Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development (ISSN: 2251-0036) Vol. 2(12) pp. 260-267, December, 2012
Available online@ http://www.interesjournals.org/JRPGD
Copyright ©2012 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
How highly educated women are kept out from selfdevelopment: a study in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dr. Syeda Umme Jakera Malik
E-mail: jakerazakir@aub-bd.org
Department of Social Work, Asian University of Bangladesh, Bangladesh
Abstract
All over the world, women are recognized as the most potential group or risk group who are directly or
indirectly oppressed by society. When people are unable to receive equal human rights, services and
resources then they are forced to lead a poor life. Highly educated women are not out from this
system. Mostly these highly educated women are not receiving proper services and resources to
flourish themselves that they could. Under the system of patriarchy, surviving against deficiency
needs is not strongly practiced by educated women. Usually women are living on men kin or
husband’s gifted living way. Naturally in this way highly educated women are not only at risk to being
poor but also they are out from self-development.
Keywords: Educated people, human capital, self-development, potential poverty.
INTRODUCTION
Poverty is a condition in which a person or community is
deprived of, or lacks the essentials, for a minimum
standard of well being in life. The capability deprivation
approach emphasizes functional capabilities. These are
construed in terms of the substantive freedoms. People
have reason to value, instead of utility (Happiness,
desire-fulfillment or choice) or access to resource
(income, commodities, assets). It is noteworthy that the
emphasis is not only on how human beings actually
function but also on their having the capability, which is a
practical choice, to function in important ways if they so
wish. Some one could be deprive of such capabilities in
many ways, e.g. by ignorance, government oppression,
lack of financial resources, or false consciousness
(Anand and others, 2009, Sen, 2005). Education is the
most pioneer object that makes people capable. Human
capital theory sets on the assumption that formal
education is highly instrumental and even necessary to
improve the production capacity of a population. This
theory also explains that people invest in education so
that they could use this education as a capital in life time
earning process. In other words, the human capital
theorists argue that the educated population is a
productive population (Olaniyan and Okemakinde,
2008).When productive populations deprive form invest
their education as a capital then this highly educated
people are couth out by capability deprivation. Capability
deprivation of highly educated people is not occurred
suddenly. It could be linked with the theory “Poverty
Caused by Cultural Belief Systems that Support SubCultures of Poverty” which explores that poverty is
created by the transmission of a set of beliefs, values,
and skills over generations that are socially generated but
individually held. Individual are not necessarily to blame
because they are victims of their dysfunctional culture or
subculture (Oscar, 1975). This study has taken an
attempt to explore how highly educated women are victim
of cultural system and couth out by capability deprivation.
METHODOLOGY
This is a quantitative research which followed the nonprobable Lenear snow-ball sampling (Newmen, 2003). To
collect information this study used interview schedule in
Dhaka the municipality area of Bangladesh. According to
the study subject, there were some filter points these are;
o
Citizen of Bangladesh
o
Living in Dhaka
o
University graduate from any recognized University
of Bangladesh
o
Age limit is 30 and above.
Malik 261
Married person
When snow-ball was stopped then there were 302
respondents where 153 were university graduate men
and 149 were university graduate women. Within
university graduate women 67 were job holder women
and 82 were housewives.
o
Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to explore how highly
educated women are not only potentially poor they are
also kept out from self-development.
To run with this objective the study needs initial points
which are potential poverty and self-development. These
are briefly explained below;
Potential Poverty
Potential poverty is referred as the risk to be poor. The
Potential poverty levels has been described by Malik as
low-risk, medium risk, high-risk and No-risk (Malik, 2012).
No risk indicates having ability to maintain minimum
expenditure (monthly 4,000 Tk), having any official
security support and having any of the 9 types of social
interactions.
Low risk indicates the shortage of any one kind of
poverty indicators. It may be the inability to maintain
minimum expenditure (monthly 4,000 tk), or may be out
of any official security support or may be out of mean
social interaction (9 out of 10).
Medium risk indicates the shortage of any two kinds of
indicators. it may be shortage of both minimum
expenditure (monthly 4,000 tk) ability and official security
support, or may be shortage of both minimum
expenditure ability and mean social interaction, or may be
shortage of both of the official security support and mean
social interactions.
