along with deep-rooted patriarchal
attitudes often results in girls’ education being perceived
as a low priority. Gender disparities in literacy can be
traced back to whether or not families decide to educate
girls. The decision to send a girl to school depends on
how the family values education for the girl, as well as for
the entire family. The findings also indicate that poverty is
pervasive. When compounded by discrimination and
strict gender roles, poverty keeps girls unschooled and
dependent. They are unable to escape the demands
placed upon them by a society that neither values nor
respects them. This result is consistent with Daoud
(2012) who argue that frequently girls are kept home to
do household chores and care for younger siblings, or
they are thrust into the labor market to contribute to
household income.
CONCLUSIONS
Poverty and socio-cultural barriers are real in Sudan and
need serious attention if the plans for ensuring girls’
education and gender equality are to be realized.
Therefore, policy initiatives, programs and schemes that
address the issue of opportunity cost of sending the
children to school, especially girls, could prove effective
in addressing the access issue and gender parity in basic
education for boys and girls across urban/rural settings.
The study concluded that poverty is main reason that
put girls out of the schools. It can be said that poverty
among displaced communities is acute, where the source
of income is low paid work, specifically more difficult for
illiterate females headed households to meet the needs
of their families.
However, the respondents are aware of the negative
effects of being illiterate on present and future life. They
are also aware of the relationship between their illiteracy
and gender in equality.
Moreover despite the fact that barriers to girls’
education are primarily economic and social/cultural
poverty remains the single major deterrent to education,
and lack of education is a major cause of poverty.
Uneducated girls become illiterate parents unable to
support their children, and the vicious cycle continues.
When families face poverty, girls are the goat of the
escape, the first to be taken out of school and put into
very poor paying work in often dangerous conditions.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Efforts to improve female education in poor communities
need to go beyond rhetoric and should involve policies
and programs with and be gender-responsive. In
addition, infrastructure and safety in schools, as well as
on the roads leading to schools, must be secured.
To realize the full benefits of girl’s education, it needs
to overcome the barriers that keep girls from attending
school. Effective strategies to close gender gaps in
education focus on poor communities and address
specific obstacles.
A gender perspective on poverty and education
highlights several possible strategies to tackle female
disadvantage. These include:
- Reducing opportunity costs to girls’ schooling, e.g.
through childcare provision or investment in labor saving
infrastructure, or flexible or non-formal educational
provision;
- Incentives and scholarships for girls’ enrolment to
reduce the direct costs of girls’ schooling;
- Educational initiatives outside of the schooling
system, such as adult education and literacy programs,
for those who ‘missed out’;
- Improving the quality of education and tackling
gender bias in the curriculum;
- To build inclusive and just societies, the eradication
of illiteracy should be considered a key; and
- To make progress, government of Sudan will need to
increase investment in literacy and build strong support
for literacy through partnerships with non-governmental
organizations
(NGOs),
international development
Daoud and Bello 7
partners and society at large.
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How to cite this article: Daoud S.A.M. and Bello A.R.S. (2014).
Perceptions of Internally Displaced Girls of Being Illiterate and Poor
in an Urban Community: A Case from Khartoum, Sudan. J. Res.
Peace Gend. Dev. 4(1):1-7