GEOG 80 Transport Geography
Professor: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Topic 6 – Urban Transportation
A.
B.
C.
D.
Transportation and Urban Form
Urban Land Use and Transportation
Urban Mobility
Urban Transport Problems
Hofstra University, Department of Global Studies & Geography
C – URBAN MOBILITY
1. Urban Movements
2. Urban Transit
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Types of Urban Movements
Movement Type
Pattern
Dominant Time
Destination
Pendular
Structured
Morning and
afternoon
Localized
(employment)
Professional
Varied
Workdays
Localized
Personal
Structured
Evening
Varied with some
foci
Touristic
Seasonal
Day
Highly localized
Distribution
Structured
Nighttime
Localized
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Suitability of Travel Modes
Mode
Walking
Bicycle
Limitations
Requires physical ability.
Limited distance and carrying capacity.
Difficult or unsafe in some areas.
Requires bicycle and physical ability.
Limited distance and carrying capacity.
Taxi
Relatively high cost per mile.
Fixed Route Transit
Destinations and times limited.
Paratransit
High cost and limited service.
Requires driving ability and automobile.
High fixed costs.
Requires cooperative automobile driver.
Consumes driver’s time if a special trip
(chauffeuring).
Requires convenient and affordable vehicle
rentals services.
Requires riding ability and motorcycle.
Average fixed costs.
Requires equipment and skill.
Auto driver
Ridesharing
Car sharing (Vehicle Rentals)
Motorcycle
Telecommute
Most Appropriate Uses
Short trips by physically able people.
Short to medium length trips by physically
able people on suitable routes.
Infrequent trips, short and medium distance
trips.
Short to medium distance trips along busy
corridors.
Travel for disabled people.
Travel by people who can drive and afford
an automobile.
Trips that the driver would take anyway
(ridesharing). Occasional special trips
(chauffeuring).
Occasional use by drivers who do not own
an automobile.
Travel by people who can ride and afford a
motorcycle.
Alternative to some types of trips.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Main Purposes of Urban Trips
3%
Work
20%
Shopping
School
Business (Work)
15%
49%
Business (Personnal)
Home
5%
3%
Other
5%
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Typical Urban Day Trips by Modes, Origins and
Destinations
Shopping mall
2:30 AM
Return
8:30 PM
Drive alone
7:00 AM
Garbage
pickup
10:45 PM
Return
1:30 AM
Delivery
7:00 PM
Drive alone
Restaurant
5:30 PM
Drive alone
Home
Passengers
Freight
10:30 PM
Delivery
1:30 PM
Walk
Work
8:00 AM
Carpool
School
(drop off child)
12:30 PM
Walk
8:15 AM
Drive alone
10:05 AM
Parcel
Pickup
10:00 AM
Parcel
Drop off
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a
North American Metropolis
25
Shopping
Social / Recreation
Work
Percentage
20
Total trips
15
10
5
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 19852005
100%
90%
80%
70%
Works at home
Other means
60%
Walks only
50%
Bicycle or motorcycle
Mass transit
40%
Carpool
30%
Drives self
20%
10%
0%
1985
1989
1993
1997
2000
2005
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Modal Split for Global Cities, 1995
100
90
80
70
Private Motor Vehicle
60
Transit
50
Walking / Cycling
40
30
20
10
0
Chinese Cities
American Cities Australian Cities West European
Cities
High Income
Asian Cities
Low Income
Asian Cities
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Mode Share for Commuting, New York, 1980-2000
100%
90%
80%
70%
Other non walk
60%
Taxi
50%
Bus
40%
Subway
30%
Automobile
20%
10%
0%
1980
1990
2000
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Urban Transit
■ Context
• Dominantly an urban transportation mode.
• The great majority of transit trips are taking place in large cities.
• Conditions fundamental to the efficiency of transit systems:
• High density and high mobility demands over short distances.
• Shared public service:
• Benefits from economies of agglomeration related to high densities.
• Economies of scale related to high mobility demands.
■ Transit systems
• Many types of services established to answer mobility needs.
• Variety of transit systems around the world.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Private Vehicle and Public Transport Market
Share, 1990/91
100%
American Cities
90%
Private Vehicle Market Share
European Cities
80%
70%
Asian Cities
60%
50%
40%
30%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
Public Transport Market Share
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Public Transport Market Share in the United States,
1900-2005
140
100%
Estimated Public Transport Passenger Miles
120
Public Transport Market Share
80%
100
Billions
90%
70%
60%
80
50%
60
40%
30%
40
20%
20
10%
0
1900
0%
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Urban Transit Systems
Subway system
Heavy rail system, often underground in central areas, with fixed routes, services
and stations. Uniform frequency of services (peak hours increase). Fares are
commonly access driven and constant.
Bus system
Scheduled fixed routes and stops serviced by motorized multiple passengers
vehicles (45 - 80 passengers). Services are often synchronized with other heavy
systems (feeders). Express services (notably during peak hours).
Transit rail
system
Fixed rail (tram rail system and commuter rail system). Frequency of services
strongly linked with peak hours. Traffic tends to be imbalanced. Fares proportional to
distance or service zones.
Shuttle system
Privately (dominantly) owned using small buses or vans. Expanding mobility along a
corridor during peak hour. Linking a specific activity center (shopping mall, university
campus, industrial zone, hotel, etc.). Servicing the elderly or people with disabilities.