High risk indicates the shortage of all poverty
indicators. Which means that the respondents are unable
to maintain a minimum household expenditure (monthly
4,000 tk), unable to get any national social security
support and also unable to maintain mean social
interactions.
According to the potential poverty level men and job
holder women respondents are most frequently staying at
no-risk and low-risk of personal poverty level whereas
housewives are facing high-risk of personal poverty
(Malik, 2012).
Self-Development
Self-development refers to the prosperity of own ability;
refers to progressive income, getting job experiences,
taking steps forward at knowledge, gaining self-esteem.
The study entails four types of self-developmental status;
these are additional education, job experience, income
dynamic and self-esteem status.
Additional Education: Additional education refers to
any formal or informal education or training which
respondents got after their university graduation.
Job experience: Job experience refers to the total
years of the income earning status of the respondents.
Income dynamic: Income dynamic refers to the
increasing rate of the respondents’ income per years. It is
measured by the formula as follows:
st
st
Current income – 1 income of 1 month
Total years of income
Self-esteem: The study used the adult form of the selfesteem measurement keys of the Stanley Coopersmith’s
Self-Esteem Inventories (SEI).The reliability and validity
test was done to use the SEI as Bangla (the mother
language of Bangladesh) version in Bangladesh. This
(SEI) is used to find out self-esteem status of university
graduate people of Bangladesh.
The Self-esteem Inventories of Coopersmith would
hold measurement of self-esteem. This scale has
enclosed 25 questions of adult form. This form is used for
those persons whom are aged sixteen and above
(Coopersmith, 1986). After the successful reliability and
validity test of SEI the questionnaire was prepared for
pre-test.
FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY
To present the study findings the participants were
categorized by three groups as men (A), job holder
women (B) and housewife (C). Here consciously women
respondents are categorized into two groups; the women
who are investing their education and those who are not
investing their education as human capital.
According to the findings all respondents are married
and at the age group of 30 and above, 50.7%
respondents are men and 49.3% are women. Within the
women respondents about 55% are housewives and 45%
are job holder women. The findings showed that most of
the respondents are at young age with the mean age of
36.06. 56.95% respondent’s birth place is Dhaka city and
.49.05% respondent’s birth place is out of Dhaka
(Chittagong, Rajsahi, Khulna, Sylhet, Barishal). Most of
the respondents are employed at government or nongovernment organizations.
According to the findings most frequently men and job
holder women are employee. 73.2% men and 89.6% job
holder women are employee at public or private
organization and only 20.9% men and 10.4% job holder
women are engaged at own business. Most frequent
income range for men respondents is 14,000 to 42,000
TK and job holder women is 4,000 to 14,000. 53.6% men
respondents’ income range is 14,000 to 42,000 tk and
59.7% job holder women’s income range is 4,000 to
14,000 tk. Housewife respondents are totally out of job
identity and income.
Table 1 provides the data about the statuses of selfdevelopment of the group A, B, and C. As explain before
262 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 1. Percentage distribution of the respondents by their self-developmental statuses
Respondents
(n= 302)
Job experience
(most frequent)
N
%
61
39.9%
(5 to 10 yr)
(5 to 10 yr)
Income dynamic
Additional education
Self-esteem
(most frequent)
(most frequent)
(most frequent)
N
%
N
%
N
%
Group-A
52
34%
118
77.1%
81
52.9%
(n= 153)
(500-1000 (500-1000 TK)
(Have not)
(Have not)
(Law
(Law status)
TK)
status)
Group-B
28
41%
19
28.4%
56
83.6
31
46.3%
(n= 67)
(5 to 10 yr)
(5 to 10 yr) (500-1000 (500-1000 TK)
(Have not)
(Have not)
(medium
(medium
TK)
status)
status)
Group-C
81
98.8%
81
98.8%
76
92.7
56
68.3%
(n= 82)
(no job
(no job
(0 income
(0 income
(Have not)
(Have not)
(Law
(Law status)
experience)
experience) dynamic )
dynamic )
status)
Mean job experience: Group-A= 10.41 with SD 5.85, Group-B= 8.96 with SD 5.60, Group-c= 0 with SD .07, Total respondents =
7.28 with SD 6.67.
