incoln deer
esearch unit
LINCOLN DEER RESEAR.CH
UNIT
Edited by:
G.K. Barrell
Published 1989
Animal & Veterinary Sciences Group
P.O.Box84
Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand
phone (03) 252 811
deer unit (03) 253 223
fax (64) (3) 252 944
Copyright, Lincoln University
ISBN 0 86476 030 2
Word processing by Julie Lassen and Jan Haldane
Cover photograph by Martin Keeley
Printed by Lincoln.University
CONTENTS
Preface
v
Map
vi
1.
Physical description
1
2.
Establishment and management
3
3.
Deer research
9
4.
Deer - publications and dissertations
11
5.
Goats on the Deer Unit
17
6.
Goat research
19
7.
Goats and tahr - publications and dissertations
21
8.
Courses available at Lincoln University
25
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FENCING
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PREFACE
This booklet has been prepared to provide a description of the Deer Research
Unit at Lincoln University (formerly Lincoln College) for information of
students, visitors and other people with an interest in the unit. It provides a
brief physical description of the unit and conveys an idea of the research
activity which has been carried out or is continuing by listing publications
which have arisen from this work. In preparing this booklet I have been
assisted by other authors, especially Paul Muir who wrote the initial draft of
Establishment and management and Alec Familton for his draft of Goats on
the deer unit. Other contributors include Martin Keeley and Tim Harrison.
Furthermore we are indebted to sponsors who have placed advertisements in
this booklet and we acknowledge their generous financial assistance.
Graham Barrell
Animal & Veterinary Sciences Group
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1. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
(Refer to map)
INTRODUCTION
The Deer Research Unit of Lincoln University comprises 27 .8 ha of irrigated
farmland which is completely surrounded by a 13 wire deer fence (150 mm,
Cyclone Tightlock). Stock include approximately 200 head of red deer
(Cervus elaphus), of which about 100 are breeding hinds, and approximately
100 goats (Capra hircus) (mainly breeding does).
LOCATION
The deer unit is situated on the Lincoln University Research Farm which is 2
km west of Lincoln township.
SOIL
Soils of the unit are Wakanui silt loam and some Temuka silt loam on clay
loam. A soil analysis carried out in 1988 gave the results presented in Table
1.
Table 1: Soil analysis of Deer Unit. (for ppm multiply by factor)
Paddock no.
pH
s
Na
(125) (5)
(20)
(20) (1)
(1) (factor)
8
40
31
18
18
22
36
18
12
10
10
16
12
10
10
12
12
7
7
10
6
16
7
9
11
12
5.9
5.8
5.8
6.1
6.4
6.4
7
7
10
10
10
18
5.7
8
3
5
p
K
Ca
Mg
75
50
34
43
35
33
30
59
42
32
39
39
43
36
Topdressing policy is the application to new pastures of 125 kg/ha of
superphosphate and 2.5 tonne/ha of lime whetf sown. Maintenance
applications of these fertilisers are based on soil tests and are applied about
every 5 years. About one-third of the unit receives urea at 55 kg/ha in
autumn to boost winter and spring growth.
1
PASTURE
Paddocks 1, 2, 3, 16, 17 contain old sowings of tall fescue (Festuca
arundinacea) and Huia white clover (Trifolium repens cv. Huia).
Paddocks 4-15 contain pastures sown in Nui ryegrass (Lolium perenne cv.
Nui), Kahu timothy (Phleum pratense cv. Kahu) and Huia white clover.
Paddock 18 has been sown in Nui ryegrass and Huia white clover.
RAINFALL
Annual rainfall is about 600 mm, but varies between 280 and 1200 mm and
is distributed throughout the year. Northwest winds, which are hot and dry,
can make summer rainfall ineffective.
IRRIGATION
Since 1989 the whole unit can be irrigated from a 125 mm diameter ring
main system supplied from a 300 mm bore at 90 m depth on the
Horticultural Research Area of the Research Farm. Water is applied by a
travelling irrigator gun.(Southern Cross 2000) which covers about 2 ha per
day. Previously about two thirds of the unit could be irrigated by a lower
capacity system which used manually shifted sprinklers.
SHELTER
Older hedges shown on the map are mainly of macrocarpa (Cupressus
macrocarpa) and cedar (Cedrus atlantica ), although there are some Douglas
firs (Pseudotsuga menziesii) at the eastern end of the cedar hedge. Newer
hedges include Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra cv. Italica), pampas
(Cortaderia atacamensis), leyland cypress (x Cupressocyparis leylandii),
willow (Salix matsudana x S. alba cv. Moutere 1184) along bottom
boundary and paddocks 8 and 9 and tortured willow (Salix matsudana) plus
silver poplars (Populus alba) running south, past the yards. Other trees are
silver poplars in paddock 1 and the yards, pussy willows (Salix caprea) in
paddock 17, golden willows (Salix alba var. vitellina) in paddock 4, tortured
willows in paddock 3, broadleaf willows (Salix glaucophylloides) in
paddock 9 and a single hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha) growing amongst
the cedars.