Paratransit
system
Flexible and privately owned demand-response system. Door-to-door service, less
loading and unloading time, less stops and more maneuverability in traffic.
Taxi system
Privately owned vehicles offering an individual demand-response system. Fares
commonly a function of a metered distance/time. When competition is not permitted,
fares are set up by regulations. Servicing an area where a taxi company has the
right (permit) to pickup customers. Rights are issued by a municipality.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Components of an Urban Transit System
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Metro station
Transit rail station
Bus stop
X
Transfer
Express stop
Shuttle stop
Paratransit Taxi service
boundary
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Estimated Ridership of the World’s Largest
Public Transit Systems, 1998
New York
Manila
Paris
London
Sao Paulo
Buenos Aires
Beijing
Mumbai
Seoul
Hong Kong
Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto
Shanghai
Moscow
Mexico City
Tokyo-Yokohama
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
Estimated Annual Journeys (billions)
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Trips by Public Transport in the United States,
1970-2005
10,000
9,000
8,000
Millions
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Bus
Heavy Rail
Light Rail
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
D – URBAN TRANSPORT PROBLEMS
1. Geographical Challenges Facing Urban Transportation
2. Automobile Dependency
3. Congestion
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Geographical Challenges Facing Urban
Transportation
■ Context
• Most important transport problems often related to urban areas.
• Urban productivity:
• Dependent on the efficiency of its transport system.
• Move labor, consumers and freight between several origins and
destinations.
• Growing complexity of cities:
• Accompanied by a wide array of urban transportation problems.
• Some problems are ancient like congestion (Rome).
• Others are new like environmental impacts:
• Notably CO2 emissions linked with the diffusion of the internal combustion
engine.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
1. Geographical Challenges Facing Urban
Transportation
Traffic congestion
and parking
difficulties
Supply of infrastructures has not kept up with the growth of mobility. Vehicles
spend the majority of the time parked; motorization has expanded the demand for
parking space.
Public transport
inadequacy
Over or under-usage of public transport systems. Inability of public transit systems
to be financially sustainable.
Difficulties for
pedestrians
Intense traffic, where the mobility of pedestrians and vehicles are impaired. Lack
of consideration for pedestrians in the physical design of facilities.
Pollution (e.g. noise) generated by circulation has impediments. Dependency on
Environmental
impacts and energy petroleum.
consumption
Accidents and
safety
Growing traffic linked with a growing number of accidents and fatalities. Accidents
account for a significant share of recurring delays.
Land consumption
Significant territorial imprint. Between 30 and 60% of a metropolitan area may be
devoted to transportation.
Freight distribution
Globalization resulted in growing quantities of freight moving in cities. Shares
infrastructures with the circulation of passengers. City logistics.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Automobile Dependency
■ Causes
• Advantages of automobile use:
• Performance, comfort, status, speed, and convenience.
• Illustrates why car ownership continues to grow worldwide.
• Factors of growth:
• Sustained economic growth (increase in revenue and quality of life).
• Complex individual urban movement patterns.
• Peripheral urban growth.
■ Factors of dependency
• Under pricing and consumer choices:
•
•
•
•
Most road infrastructures are subsidized (considered a public service).
Drivers do not bear the full cost of car usage.
Car ownership is a symbol of status
Single home ownership.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
2. Automobile Dependency
• Planning and investment practices:
• Aims towards improving road and parking facilities in an ongoing attempt
to avoid congestion.
• Transportation alternatives tend to be disregarded.
• In many cases, zoning regulations impose minimum standards of road and
parking services and de facto impose a regulated car dependency.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Congestion
■ Congestion
• Occurs when transport demand exceeds transport supply:
• At a specific point in time.
• In a specific section of the transport system.
• Each vehicle impairs the mobility of others.
• Types:
• Recurring congestion (specific times of the day and on specific segments
of the transport system).
• Random events (accidents and weather conditions).
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Recurring Congestion
Traffic
Capacity
Congestion
Unused Capacity
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring
Congestion
Congestion in the United States (hours by Cause)
5%
5%
15%
40%
10%
Recurring Congestion
Traffic Incidents
Work Zones
Weather
Poor Signal Timing
Other
25%
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Roadway Congestion Index, Selected Cities, United
States, 1982-2007
1.6
1.4
1.2
1982
1990
1
1994
2000
2007
0.8
0.6
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington
Bridge, 2002
20,000
18,000
Eastbound
Westbound
Total
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
The Vicious Circle of Congestion
Congestion
Public pressures
to increase
capacity
The number of
movements
increases
The average
length of
movements
increases
New
capacity
Urban sprawl
is favored
Movements
are easier
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue
3. Congestion: Some Mitigation Measures
Ramp metering
Controlling access to a congested highway by letting automobiles in
one at a time instead of in groups.
Traffic signal
synchronization
Tuning the traffic signals to the time and direction of traffic flows.
Incident
management
Making sure that vehicles involved in accidents or mechanical failures
are removed as quickly as possible from the road.
Carpooling
Individual providing ridership to people having a similar origin,
destination and commuting time. Two or more vehicle trips combined
into one. Vehicle pools.
HOV (High
Occupancy Vehicle)
lanes
Vehicles with 2 or more passengers (buses, vans, carpool, etc.) have
exclusive access to a less congested lane.
Public transit
Offering alternatives to driving.
© Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue