International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science (ISSN: 2251-0044) Vol. 5(1) pp. 22-27,
January, 2015
DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/irjas.2014.079
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/IRJAS
Copyright ©2015 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Cost and return analysis in small scale rice production
in Cross River State, Nigeria
S.B. Ohen1* and E. A Ajah2
1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
2
*Corresponding Author`s E-mail: drsbohen@yahoo.com; Tel.; +2347065694354
ABSTRACT
This study was on cost and return analysis in small scale rice production in Cross River State.
Specifically, the study described the socioeconomic characteristics of small scale rice farmers,
estimated costs and returns from production and examined socioeconomic factors affecting small
scale rice production in the area. A four stage random sampling technique was employed to obtained
primary data from one hundred and twenty respondents (120) with the aid of a well-structured
questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as mean,
frequency count; percentages, gross margin analysis and multiple regression analysis. The study
revealed that small scale rice production in the area was profitable; Age of the farmer, farm size,
education and cost of seed were the significant factors that affected rice production in the study
area. Farmers in the study area are faced with constraints such as lack of access to finance, poor
storage facilities and high cost of agro-chemicals. The study recommended that credit facilities
should be given to small scale rice producers in the area so as to increase output and policy
interventions aimed at protecting local producers should be put in place.
Keywords: Determinants, gross margin, rice production, small scale.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture has been and is still the bedrock on which
every successful, stable economy the world over is built.
The Nigerian agricultural policy places the small scale
farmers in the central focus. This is because the nation’s
agriculture has always been dominated by the smallscale farmers, who crop less than 3 hectares, but
represent a substantial proportion of the total population
and produce about 90-95% of the total agricultural output
in the country (Oyeyika and Bolarinwa, 2009 and
Spencer, 1991). These small scale farmers are the major
actors in rice production.
Rice is the seed of a monocot plant, Oriza sativa. It
belongs to the family Poaceae; as a cereal grain, it is the
most important staple food for a larger part of the world’s
human population especially in Asia, the Middle East,
Latin America, West Indies and Africa. It is one of the
world’s three most produced grains along with wheat and
maize (corn) (Chandler, 1979; Erebor, 1998 and Eleanor,
1975). The crop constitutes one of the major crops
produced in Nigeria. According to Babafada 2003, rice is
the fourth major cereal crop in Nigeria after sorghum,
millet and maize, in terms of output and cultivated land
area. It is a major staple and most popular cereal crop of
high nutritional value grown and consumed in all
ecological zone of the country (Ohaka et al., 2013;
Omotesho et al., 2010; Raufu, 2014; Ohajianya and
Onyenweaku, 2003; Ajah and Ajah, 2014 and Abdullahi,
2012).
Yuguda (2003) and Ohaka et al. (2013) are of the view
that before the advent of crude oil, Nigeria produced
almost enough rice for local consumption. However, with
the discovery of petroleum in the 70’s, its production
declined steadily over the years in relation to
consumption with the result that lately, rice importation
takes away huge sums of money from country’s hard
earned foreign exchange. It is therefore worthy of note
Ohen and Ajah 23
that there exists a demand-supply gap due to increase
consumption rate of rice.
In 1985, the federal government imposed a ban on
rice imports in order to facilitate and increase local
production on the precious grain and to meet the high
demand for the product. However, in 1995, the import
ban was lifted as the local supplies, although showing
improvement could not meet the demand for the
commodity. Therefore, the lifting of the ban resulted in
incessant importations and not being affected by duty
hikes (Osagie, 2014; FMARD, 2013).
Recently the federal government of Nigeria had
announced her plans to ban the importation of rice by
2015. According to the government, the country must be
self-sufficient in rice in a manner that grows agricultural
sectors to create jobs. Therefore, it was going ahead to
ensure the ban on rice importation as from 2015, at which
time the nation would have attained self- sufficiency in
rice production in line with the rice implementation plan
(Osagie, 2014).
This explains why rice import accounts for
approximately one third of Nigeria’s rice supply (FAS,
2010). Rice import represents more than 25% of
agricultural imports and over 40% of domestic
consumption (FMARD, 2004, Ohaka et al., 2013).
Despite the place of rice in contributing to the food supply
in Nigeria, Its production is still put at 3.2 million tonnes
(Babafada, 2003; Ohaka et al., 2013). This has shown to
be far below the national requirement as over 600 million
dollars’ worth of rice is imported annually into the country
(Adeoye, 2003; Ohaka et al., 2013; Raufu, 2014;
Abdullahi 2012, Omofesho, 2010).
Some of the challenges of rice production in Nigeria
include: high input cost, like cost of credit, imported
equipment, agrochemicals due to taxes (tariffs and
duties). There is also the problem of policy instability ban,
unban tariffs) that makes decision making and planning
highly uncertain and put investments at great risk. Other
unattractive conditions include low technology base,
decaying infrastructures, high interest rate, weak
institution (such as poorly funded research institutes,
public extension system and seed certification) and
corruption ridden fertilizer distribution system, low public
sector investment in agriculture just to mention a few
(Osagie, 2014)
The issue of farm cost is very important especially
when the concern is on the economies of farming. Even
under small scale (peasant) farming, farm cost assumes
an important proportion of the economy and especially
when attempts to modernize farming to respond to
growth and development of the economy are considered
(Olayide and Heady; 1982). Cost and returns information
are required by any production system if the system is to
maximize profit. One cannot speak of profit without
having a full account of the revenue and cost structure of
the business. A farmer would know the profit of his
activity by calculating his returns and subtracting it from
the cost of production. In rice production, information on
costs and returns are very vital. A rice farmer, who does
not keep records on his costs and returns, really will not
know if he is making profit.
The problem however, is that most farmers have only
vague ideas of the potentials of the industry and as such
are slow in committing investment funds into rice farming.
This is the gap this study seeks to address. Therefore the
need to investigate the costs and returns of rice
production in the study area cannot be over emphasized.
This study intends to:
1. Describe the socio economic characteristics of the
respondents
2. Estimate the costs and returns associated with rice
production
3. Examine the socio economic factors that affect rice
production
4. Highlight the constrains militating against increase rice
output in the study area
METHODOLOGY
Study area
The study was conducted in Cross River State, one of the
36 states in Nigeria, located at the south- south geopolitical zone of the country. Specifically, Cross River
State lies within latitude 40 281 and 60 551 of the equator
and between longitude 80 001 and 90 001east of the
Greenwich Meridian. It shares common boundaries with
Republic of Cameroon to the east, Benue State to the
north Ebonyi and Abia States to the west and Akwa Ibom
State and the Atlantic Ocean to the south.
The vegetation spans from mangrove swamp and
rainforest in the south to derived savannah in the north.
The vegetation and climate are therefore very diverse
and so are the crops grown. There are lots of natural
resources and great tourism potentials that have
attracted international attention. The ethnic groups in the
state are many and so are the languages spoken. There
are eighteen Local Government Areas (LGAs) in the state
and three Agricultural Development Program (ADP)
zones. Zone one comprises of Calabar Municipality,
Calabar South, Akamkpa, Biase, Odukpani, Akpabuyo
and Bakassi LGAs. Zone two comprises of Yakurr, Abi,
Obubra, Ikom, Etung and Boki LGAs. Zone three
comprises of Ogoja, Obudu, Bekwara, Obanliku and Yala
LGAs. Rainfall distribution is bimodal with a range of
1700-2500mm, while its peak is in July and September.
The wet season starts in March and lasts up to October
and November. The rainfall patterns to a large extent
support rice production. The temperature range is
between 27oc -30oc.
Sampling procedure
Four stage sampling technique was adopted for this
study. The first stage involved the purposive selection of
24 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
three local government areas where rice is produced in
relatively large quantities, which include Obubra, Biase
and Ogoja local government areas. The second stage
was the identification of two rice producing communities
in each of the local government areas. The communities
were Ofodua, Ovumbogha, Adim, Abini, Nwang and
Bansara. The third stage was identification of the
registered small scale rice farmers in the six rice
producing communities. With the help of CRADP
extension agents, this list serves as a sampling frame for
the study. The fourth stage was a random sampling of
one hundred and twenty rice farmers from the list. This
was done in proportion to size for each community. Wellstructured questionnaire was administered to the 120
respondents used for the study.