2
2. ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT
ESTABLISHMENT
Lincoln University has been associated with deer farming from the very
beginning ·Of the industry. The first deer farm in New Zealand was
established at Lincoln College in 1969 under Professor Ian Coop. Together
with financial support from the N .Z. Game Exporters Association the initial
interest and impetus plus the necessary stock were provided by the
Christchurch firm of Maddren Bros, one of the leading venison exporters of
the time. In the years between 1969 and 1974 pioneering work was carried
out demonstrating that deer could be farmed and establishing the feed
requirements for red deer on a stock unit basis plus the likely meat
production per ha that could be obtained from a red deer farming enterprise
(Coop & Lamming, 1977).
The present deer unit was re-established by Professor Andrew Sykes in
1979/1980 on 7 ha of the Lincoln College Research Farm. In 1979 30 red
deer (predominantly hinds) were provided by the New Zealand Forest
Service. These animals were all caught in the valleys of the Harper and
Avoca Rivers which are tributaries of the Rakaia River. In addition 24 adult
red deer stags were donated by members of the Game Industry Association
to enable the deer research programme to get under way. In 1982 4 ha were
added and in 1985 a further 12 ha were fenced. Another 5 ha paddock was
fenced in 1987, bringing the size of the unit to 28 ha. Deer numbers have
increased to over 200 head through natural increase and the unit has also
included over 200 goats, about 20 Himalayan tahr (Hemitragusjemlahicus)
and some nilgai antelopes (Boselaphus tragocamelus).
The role of the unit is primarily as a teaching facility, firstly as a farm where
undergradua~e students can learn aspects of deer production at close quarters
and secondly a research facility where postgraduate students can carry out
research projects with deer. The unit is well set up for animal handling with
a covered handling area, scales and crush. In addition a covered shed
containing 24 individual deer pens is available for intensive nutrition studies.
MANAGEMENT - General
The approximately 220 head of deer on the unit, typically comprised of
about 50 stags, 100 hinds and 70 weaners, together with up to 300 goats and
20 tahr means that the unit has at times carried over 20 stock units per ha.
3
Stocking rate has been consistently high (over 18 stock units per ha) and is
achieved by the conservation of large amounts of silage during spring and by
spray irrigation of paddocks during summer.
Grazing of the goats and deer is integrated in a leader follower system and
this has had benefits for both species. Goats are allowed to graze from a
high to medium pasture mass, which suits their grazing behaviour. Since the
grass species grow to a height greater than clover, such grazing increases the
proportion of clover in the sward made available for the deer. The tahr and
nilgai antelopes are set stocked in a restricted number of paddocks as there
are specific fencing requirements (regulations) which have to be met for
these species.
MANAGEMENT - Deer
Spring
In mid September, approximately 30% of the unit is closed off for silage
which is cut in late October/early November. A strip of approximately 2 m
of uncut pasture is left as a border within these paddocks to provide shelter
and cover for newborn calves during the subsequent calving period
(November/December). Throughout spring stock are rotated around the
remainder of the unit with stags and yearlings having first priority for
grazing followed by the hinds whose intake is restricted until calving. Hinds
are vaccinated in late September with a 5 in 1 clostridial vaccine.
In early November hinds are split into appropriate calving mobs (usually
trial groups and/or sire groups) and set stocked. During calving, hinds are
checked each morning and evening and calves tagged and weighed within 24
hours after birth. Most hinds whose calf is being tagged will approach the
handler and at this stage it is a simple and accurate procedure (with use of
binoculars) to determine the identity of the mother. The remainder of the
dams are identified by pairing with calves in the yards prior to weaning.
Hinds are handled frequently and, consequently, there have been no
problems with this procedure.
Stags for velvet antler production are run together and velvet antlers are
removed when they reach the appropriate stage. Because there is such a
wide range of ages in the stag mob velvet antler removal is carried out over a
long period. Thus all stags are regularly yarded (twice weekly) so that
velvet antlers can be removed from just a few at a time. Again regular
4
handling of animals has meant that there are no difficulties with this
procedure.
Summer
The deer unit suffers from the perennial Canterbury problem of summer
drought and pastures usually have to be irrigated from December to February
to provide good quality feed for hinds and calves. In early February yearling
stags are introduced to the main stag mob and, provided this is done well
before the onset of any rutting activity, there are no social problems. Calves
are weaned and vaccinated in early March. Rising 2 year old hinds are then
introduced to the hind mating mob(s).
Autumn
Hinds are single sire mated in groups of up to 40 hinds. There is no set
number of hinds to be mated per stag as this is usually dictated by
experiments that are in progress. Until 1987 some stags from the group that
was originally donated were used as sire stags. Criteria for selection were
live weight, weight of velvet antler and temperament. A stag was purchased
in 1987 to introduce a new bloodline. In 1988 a terminal sire mating system
began. This system is as follows:
An elite nucleus mob of 20 hinds is mated, from which selected progeny join
the main mating mob of 60 hinds. Selected female progeny from the main
mob are introduced to a terminal sire mating group, from which all progeny
are sold. Although the whole herd is maintained as a red deer herd, Wapiticross bulls could be used as terminal sires, increasing growth rate of the
progeny. This system is expected to increase production from the herd
whilst minimizing the possibility of inbreeding.