Mean self-esteem: Group-a= 66.30 with SD 15.58, Group-B= 71.4 with SD 14.91, Group-C= 58.49 with SD 20.31, Total
respondents= 65.3 with SD 17.46.
the study contained four types of self-developmental
status. These are job experience, income dynamic,
additional education and self-esteem. As observed, in the
respondents for both men and job holder women
respondents’ most frequent job experience is at the year
range 5 to 10 years and al most al of the housewife
respondents have not had any job experience, most
frequently men and job holder women’s income
dynamical status is at 500 Tk to 1,000 Tk and again all of
the housewife’s have not any income dynamic status.
According to the additional education and self-esteem
among the respondents, most of the respondents are out
of additional education. Most frequently job holder
women’s self-esteem points are at medium status
whereas housewives and men respondents’ self-esteem
points are at low status.
The table presents, most frequent range of job
experience is 5 years to 10 years. 9.9% men and 41%
job holder women respondents’ job experience is at that
range. This figure occurs because the maximum
respondents of the study are young aged people.
Experience is a key ingredient to success on the job, and
job experiences is the key element to being successful at
any job or have a more desirable earning
(www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/84/,
11/02/2010). Job experience open some selfdevelopment ways like be more experience in current job,
potential to earn a higher paying job, a feeling of personal
growth and respect from others and so on (Nepoleon,
1932). It should be noted that university graduate men
and job holder women are running a similar race where
university graduate house wives are staying at the back
seat. A regular employee may be the most obvious option
in order to increase the chances of getting a higher
salary, a promotion, or a better job (Napoleon, 1932,
Efromson and others, 2006). According to the group
based distribution most frequent income dynamic range
for both men (A) and job holder women (B) is 500 to 1000
Taka, for house wife (C) 98.8% respondents have not
any income increasing status. Everyone expects an
increase in income growth with little to no work at all, but
there is just no possible way to make a good added
income growth without putting in hard work (Nepoleon,
1932, Ehrenberg and Smith, 1991). All over the world
there are many reasons that women can not engage in
outside work for whole day long as men can. At the
patriarchal family women’s income is considered as pin
money, beside their job they have to do housework and
child care, beside these social barriers there are also
infra-structural barriers like the transport system of
Bangladesh is not so preferable for women. All of these
together are made women unable to give their full efforts
to income (Efromson and others, 2006). In spite of that
the highly educated women who are engage in outside
work they are increasing their income as men are and
they all are at better position than housewife
respondents.
In order to increase the chances of getting a higher
salary, a promotion, or a better job, one needs to
increase his/her skills. One of the best ways is to achieve
this through education (Napoleon, 1932). The human
capita theory state that as a result of lack of continuous
human capital investment of the end of person’s working
life, skills may have depreciated (Ehrenberg and Smith,
1991, Onlaniyan, 2008). Education and skill learning
through non-formal education has to be accredited by the
authority as a necessary part of the education system.
Every learner should be given information on the skills,
job market, and future prospect, so that he/she can take
decision based on analysis and own assessment
(Nepoleon, 1932, Al-Sammarrai, 2007). Bangladesh has
given full priority to increase formal and non-formal
Malik 263
education for both to reduce national poverty and to
empower women in order to improve women’s socioeconomic condition (Ministry of Primary and Mass
Education, 2003, Al-sammarrai, 2007). The table
presents most frequently respondents are have not any
additional education but a little number of respondents
has received additional education. Empirical research
findings clearly reveal that human development and
education are highly and positively correlated. There is
no alternative to education and training for development
of human capabilities as well as making full use of such
capabilities (Onlaniyan, 2008).
Self-esteem is a concept of personality, for it to grow,
we need to have self worth, and this self worth will be
sought from embracing challenges that result in the
showing of success (Maslow 1954, Greenberg, 2008).
Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic
human need or motivation. American psychologist
Abraham Maslow included self-esteem in his hierarchy of
needs. He described two different forms of esteem: the
need for respect from other and the need for self-respect,
or inner self-esteem (Nepoloon, 1932, Maslow, 1954).
Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons why
humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for them
selves. Sociometer theory maintains that self-esteem
evolved to check one’s level of status and acceptance in
one’s social group (Greenberg, 2008). Current study
found most frequent self-esteem level for both men and
housewife respondents is low where most frequent selfesteem level for job holder women are at medium level.
May be this figure is occur in order to patriarchal society
system. Like many other countries, Bangladesh
maintains a patriarchy society that dictates men to be the
responsible for overall well being of the family. Most of
the men respondents are maintaining biological needs,
security needs and social acceptance needs for their
entire family (BLS, 2005). Without any support from
other, it is quite hard for men to maintain all of these
family needs, and sometimes this condition effects on
men’s self-esteem. As jobholder women respondents
receiving support from their spouses in maintain all of
these family needs, the responsibility do not become a
burden on them. In the same way as men, the housewife
respondents are totally dependent on their husbands to
maintain their biological needs, security needs and social
needs, and thus they are unable to reach a high selfesteem status (Maslow, 1954). On the other hand, as job
holder women are able to maintain their own biological
needs, security needs and social needs, they are able to
reach higher self-esteem status than housewife
respondents. On the other hand as job holder women are
get support from their husband to maintain household
biological needs, security needs and social needs (Malik,
2012) thus their self-esteem status is also higher than
men respondents. In short, among the respondents as
men, Job holder women, and House wife women there
are certain characteristics which differently exist in men,
job holder women and housewife respondents. According
to the group based distribution, most of the men and job
holder women respondents are employed Mean job
experience for men is 10.41 and for job holder women
respondents is 8.96, within the period of being in service
the most frequent income dynamic is 500 to 1000 TK for
both men and job holder women respondents. The
housewife respondents are completely out of this job
experience and income dynamic process. Housewife
respondents are also at worst position in term of selfesteem. Mean self-esteem point for men is 66.30 and for
job holder women are 71.40 whereas mean self-esteem
point for housewife respondents is 58.49. All of these
present men and job holder women to be staying at
almost similar position by investing their education as
human capital. Being out from the investing education
housewife respondent are at backward position not only
economically, but also at the point of having job
experience, income dynamic and self-esteem (Table 2).
The relationship between additional education and
personal poverty of the total respondents is significant (x2
= 9.034, df = 3, with significant .029) as was observed by
analysis of variance. But the relationship between
additional education and personal poverty is not
significant of both men and women respondents as
differently observed by analysis of variance.
Bangladesh is classified as one of the poorest
countries of the world. Data published by UNESCO rank
Bangladesh in the thirty-first position out of thirty-five
countries for which GDP data could be given. The
national literacy rate has increase significantly but 34%
adult people are still illiterate (GOB, 2005, Ministry of
Primary and Mass Education, 2003). The present trend of
the socio-economic conditions in Bangladesh in terms of
literacy rate, population growth, per capital income and
employment situation is improving. As many other
developing countries of the world Bangladesh also gives
important at non-formal education as an anti-poverty
program as like as formal education (UNESCO, 2001,
GOB, 2005,World Bank, 20008). According to the human
capital theory invest in education and training are made
people more skilled which lead rapidly increase of income
and when people does not invest for education and
training then their productivity slow down which lead to a
lower earning growth (Ehrenberg and Smith, 1991).
Education is also the best way to increase one’s salary,
promotion and skills. According to the US Census Bureau
the average income in 2005 for a person with an
advanced degree was US$ 72, 824 per year. The list
below shows the average US level of income per year in
2005 for different education level (Napoleon, 1932):
High School Incomplete – US$ 18,900
High School Graduates – US$ 25,900
College Graduates – US$ 45,400
Masters Degree – US$ 72,824
Professional Degree – US$ 99300
A quick glance at the data above makes it very obvious
264 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 2. Percentage distribution of the respondents by their additional education and potential poverty level
Men
No-risk
Low-risk
Additional education
N
%
N
%
Have not
40
70.18 60
80.00
Have
17
29.82 15
20.00
Total
57
100
75
100
X2= 3.510, df= 3, p>0.05 with significant .320.