Analytical technique
Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics
and farm budgeting model and multiple regression
analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze
socio-economic characteristics of the farmers and
constraints associated with rice production. Gross Margin
analysis was used in analyzing cost and returns in rice
production per hectare. Multiple regression analysis was
used in determining factors affecting rice production.
Using the ordinary least squares estimates in estimating
the regression model, four functional forms namely the
linear, semi-log, double-log and exponential were tried
out and the one that gave the best fit in terms of the
magnitude of R2, Adjusted R2 and the significance of the
overall regression as judged by the F- ratio and the
significance of the individual coefficients was chosen and
reported here.
The multiple regression model was implicitly stated as;
Y = f (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6,...U)………………………..(i)
Where; Y= output of rice (kg)
X1 = Age of rice farmer (years)
X2 = Farm size (hectare)
X3 = Educational level (years of schooling)
X4 = Farming experience (years)
X5 = Cost of labour (naira)
X6 = Cost of seeds (naira)
U= Error term
Gross Margin is the difference between the total
revenue (TR) and the Total Variable Cost (TVC). It is a
useful planning tool in situation where fixed capital is a
negligible portion of farming enterprise as in the case of
small scale subsistence agriculture (Olukosi and Erhaor,
1988; Omotesha et al, 2010 and Abdullah, 2012).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
The socio-economic characteristics of rice farmers
directly or indirectly affect their farming operations as
presented in table 1. The analysis of the results revealed
that majority of the rice farmers were mostly males
(81.67%) and their mean age was 35years. This implies
that the rice farmers are active and are in their prime. The
results further revealed that majority of the farmers were
small scale farmers with mean farm size of 1.313
hectares with an average farming experience of 7.6
years. In terms of educational attainment it was found
that majority of them had attended primary education
(41.67%). The mean farm income was N385,204.
Costs and Returns from rice production in the study
area
The results of the costs and returns for rice farmers are
presented in table 2. It shows that per hectare cost of
rice production was N212, 950.00. The total revenue
(sales) per hectare was N252, 000.00 and the gross
margin per hectare was N39, 050.00. The average yield
per hectare was 3.5tons. The average rate of return was
18.3%. The implication of this result is that rice farmer
realized a return of N 0.18 for every 1 Naira invested in
rice production. It could be concluded therefore that rice
farming is profitable.
Socio economic factors affecting small scale rice
production
The Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analysis
was carried out to determine factors which influence
small scale rice production in the study area. Four
functional forms were tried: linear, semi logarithms,
exponential and the double logarithms functions. The
results of the estimations are presented in Table 3. The
linear functional form was found to be the lead equation
of the regression. It was selected based on the
magnitude of R2, Adjusted R2 and the significance of the
overall regression as judged by the F- ratio and the
significance of the individual coefficients.
The regression results is significant at 1% level and
the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.865 (Adjusted
R2 0.858). This implies that the included variables were
able to explain about 86% of the total variations for the
determinants of rice production. The F-ratio was 120.839
and is significant at one percent level, implying that the
joint effects of all the included variables were significant.
Reject the hull hypothesis at one percent level. ***, **, =
Significant at 1 and 5 percent level
The results revealed that four out of
the four
variables age of farmer, farm size, education and cost of
seed were significant. The age of the farmer had a
positive coefficient and was significant at 0.05 level (5%)
suggesting increase in rice output as the age of the
farmer increases. The possible reason for this is that the
older farmers are experienced in rice production than the
younger ones. Farm size had a positive coefficient and is
Ohen and Ajah 25
Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Sex
Females
Males
Total
Age groups (years)
21-30
31-40
41-50
51 and Above
Total
Mean
Farm size (hectare)
0.1-1.5
1.6-2.0
2.1-2.5
2.6 and Above
Total
Mean
Farming experience
1-5
6-10
11-15
Total
Mean
Income in Naira 000’
100-250
251-350
351-450
451-550
551 and Above
Total
Mean
Educational level
No school
Primary school
Secondary school
Tertiary
Total
Frequency
Percentage
22
98
120
18.33
81.67
100
50
40
22
8
120
35.0
41.67
33.33
18.33
6.67
100
70
33
11
6
120
1.313
58.33
27.50
9.17
5.00
100
33
64
23
120
8
27.51
53.33
19.16
100
21
27
27
34
11
120
106.125
17.50
22.50
22.50
28.33
9.17
100
22
50
35
13
120
18.33
41.67
29.17
10.83
100
Source: Field Survey 2014
significant at 1% level. The import of this finding is that
increase in hectare of land will invariably lead to increase
in output of rice among the small scale farmers in the
study area. The level of educational attainment of the
farmer was positive and significant at 0.009level (1%).