Sire stags are introduced to their mating groups in mid-March and removed
in late April/early May. The intention is to have all calves born before the
end of December. Mating mobs are usually run together after 2 cycles and
stags replaced with fresh and usually younger stags.
The main mob of stags is set stocked over autumn and early winter.
Paddock sizes on the unit are small and the mob of up to 70 stags can cause
considerable damage to pasture. A pasture renewal programme is carried out
on one paddock per year and stags are wintered in this paddock which is
cultivated the following -spring. Thus only one paddock per year is
5
'sacrificed'. Stags may be fed supplements such as silage or hay to appetite
over this period, although generally not much is eaten.
Winter
To simplify management over winter as few mobs as possible are run.
Mature hinds are kept in one mob after mating and are break-fence
rotationally grazed with minimal supplementation. When supplements are
required hay or silage is provided. The aim is to maintain hind live weights
over the winter period during early pregnancy because it is believed that
calving difficulties result from hind fatness as well as from overweight
calves. Rising 2 year old hinds are grazed separately as they have not
reached their mature live weight and require more than maintenance levels
of feed. All weaners are run together over the winter set stocked on a
paddock of high pasture mass.
ANIMAL SALES
Research requirements largely dictate mating groups, stock movement,
selection and sales.
Selection for replacements occurs at weaning
Stags required for research purposes, plus stags for future velvet antler
production which have been selected on the basis of their live weight and
sire, are retained as replacements for the main adult mob. Adult stags are
culled for age or poor velvet antler production and sold in
November/December or May/June.
Replacement hinds are selected for research requirements, performance
(growth rate from birth to weaning) and temperament. Adult hinds are
culled for age, or poor reproductive performance or growth rate of their
calves and are sold in March.
In the case of unwanted weaners, hinds are sold at weaning while the stags
may be sold at weaning or carried through to 12-15 months of age.
ANIMAL PERFORMANCE
Calves have been tagged and weighed at birth since 1983, which has allowed
measurement of actual calf growth rates from birth to weaning so that poorly
performing hinds could be identified. Some experimental work involving
melatonin has been undertaken with small numbers of hinds and as a result
of these studies a few calves have been born early (late October/early
6
November). In spite of this mean data of calving has remained fairly
constant, ranging from 26 November to 6 December.
Calving percentage (calves weaned/hinds mated) for the 5 years from 1984
has averaged 87%.
Live weights in March and growth rates from birth to weaning are given in
Tables 1 and 2. Fluctuations in live weight are evident between years
reflecting both the effects of droughts and the retention of animals for
research projects which otherwise would have been culled. However, there
has been a general increase in growth rates in successive years.
Table 1: Average calf growth rate (birth to weaning) and live weights
of weaner, 15 month old and mixed age stags recorded in March
each year.
Year growth rate (g/d)
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
352
360
366
486
443
419
weaning (kg)
53
47
48
64
47
48
15 mnth (kg) mixed age (kg)
108
115
117
98
113
100
155
133
132
150
160
148
Table 2: Average calf growth rate (birth to weaning) and live weights
of weaner, 15 month old and mixed age hinds recorded in
March each year.
Year growth rate (g/d) weaning (kg) 15 mnth (kg) mixed age (kg)
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
397
380
402
358
80
94
91
96
85
86
52
43
48
54
43
41
90
92
92
98
95
94
Until 1985 much of the research work undertaken on the unit was concerned
with velvet antler production. The variety of treatments and harvesting
times mean that velvet production data from the first few years are
7
meaningless. However, total velvet antler production between 1985 and
1988 is shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Velvet antler production of adult stags (2 years and older)
from 1985 to 1988.
Year
1985
1986
1987
1988
total (kg)
72
95
125
109
no. stags producing velvet
62
57
60
55
kg/hd
1.2
1.7
2.0
2.0
Death rate on the unit has averaged 3 to 4%. The highest rates are from
stags which is partly a reflection of the high proportion of old stags in the
herd. The large live-weight losses of stags during the rut are more
pronounced in older animals, and undoubtedly renders them more
susceptible to disease. Malignant catarrhal fever, yersiniosis and fighting
activity account for most deaths. Tuberculosis has never been recorded and
the unit has recently passed its second whole herd test.
REFERENCE
COOP, I.E. & Lf.MMING, R. (1977). Observations from the Lincoln
College deer farm. In Deer farming in New Zealand. Eds K.R. Drew &
M.F. McDonald. New Zealand Society of Animal Production, Occasional
Publication 5: 32-36.
8
3. DEER RESEARCH
Deer research at Lincoln University has been focussed on three major areas antler growth and composition, reproduction, copper metabolism.
ANTLER GROWTH AND COMPOSITION
Early studies of antlers carried out by Paul Muir under Professor Andrew
Sykes' supervision were designed to describe their changes in composition
during growth and the effects of nutrition on velvet antler ptoduction. This
work showed that the best compromise between weight, maximum blood
content and minimal calcification could be achieved by harvesting velvet
antlers from ted deer between about 65 and 70 days after casting. The
nutritional studies showed that there was very little effect of winter nutrition
on velvet antler weight"provided ~e s,tags were adequately nourished, and
this is in keeping with th~.c.tl;rr,-e\nt.vi~w that the major factor which
determines velvet antler weight is pre-hIt live weight.