Women
No-risk
Low-risk
Additional education
N
%
N
%
Have not
17
80.95 27
90.00
Have
04
19.05 03
10.00
Total
21
100
30
100
X2 = 3.093, df= 3, p>0.05 with significant .377.
Total respondents
No-risk
Low-risk
Additional education
N
%
N
%
Have not
57
73.08 87
82.86
Have
21
26.92 18
17.14
Total
78
100
105 100
X2 = 9.034, df= 3, p<0.05 with significant .029.
Medium-risk
N
%
16
88.89
02
11.11
18
100
High-risk
N
%
02
66.67
01
33.33
03
100
Total
N
118
35
153
%
77.12
22.88
100
Medium-risk
N
%
12
80.00
03
20.00
15
100
High-risk
N
%
76
91.57
07
8.43
83
100
Total
N
132
17
149
%
88.59
11.41
100
Medium-risk
N
%
28
84.85
05
15.15
33
100
High-risk
N
%
78
90.70
08
9.30
86
100
Total
N
250
52
302
%
82.78
17.22
100
Table 3. Analysis of variance (anova) between job experience and potential poverty level
Respondents
Men
Women
Total
Poverty
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Sum of
square
29.621
50.261
79.882
170.189
25.999
196.188
316.467
85.117
401.593
the important of education to earn more. The current
study also found an effectiveness of additional education
(any kind of formal and no-formal education after
university graduation) to decrease personal poverty level.
According to the findings of the study after having
university graduation most frequently respondents have
no additional education. The respondents who have no
additional education there percentage are slowly
increased with the increase of personal poverty risk. The
respondents who are staying at no-risk 73.% of them
have no additional education, who are at low-risk of
personal poverty level 82.7% of them have no additional
education, the respondents who are at medium-risk
84.9% of them have no additional education and the
respondents who are at high-risk 90.7% of them have no
additional education. This table presents having
Df
26
126
152
19
129
148
26
275
301
Mean
square
1.139
.399
F
Sig.
P
2.856
.000
P<0.05
8.957
.202
44.443
.000
P<0.05
12.172
.310
39.326
.000
P<0.05
additional education effect positively toward personal
poverty level. The government of Bangladesh always
points that, education is the key to improving the life and
quality of living of people. Illiteracy and lack or
inadequacy of education goes hand in hand with poverty,
one reinforcing the other, both as causes and effects
(GOB, 2005) (Table 3).
The relationship between job experience and
personal poverty level of the total respondents is highly
significant (F = 39.326 with significant .000) as was
observed by analysis of variance. The relationship
between job experience and personal poverty level of
both men and women respondents is also highly
significant as was separately observed by the variance.
Education and experience allow the individual to build
respect from other people for he “trade” that they do.
Malik 265
Table 4. Analysis of variance (anova) between income dynamic and potential poverty level
Respondents
Men
Women
Total
Poverty
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Sum of
square
15.488
64.394
79.882
159.232
36.956
196.188
297.022
104.571
301
Effortful learning combined with real life on the job
experience is a winning formula for success
(www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/84/,
17th
January, 2011). As most of the observed people are out
of additional education and training so that job
experience is an important way to improve skill and
income. If one wants to income more, it is important to
make good use of the time and to increase work
experience. Job experience strengthens the seven
competences which are directly influence on income.
These seven components are; self-management, teamworking, business and customer awareness, problem
solving, communication and literacy, application of
numeracy, application of IT (UNESCO, 2001, Holbrough,
2008). Current study found for both men and women
respondent’s who have no job experience they are
staying at high-risk of personal poverty level. Mostly
housewife respondents are out of job experience and
they are also belonging at high-risk of personal poverty
level. They are not only at the risk to be poor but also
they are out from to improve skill and ability that could
help them to overcome any unwanted condition. On the
other side men and jobholder women are improving their
job experience and by this process they are also
improving their skill and income. As housewife
respondents have not any job experience and they are
also staying at high-risk of personal poverty level so that
there has a negative way of relation between job
experiences and personal poverty level. That mean if one
have job experience then s/he are not facing risk to be
poor and if one have no job experience than s/he are
facing risk to be poor (Table 4).