This could be interpreted that with higher education, the
farmer had greater potentials for adoption of improved
farming activities which would lead to increase in the
output of rice in the study area. Cost of seed was
significant at 0.022 levels (5%). This implied that an
increase in the cost of seed would lead to an increase in
rice production. The positive sign for the cost of seed
was contrary to a priori expectation, while others were in
line with a priori expectations.
Constraints Associated with rice production in the
study area.
The distribution of respondents with regards to the
constraints militating against rice production in the study
26 Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
Table 2. Wet season’s production cost per hectare and gross margin analysis
Items
Revenue (sales)
Total revenue (TR)
Variable costs
Cost of seeds
Cost of fertilizer
Cost of fertilizer application
Cost of planting
Cost of herbicide and application
Cost of weeding
Cost of harvesting + threshing +
winnowing
Cost of transportation
Cost of bags
Total variable cost
Gross margin
Quantity (tons/ha)
3.5
Price per unit (N/ton)
7,200.00
Value (N)
252,000.00
252,000.00
6,250.00
43,000.00
2,000.00
20,800.00
12,000.00
26,000.00
81,900.00
35
100.00
17,500.00
3,500.00
212,950.00
39,050.00
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 3. Socio economic factors affecting Small scale rice production
Variables
Constant
Age
Farm Size
Education
Farming Exp.
Labour
Cost Of Seed
R2
Adjr2
F Ratio
Coefficients
-526.745
31.287**
1472.769***
74.579***
51.621
.005
.129**
.865
.858
120.839***
Std. Error
465.234
15.808
221.155
27.926
48.443
.005
.056
t- values
-1.132
1.979
6.659
2.671
1.066
1.079
2.327
p-values
.260
.050
.000
.009
.289
.283
.022
Source: Data analysis, 2014
Table 4. Distribution of respondents with regards to the constraints militating against rice
production in the study area
Farmer constraints
Pricing issues
Poor storage facilities
Lack of access to finance
High cost of agro chemical
Total
Frequencies
11
20
70
19
120
Percentage
9.20
16.70
58.33
15.83
100
Source: Field survey 2014
area is presented in table 4. The results revealed that
lack of access to finance (58.33%) was the most serious
problem encountered by rice farmers in the study area.
Improper storage facilities and high cost of agrochemicals were also the problems encountered by the
respondents in the study, with 16.70% and 15.83%
respectively.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research investigated the determinant of rice
production and profit of small scale rice farmers in Cross
River State Nigeria. From the finding, it revealed that rice
production in the study area is profitable. The key socio
economic factors that affect rice production in the study
Ohen and Ajah 27
area were age, farm size, educational level and cost of
seed. Major constraints faced by rice farmers in the study
area are lack of access to finance and poor storage
facilities. There is therefore the need to provide financial
support through micro-credit scheme to help the farmers
purchase inputs. Farmers should be assisted and
educated on the need to organize themselves into
cooperative groups. This will enable them mobilize the
required financial resources for the acquisition of
increased farm land for rice production. Finally policy
interventions aimed at protecting local production of rice
are needed as this could improve the profitability of the
enterprise. This is because affinity to foreign rice
consumption, largely because of its availability in the
market has affected local production negatively. Total
ban on importation of rice or increase in tariff will be
helpful in this area.
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How to cite this article: Ohen S.B. and Ajah E.A (2015).
Cost and return analysis in small scale rice production in
Cross River State, Nigeria . Int. Res. J. Agric. Sci. Soil Sci.
5(1):22-27