An important finding is that a large proportion of the total mineralisation of
the bone in antlers occurs over a relatively short time span (between 90 and
120 days after casting). Bone minerals (e.g. calcium) have to be provided
from the rest of the skeleton to meet this short-term demand from the antlers.
Dr Graham Barrell and his co-workers have continued to investigate the role
of hormones, particularly the sex steroids, in the control of this
mineralisation and in the casting process.
REPRODUCTION
Graham Barrell has coordinated a series of studies on the control of seasonal
breeding in both stags and hinds. These have included the initial
observations of the effectiveness of melatonin for advancing breeding
activity which led to the availability of Regulin implants for achieving this
on commercial farms. Other studies are concentrating on changes in the
release of hormones which regulate reproduction in red deer and how these
are linked to changes in daylight.
COPPER METABOLISM
Copper metabolism in deer is of major interest to Professor Sykes and Dr
Alex Familton who have supervised postgraduate workers such as David
Freudenberger, Huda Osman and Tim Harrison in studies of this issue. By
9
use of liver biopsies and blood samples involving trial animals and surveys
from deer slaughter premises, a picture of copper status in New Zealand deer
is emerging. It is quite clear that in all respects of copper metabolism,
including interactions between copper, molybdenum and sulphur, deer are
different to sheep or cattle. This means that strategies for determining and
dealing with copper deficiency in deer require a whole new programme of
basic research on this topic. Research on the underlying biology of copper
metabolism is accompanied by trials on the effectiveness of remedies for
supplementing copper levels in deer.
BEEF -VENISON PRODUCTION SYSTEM
A novel meat production system which utilises Charolais x Angus heifers
and red deer hinds is being developed at Lincoln University by Dr Alastair
Nicol. These animals are bred once before slaughter in a system which
maximises their biological potential for meat production and matches the
seasonal pasture supply curve. This system is run on a separate 12 ha unit
developed just for this purpose in 1989.
10
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4. DEER - PUBLICATIONS AND DISSERTATIONS
CARE, A.D., ROSS, R., BARRELL, G.K., MUIR, P.D., ROSS, A.D., &
SYKES, A.R. (1981). Studies on calcium homeostasis and antler growth
in the stag (Cervus elaphus). Proceedings, 164th Meeting of Society for
Endocrinology, London. p. 32.
MUIR, P.D., BARRELL, G.K. & SYKES, A.R. (1982). Modification of
antler growth in red deer stags by use of a synthetic progestagen.
Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 42: 145147.
BARRELL, G.K., MUIR, P.D. & SYKES, A.R. (1982). Effects of a
synthetic progestagen on antler growth in the red deer stag (Cervus
elaphus). Proceedings, 1st Joint Meeting of British Endocrine Societies,
London. p. 10.
JOHNSTON, J.T. (1982). The effect of 0. circumcincta, 0. ostertagia and
H. contortus on metabolism in weaner red deer stags. B.Agr.Sc. (Hons)
Dissertation, Lincoln College. 52 pp.
BARRELL, G.K. & MUIR, P.D. (1983). Lincoln College deer research.
The Deer Farmer 16: 33-36.
BARRELL, G.K. & MUIR, P.D. (1983). Some answers about velvet. The
Deer Farmer 17: 31-34.
BARRELL, G.K. & MUIR, P.D. (1984). Experimental manipulation of
antler growth in red deer stags by treatment with exogenous steroids.
Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of Australia 27: 814.
JOHNSTON, J.T., FAMILTON, A.S., McANULTY, R. & SYKES, A.R.
(1984). Pathogenicity of 0. circumcincta, 0. ostertagia and H. contortus
in weanling stag fawns (Cervus elaphus). New Zealand Veterinary
Journal 31: 177-179.
WEBSTER, J.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1984). Advancement of mating in
pubertal red deer hinds using melatonin or reduced daily photoperiod.
Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of Australia 27: S22.
11
CULL, G.A., (1984). A study of methods for the detection of oestrus in red
deer hinds (Cervus elaphus). B.Agr.Sc. (Hons) Dissertation, Lincoln
College, University of Canterbury. 71 pp.
WEBSTER, J.R. (1984). Effects of a shortened daily photoperiod or
melatonin treatment on pubertal red deer hinds (Cervus elaphus).
M.Agr.Sc. Thesis, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury. 108 pp.
MUIR, P.D. (1985). Studies on the growth and compositional development
of antlers in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College,
University of Canterbury. 156 pp.
FAMILTON, A.S., FREUDENBERGER, D.O. & SYKES, A.R. (1985).
Trace elements in deer. Proceedings of deer course for veterinarians, 2.
N .Z. Veterinary Association Deer Branch. pp. 32-38.
FAMILTON, A.S. (1985). A liver biopsy technique for use in red deer.
Proceedings of deer course for veterinarians, 2. N.Z. Veterinary
Association Deer Branch. pp. 60-63.
BARRELL, G.K. & MUIR, P.D. (1985). Artificial manipulation of antler
casting and antler growth in red deer. Proceedings of deer course for
veterinarians, 2. N.Z. Veterinary Association Deer Branch. pp. 64-71.