The relationship between income dynamic and
personal poverty level of the total respondents is highly
significant (F = 139.652 with significant .000) as was
observed by analysis of variance. The relationship
between income dynamic and personal poverty level of
both men and women respondents is also highly
significant as was separately observed by the variance.
The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) is one
of the most widely used social science data sets in the
Df
Mean square
F
Sig.
P
6
146
152
6
142
148
6
295
301
2.581
.441
5.853
.000
P<0.05
26.539
.260
101.973
.000
P<0.05
49.504
.354
139.652
.000
P<0.05
world. PSID data present a much more dynamic view of
families, which may experience episodes of relative
poverty or affluence over the course the many years.
PSID research results also show that women who drop
out of the workforce to raise a family fall far behind in
income and advance of income (www.nsf.gov/new,
30/01/2010). Current study also found the same result
that the women who are out from income earning job
position, are also out from income dynamic. The earlier
studies in Bangladesh has also presented that women
who are engaged in income earning occupation they are
dynamically improving there income. Women who are
able to improve their income dynamically their household
condition is also improving, their children are able to get
more education, more nutrition and more self-respect
than those women who are out from income earning
occupation (Rahman and Islam, 200, Al-Sammarri,
2007).
According to the current study for both men and
women respondents whose income is dynamically
increasing they are at better position of personal poverty
level. We can present like that the poorest respondents
are also isolated from the income increasing process.
The housewife respondents not only staying at high-risk
of personal poverty level are also out from increasing
income whereas men and job holder are dynamically
improving their income (Table 5)
The relationship between self-esteem and personal
poverty level of the total respondents is highly significant
(F = 1.788 with significant .011) as was observed by
analysis of variance. The relationship between selfesteem and personal poverty level of both men and
women respondents is also highly significant as was
separately observed by the variance.
The well-known psychologist Abraham Maslow, who
charted out a hierarchy of human needs, put self-esteem
above basic survival needs such as food, shelter and
clothing (Maslows, 1954). Nathaniel Branden, the guru of
self-esteem issues, said in the Six Pillars of self-esteem:
the level of self-esteem has profound consequences for
every aspect of existence- how one operate in the
266 J. Res. Peace Gend. Dev.
Table 5. Analysis of variance (anova) between self-esteem and potential poverty level
Respondents
Men
Women
Total
Poverty
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Between group
Within group
Total
Sum of
square
17.626
62.256
79.882
54.316
141.872
196.188
60.153
341.440
401.593
workplace, how one deal with people, how high one is
likely to rise, how much one is likely to achieve. Selfacceptance, self-love, a positive self-image, and the
freedom to be ourselves; all these are crucial aspects of
self-esteem (Anand and Smith, 2005). Self-esteem
becomes a wide-ranging term for it is intimately
connected with our relationship with our selves. That
relationship determines everything about our lives. Every
problem that we have - relationships, health, money or
work- is ultimately caused by inadequate self-esteem.
(Holiogram, 2000). Current study found similar condition
within the relationship between self-esteem and personal
poverty level. The earlier table presented the low selfesteemed respondents are at more high-risk of personal
poverty level than the high or medium self-esteemed
respondents are. This condition could be explained that
the respondents who are at the high-risk to be poor their
self-esteem is low. Earlier studies have also showed that
in Bangladesh women are totally dependent on their
husbands or the men kin to fulfill own basic needs and
thus in household their status is low than the other
member of the family. They do not take food together
with family member, they do not participant to take any
decision for the family, and also they are isolated from
the broad social interaction (Bloodworth, 1990, Ellis,
2000, Waite, 2000, Krolokke, 2005). All of these together
made them a low self-esteemed person.
Current study also found in the case of self-esteem
status respondents who are staying at high-risk of
personal poverty level (housewives), most frequently they
are at low status of self-esteem point whereas other
respondents most frequently at medium self-esteem
status. As a little number of men respondents are at highrisk of personal poverty level so that there has no
significant value when it was observed by variance but for
women respondents a big number of women are
housewife who are facing high risk to be poor and also
obtained a low-self esteem status.