BARRELL, G.K. (1985). Techniques for artificial manipulation of
ovulation in deer. Proceedings of deer course for veterinarians, 2. N.Z.
Veterinary Association Deer Branch. pp. 126-134.
BARRELL, G.K. & MUIR, P.D. (1985). Use of exogenous steroids to
manipulate antler growth in red deer (Cervus elaphus). pp. 2-14 in Deer
farming. Proceedings of A.N.Z.A.A.S. deer farming seminar. Ed. R.C.
Couchman. Victorian Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs:
Melbourne.
WEBSTER, J.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1985). Advancement of reproductive
activity, seasonal reduction in prolactin secretion and seasonal pelage
changes in pubertal red deer hinds (Cervus elaphus) subjected to
artificially shortened daily photoperiod or daily melatonin treatments.
Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 73: 255-260.
BARRELL, G.K., MUIR, P.D. & SYKES, A.R. (1985). Seasonal profiles
of plasma testosterone, prolactin, and growth hormone in red deer stags.
12
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The.
fence
that
pays off!
(Cgclon.e)
'TIGHTLOCK'
DEER
FENCING
Contact your Merchant
Real value for money . . . you know you're getting it
when you put up a 'Cyclone Tightlock' deer fence and
gate system. Sixty years and still going strong,
the 'Tightlock' knot is absolute proof that fencing right
pays off.
Do it right first time with 'Cyclone Tightlock'.
(Q
Another famous brand from
WIRIEMJUCIEllS
Head Office: 21 Beach Road, Otahuhu
P.O. Box 22·198 Auckland
Ph: (09) 276-1949. Fax: (09) 276-2275.
6.Q. v.ears P.roven value for mone~
pp. 185-190 in Biology of deer production. Eds. P.F. Fennessy & K.R.
Drew. The Roy~l Society of N.Z., Bulletin 22: Wellington.
MUIR, P.D., SYKES, A.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1985). Mineralisation
during antler growth in red deer. pp. 251-254 in Biology of deer
production. Eds. P.F. Fennessy & K.R. Drew. The Royal Society ofN.Z.,
Bulletin 22: Wellington.
CARE, A.D., ROSS, R., BARRELL, G.K., MUIR, P.D., AARON, J. &
OXBY, C. (1985). Effects of long-term thyroparathyroidectomy on antler
growth in red deer. pp. 255-256 in Biology of deer production. Eds.
P.F. Fennessy & K.R. Drew. The Royal Society of N.Z., Bulletin 22:
Wellington.
FREUDENBERGER, D.O. (1986). Comparative aspects of copper
metabolism in sheep and deer. M.Appl.Sc. Thesis, Lincoln College,
University of Canterbury. 76 pp.
LAMPEN-SMITH, E.M. (1986). Velvet weight relationships of red deer
stags. B.Agr.Sc. (Hons) Dissertation, Lincoln College. 42 pp.
FAMILTON, A.S. (1986). Starting at square one - trace elements. The
Deer Fanner 29: 31-33.
FAMILTON, A.S. & SYKES, A.R. (1986). Minerals detrimental? The
Deer Fanner 31: 5-6.
BARRELL, G.K., LENGOC, C.M. & MUIR, P.D. (1986). Oestradiol
receptors in growing antlers. Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of
Australia 29: E21.
MUIR, P.D., SYKES, A.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1987). Antler
development and composition in red deer (Cervus elaphus) and some
commercial implications. Proceedings 4th Asian-Australasian Association
of Animal Production, Animal Science Congress, Hamilton. 436.
FREUDENBERGER, D.O., FAMILTON, A.S. & SYKES, A.R. (1987).
Comparative aspects of copper metabolism in silage-fed sheep and deer.
Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge. 108: 1-7.
MUIR, P.D., SYKES, A.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1987). Calcium
metabolism in red deer (Cervus elaphus) offered herbages during
13
antlerogenesis: kinetic and stable balance studies. Journal of Agricultural
Science, Cambridge, 109: 357-364.
BARRELL, G.K. (1987). More on the hummel. N.Z. Wildlife, 10 (80):38.
BARRELL, G.K., LEWIS, L.K. & STAPLES, L.D. (1987). Treatment of
red deer hinds with melatonin implants alters their calving season.
Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of Australia 30, S2 (18).
BARRELL, G.K. (1987). Melatonin for early fawning. The Deer Farmer
40: 41-42.
MUIR, P.D., SYKES, A.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1987). Growth and
mineralisation of antlers in red deer (Cervus elaphus). New Zealand
Journal of Agricultural Research 30: 305-315.
JOPSON, N.B. (1987). A study of bone resorption at a subcutaneous site in
red deer stags (Cervus elaphus). B.Agr.Sc.(Hons) Dissertation, Lincoln
College. 42 pp.
CATTO, G.J. (1987). Electrophoretic detection of a protein polymorphism
useful for parentage verification in red deer. B.Agr.Sc. (Hons)
Dissertation, Lincoln College. 31 pp.
MUIR, P.D., SYKES, A.R. & BARRELL, G.K. (1988). Changes in blood
content and histology during growth of antlers in red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and their relationship to plasma testosterone levels. Journal of
Anatomy 158: 31-42.
MUIR, P.D. & SYKES, A.R. (1988). Effect of winter nutrition on antler
development in red deer (Cervus elaphus): a field study. New Zealand
Journal of Agricultural Research 31: 145-150.
MEIKLE, L.M. (1988). The adrenal gland as a source of progesterone in red
deer (Cervus elaphus). B.Agr.Sc. (Hons) Dissertation, Lincoln College.
46pp.
TOPP, D.F. (1988). Water intake of red deer stags consuming dryland
pasture or indoors on concentrated feed. B.Agr.Sc. (Hons) Dissertation,
Lincoln College. 40 pp.
14
BARRELL, G.K. & JOPSON, N.B. (1988). Resorption of antler bone from
a subcutaneous site. Proceedings of the Physiological Society of New
Zealand 8: 42.
DUCKWORTH, J.A. & BARRELL, G.K. (1988). Induction of ovulation in
anoestrous red deer hinds with a GnRH analogue. Proceedings of the New
Zealand Society of Animal Production 48: 71-75.
BARRELL, G.K. & BOS, S. (1989). Changes in serum oestrone sulphate
and progesterone levels of red deer hinds during pregnancy. New Zealand
Veterinary Journal 37: 1-3.
BARRELL, G.K. & MEIKLE, L.M. (1989). Adrenal production of
progesterone in red deer. Proceedings of the Endocrine Society of
Australia 32: 121.
BARRELL, G.K. & TOPP, D.F. (1989). Water intake of red deer stags
consuming dryland pasture or indoors on concentrated feeds. Proceedings
of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 49: (In press).
DUCKWORTH, J.A. & BARRELL, G.K. (1989). Effect of melatonin
immunisation on live-weight gain of red deer. Proceedings of the New
Zealand Society of Animal Production 49: (In press).
HARRISON, T.J., SYKES, A.R., FAMILTON, A.S. & MCLAREN, R.G.
(1989). Copper levels in livers of red deer in the South Island and their
relationship with soil group. Proceedings of deer course for veterinarians,
6. N.Z. Veterinary Association Deer Branch. pp. 158-162.
HARRISON, T.J., SYKES, A.R. & FAMILTON, A.S. (1989). Efficacy of
Coprin in deer and sheep : an evaluation and comparative study.
Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 49: (In
press).
OSMAN, N.H.I. (1989). Comparative studies of the effects of molybdenum
and sulphur on copper metabolism in sheep Ovis aries and red deer Cervus
elaphus. Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury. 139
pp.
OSMAN, N.H.I. & SYKES, A.R. (1989). Comparative aspects of dietary
molybdenum and sulphur concentration on the distribution of copper in
15
the plasma of sheep and red deer. Proceedings of the New Zealand
Society of Animal Production 49: (In press).
BARRELL, G.K., LENGOC, C.M. & MUIR, P.D. (1989). Receptors for
oestradiol in growing antlers of red deer stags. Proceedings XVIIIth
Congress of the International Union of Game Biologists, Krakow. (In
press).
BARRELL, G.K. & STAPLES, L.D. (1989). Melatonin implants alter
calving season in farmed red deer. Proceedings XVIDth Congress of the
International Union of Game Biologists, Krakow. (In press).
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5. GOATS ON THE DEER UNIT
BACKGROUND
Feral goats were obtained from Westland and Marlborough in the late 1970s
to provide animals for nutritional experimentation and since then they have
been grazed in conjunction with deer on the Research Farm. More recently
there has. been a serious attempt to integrate these animals into the deer
grazing management system.
In 1981 it was realised that some of the feral goats grew reasonable
quantities of cashmere (down) fibre. It was decided to attempt to select
within the flock for cashmere production by breeding selected does to bucks
which had also been selected for production of cashmere. The balance of the
does, with little or no visible down fibre, were to be bred to Anglo-Nubian
cross bucks with the object of developing a line of fast growing animals
suitable for meat production. This philosophy of breeding has continued
over recent years. In addition a deliberate policy of grazing management has
been developed in association with that of the deer herd.
CASHMERE (DOWN) FIBRE PRODUCTION
A flock of 35 does which produced cashmere fibre ranging from an average
fibre diameter of 14.5 to 16.0 microns was developed on the property. The
yield of this fibre ranged from 60 to 180 g per head. It was decided to
concentrate on maintaining low fibre diameter, rather than attempting to
increase yield, by crossing with a white Angora strain. This obviously
delayed gains in increase of yield and the does generally had black guard
hair and a white cashmere undercoat. This flock has been used extensively
in undergraduate degree and diploma student experiments and projects.
Cashmere fibre is a valuable commodity and prices have ranged from $40 to
$180 per kg. However when it is considered that the average doe in New
Zealand produced an average of only 60 g of cashmere fibre per year, there
had to be a major improvement in the yield from these animals to provide
economic returns for goat farmers. It is obvious that the flock at Lincoln
University made some progress along this path.
17
MEAT PRODUCTION
A group of goats has been selected for high growth rate and early maturity
by using approximately equal inputs of feral and dairying strains. The
intention has been to produce animals with large frame size and high milk
production but with the high fecundity and hardiness of ferals.