Briefly the findings about interrelation between selfdevelopment status and personal poverty level is present
that profession, income dynamic, job experience and self-
Df
19
133
152
25
123
148
27
274
301
Mean
square
.0928
.468
F
Sig.
P
1.982
.013
P<0.05
2.173
1.153
1.884
.013
P<0.05
2.228
1.246
1.788
.011
P<0.05
esteem are strongly interrelated with personal poverty
level.
CONCLUSION
If we critically analyzed the current problem, we may
found that both caused and result which kept out women
from self-development is beginning from individual and
family then it is spread out all over the society. Their lives
are affected by the values, beliefs and norms of the
system they live in. One of the main reasons for
unconsciousness about women’s’ capability deprivation is
the result of socialization and the social construct of
gender. Thus at the community, family and individual
level, positive reinforcements of roles are vital to consider
women’s education as a capital as men are. Then the
society could reduce women’s potential poverty and
unlock the way of self-development.
REFERENCES
Al-Sammarrai
SS (2007). Education spending and equity in
Bangladesh: Background paper for poverty assessment of
Bangladesh: Mimeo Washington DC: World Bank.
Anand P, Hunter G, Carter I, Dowding K, Vanhees M (2009). The
development of capability indicators: Journal of Human Development
and capabilities, 10:125-52.
Bloodworth S (1990). The poverty of patriarchy theory: Australia:
Socialist review.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2005). Statistical pocket book-2007: Dhaka:
BLS.
Charter B (2010). Gender assessment USAID/Bangladesh: Washington
D.C.: USAID From the American People.
Coopersmith S (1986). Self-esteem indicators: California: Consulting
psychologists press, Inc.
Efroymson D, Sian FG, Lori J (2006). Promoting male responsibility for
gender equality: summery report of research from Bangladesh, India
and Vietnam: Ottawa: Health Bridge.
Ehrenberg RG, Robert SS (1991). Modern labor economics: theory and
th
public policy: 4 edition. America: Horper Collins Publishers, Inc.
Government of People’s Republic of Bangladesh. (2005). Bangladesh
unlocking the potential national strategy for accelerated poverty
reduction: Dhaka: General economic division planning commission.
Malik 267
Greenberg J (2008). Understanding the vital human quest for selfesteem: Perspective on Sociological Science, 3:48-55.
Holbroug M (2008). The increasing of work experience: UK: National
Council for work experience.
Holcombe SH (2004). Managing to empower- the grameen bank
experience of poverty alleviation: Dhaka: University Press Limited.
Krolokke C, Anne SS (2005). From suffragettes to girls: in gender
communication theories and analyses: From Silence to Performance:
Thousand Oak: Sage.
Maslow A (1954). Motivation and personality: New York: Harper.
Malik SUJ (2012). Why highly educated women face potential poverty: a
case study in Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Dev. Res. Centre
(BDRC): Fall Church, U.S.A.
Ministry of Primary and Mass Education. (2003). Education for all:
National plan of action, 2003-2015: Dhaka: GOB.
Napoleon H (1932). Think and grow rich: Meriden, conn: The Ralston
Society.
Newmen WL (2003). Social research methods qualitative and
quantitative approach: Boston: Allyn and Bacon Publication.
Olaniyan DA, Okemakinde T (2008). Human capital theory: implications
for education development: European J. Sci. Res. Eurojournals
publishing-Inc. 24(2):157-162.
Oscar L (1975). Five families: Mexican case studies in the culture of
poverty: New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Rahman RI, Islam KMN (2003). Employment poverty linkages:
Bangladesh: Geneva: International Labor Office.
Sen A (2005). Human rights and capabilities: J. human Dev., 6(2):151166.
UNESCO (2001). Literacy a key to empowering women farmers:
Japanese Funds-In-Trust. Danda: UNDP.
World Bank (2008). Education for all in Bangladesh where does
Bangladesh stand in achieving the EFA goals by 2015: Washington
D.C.: World Bank.
www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/84/, 11/02/2010
www.nsf.gov/new/, 30/01/2010.