After 5 years a 9 kg live-weight differential existed at weaning (at 3 months
of age) between the high growth rate selected animals and those of the flock
which had been selected for cashmere fibre yield. The entire male animals
were achieving weights in excess of 60 kg at 15 months of age, and have
been sold to other meat goat producers for commercial sires. Kidding
percentages (kids born per does mated) are averaging 160-190% with up to
160% kids being weaned.
Now that a strain of goat has been developed which fulfils some of our
requirements, it is proposed to undertake research with these animals to
produce information on areas such as muscle development in relation to
weight gain and to study meat characteristics.
TRACE ELEMENT REQUIREMENTS
Very little information exists on trace element requirement and utilisation by
goats. Copper deficiency and its treatment has been investigated within the
Lincoln College flock and the work may be extended to include selenium.
These experiments will produce information to give farmers some indication
of the correct quantitites required to correct and prevent deficiencies and will
enable them to avoid toxicity problems.
GRAZING POLICY
The policy of presenting goats with long pasture during spring and autumn
(the periods of maximum pasture production in Canterbury) and removing
them when pasture length is approximately 5 cm has resulted in the largest
weight gains that we have recorded. Subsequent short periods of regrowth
have produced pasture with relatively high clover content (since the taller
horizon grazed by the goats was mainly grass) which has proved ideal for
deer. The pasture being used is mainly ryegrass and white clover with no
access to 'browse', apart from occasional weeds such as thistles.
Supplementary feeding is provided by access to hay and silage produced on
the Unit.
18
6. GOATRESEARCH
DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY
In spite of the notoriety of goats as being superior animals to sheep in terms
of digestion of forage and supply of nutrients to the intestines, detailed
comparisons have not shown any major differences between the two species.
At Lincoln University the two species have been compared for ability to use
both high and low quality forages. No differences in any of the criteria of
digestion studied (e.g. in vivo dry matter digestion, duodenal protein
supply/kg of digestible organic matter intake) were recorded between sheep
and goats. Goats do have different grazing and browsing behaviour and this
may give them some intake advantages over other species but their ability to
extract nutrients from ingested feed is essentially identical to that of sheep.
Much of this work has been conducted under the supervision of Dr Dennis
Poppi.
GRAZING BEHAVIOUR
Goats do not readily graze pasture to low levels as sheep and cattle do. This
grazing feature has been studied at the College by Dr Alastair Nicol and his
co-workers. They have come to the view that use of pasture may be
optimised by strategic grazing with different combinations of animal species,
either alternating or grazing the animals together. Recently these studies
have been extended to deer-cattle comparisons of a similar nature.
19
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Ian Vessey Irwell (03241) 865. Or Christchurch Office: Graham Guthrie (03) 793-244.
7. GOATS AND T AHR ·PUBLICATIONS AND DISSERTATIONS
ALAM, M.R., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1983). The intake,
digestibility and retention time of two forages by lambs and kids.
Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 43: 119121.
COLLIE, H.M. (1983). Assessment and measurement of undercoat fibre
production in feral goats. Dip. Field Technol. Dissertation, Lincoln
College. 39 pp.
TRUSSLER, S. (1983). Gastro-intestinal nematodes of goats and sheep.
Dip. Field Technol. Dissertation, Lincoln College. 40 pp.
CLARKE, S.M. (1984). Objective measurement for selection of cashmere
bucks. Dip. Field Technol. Dissertation, Lincoln College. 25 pp.
ALAM, M.R., BORENS, F., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1984).
Comparative digestion in sheep and goats. p. 184 in Ruminant physiology
- concepts and consequences. Proceedings of a Symposium, University of
Western Australia. Ed. S.K. Baker, J.M. Gawthorne, J.B. MacKintosh and
D.B. Purser.
HUGHES, T.P., SYKES, A.R. & POPPI, D.P. (1984). Diet selection by
lambs, kids and calves. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of
Animal Production. 44: 109-112.
ALAM, M.R., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1985). Comparative intake of
digestible organic matter and water by goats and sheep. Proceedings of
the New Zealand Society of Animal Production. 45: 107-111.
ALAM, M.R., LAWSON, G.D., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1985).
Comparative aspects of the site of protein digestion and utilization in
lambs and kids. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of New Zealand 10:
68.
COLLINS, H.A. & NICOL, A.M. (1985). The consequence for feed dry
matter intake of grazing sheep, cattle and goats to the same residual
herbage mass. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal
Production. 46: 125-128.
21
ALAM, M.R. (1985). Forage utilization by kids and lambs. Ph.D. Thesis,
Lincoln College, University of Canterbury. 181 pp.
McCAUSLAND, S.A. (1985). A practical method for estimating cashmere
yield as an aid to selection. Dip. Farm Manage. Dissertation, Lincoln
College. 25 pp.
BARRELL, G.K., FAMILTON, A.S. & GUMBRELL, R.C. (1986). Some
blood parameters for Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). New
Zealand Veterinary Journal 34: 34-35.
FAMILTON, A.S. (1986). Market niches for chevon. Mohair News, July:
32-33~
ALAM, M.R., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1987). Comparative aspects
of water intake and flow down the digestive tract of kids and lambs.
Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge, 108: 253-256.
ALAM, M.R., LAWSON, G.D., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1987).
Comparison of the site and extent of digestion of nutrients of a forage in
kids and lambs. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge, 109: 583589.
NICOL, A.M., POPPI, D.P., ALAM, M.R. & COLLINS, H.A. (1987).
Dietary differences between goats and sheep. Proceedings of the New
Zealand Grassland Association. 48: 199-205.
NICOL, A.M., COLLINS, H.A. & McCALL, D.G. (1987). The grazing
nutrition of goats. Proceedings of the 2nd International Cashmere
Conference, Lincoln College, New Zealand. 97-104.
COLLINS, H.A. & NICOL, A.M. (1987). Diet selection differences
between sheep, cattle and goats grazed on similar swards. Proceedings of
the 4th Asian Australasian Association of Animal Production, Animal
Science Congress, Hamilton. 172.
TAN, C.M., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1987). Comparative aspects of
rumen digestion in goats and sheep offered barley straw. Proceedings of
the 4th Asian Australasian Association of Animal Production, Animal
Science Congress, Hamilton. 345.
22
ADKINS, G.R.E. (1987). The viability of meat producing goats in
New Zealand. Dip. Farm Manage. Dissertation, Lincoln College. 27 pp.
BARRELL, G.K. (1988). Recognition of wild ungulates in New Zealand as
a vulnerable resource. p. 122 in Seminar 2000 - wild animal management.
New Zealand Deerstalkers Association.
NICOL, A.M. (1988). Grazing with goats. Scottish Cashmere Breeders
Association Newsletter No 2.
FAMILTON, A.S. (1988). Goat meat industry - current status - future
potential. Proceedings of the Sheep and Beef Cattle Society of the N .Z.
Veterinary Association 18: 2-8.
POPPI, D.P., TAN, C.M. & NICOL, A.M. (1988). Digestion in the
ruminant and its implications. Proceedings of the Sheep and Beef Cattle
Society of the N.Z. Veterinary Association 18: 251-258.
TAN, C.M. (1988). Utilisation oflow quality roughage by goats and sheep.
Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury. 152 pp.
VELDHUIZEN, F.A. (1988). The effect of melatonin implants on shedding
of cashmere in goats. B.Agr.Sc. (Hons) Dissertation, Lincoln College. 44
pp.
COLLINS, H.A. & NICOL, A.M. (1989). Herbage intake of cattle, sheep
and goats grazed alone and in mixtures on ryegrass-white clover pasture.
Animal Production 48: 630.
TAN, C.M., POPPI, D.P. & SYKES, A.R. (1989). Comparative responses
of intake and rumen function in sheep and goats to supplementation of
barley straw forages with urea and sulphur. In Feeding strategies for
improving productivity of ruminant livestock in developing countries,
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. (In press).
BARRELL, G.K., FAMILTON, A.S. & KEELEY, M.J. (1989). Seasonal
live-weight changes of Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) farmed
on pasture in New Zealand. Proceedings XVIllth Congress of the
International Union of Game Biologists, Krakow. (In press).
COLLINS, H.A. (1989). Single and mixed grazing of cattle, sheep and
goats. Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College, University of Canterbury. 198 pp.
23
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24
8. COURSES AVAILABLE AT LINCOLN UNIVERSITY
All of the courses listed below include options for specialisation in some
aspect of deer or goat production science. The level and degree of
specialisation depends entirely on the type of course being undertaken. For
instance some of the recent Doctor of Philosophy graduates have confined
their whole course to some aspect of deer or goat science whereas a Diploma
student may spend only parts of some subjects dealing specifically with
these animals. Alternatively a Diploma or Degree student may select
specialist deer and goat subjects within these courses.
In the case of Bachelor of Agricultural Science, the subject Animal Science
in the 1st and 2nd year and Livestock Production Science in 3rd year all deal
with physiology, health and husbandry of deer and goats. In the 4th year
there is a group of animal science subjects specialising in advanced level
physiology, nutrition and breeding which contain large deer and goat
components and there is an advanced level production subject which has
specific options for production science of selected animal species. The 4th
year subjects are built up from optional units each lasting almost 3 weeks,
e.g. Antler growth is one such unit. A similar development of specialisation
occurs within the Bachelor of Commerce degree in the first two years and
Commerce students have access to advanced options from the Agricultural
Science degree during their 3rd year.
Lincoln University has responded to the educational needs of all of the
livestock industries by providing such specialist options within courses. In
addition, principles of agriculture such as soils, plants, pasture inanagement,
management systems in general, agricultural finance and marketing, form
essential cores common to many types of livestock production.
Diploma:
(2 years)
(2 years)
Diploma in Farm Management
Diploma in Field Technology
(degrees overpage)
25
Bachelor:
Bachelor of Agriculture
Bachelor of Agricultural Science
Bachelor of Agricultural Science with Honours
Bachelor of Science
Bachelor of Science with Honours
Bachelor of Commerce (Agriculture)
Bachelor of Commerce and Management
(3 years)
(4 years)
(4 years)
(3 years)
(4 years)
(3 years)
(3 years)
Master:
(2+ years)
(2+ years)
(2+ years)
(2+ years)
Agricultural Science
Applied Science
Science
Commerce
Doctor:
(2+years)
Doctor of Philosophy
26