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FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK
PORTLAND, OREGON
2409.26b - REFORESTATION HANDBOOK
R-6 Amendment No. 2409.26b-92-6
Effective March 13, 1992
POSTING NOTICE. Amendments to this handbook are numbered consecutively.
Check the last transmittal sheet received for this handbook to see that the above
amendment number is in sequence. If not, obtain intervening amendment(s) at
once from the Information Center. Do not post this amendment until the missing
one(s) is received and posted. After posting, place the transmittal at the front of the
title and retain until the first transmittal of the next calendar year is received.
The last amendment to this handbook was 2409.26b-92-5
(!2409.26b Contents).
Superseded New
Page Code
(Number of Sheets)
Chapter 70 (Entire Chapter)
3
Document Name
2409.26b,70
26
Digest:
Chapter 70 - This Chapter updates the procedures for seedling handling and
storage; planting standards and methods; and planting contracts.
JOHN F. BUTRUILLE
Regional Forester
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FSH 2409.26b - REFORESTATION HANDBOOK
R-6 AMENDMENT 2409.26b-92-6
EFFECTIVE 3/13/92
CHAPTER 70 - FIELD PLANTING
71
INTRODUCTION
71.1
Objectives of Reforestation
72
REFORESTATION PLANNING
73
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
73.1
73.11
73.12
73.13
73.2
73.21
73.22
73.23
73.24
73.25
73.3
When to Plant
Soil Conditions
Weather Guidelines
Season
What to Plant
Site and Environmental Factors
Species
Seed Source
Seedling Morphology
Seedling Physiology
Matching Planting Stock to the Site
74
SEEDLING HANDLING AND STORAGE
74.1
74.2
74.21
74.22
74.23
74.24
74.3
74.4
74.5
74.51
74.52
74.53
74.54
74.6
74.61
74.62
74.63
74.64
Objective
General Care of Bareroot Stock
Maintaining Dormancy
Exposure to Temperature Extremes
Humidity
Exposure to Atmosphere
Monitoring Storage Conditions
Monitoring Seedling Conditions
Transportation to Planting Site
Insulated Vans or Boxes
Refrigerated Vans
Desert Cooler
Reflective Tarps and Covers
Seedling Field Handling
Planting Bags
Jelly-Rolling
Root Dips
Field Handling DO's and DON'Ts
75
FIELD PLANTING STANDARDS
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75.1
75.2
75.3
75.4
75.5
75.6
75.7
Planting Spot Selection
Factors Affected by Spot Selection
Spacing
Clearing and Scarification
Planting Hole Preparation
Tree Placement
Soil Firmness
76
PLANTING METHODS
76.1
76.11
76.12
76.13
76.14
76.2
76.3
76.4
76.41
76.42
76.5
Hand Planting
Tree Planting Augers
Mattocks and Hoedags
Spades and Shovels
Planting Bars
Machine Planting
Container Stock Planting
Special Needs
Shading
Mulching
Snowplowing
77
CONTRACT PLANTING
77.1
77.11
77.12
77.13
77.14
77.15
77.2
77.21
77.22
77.23
77.24
Contract Preparation
Site Condition Examination and Data Collection
Acreage
Government Furnished Property
Planting Method
Site-Specific Clauses
Contract Administration
COR and Inspector Training
Contract Inspection and Monitoring
Inspector Responsibilities
Contracting Officer's Responsibilities
78
READING REFERENCES
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71 - INTRODUCTION. A successful artificial regeneration system requires a
certain chain of events to take place. If one or more of these components is
compromised, failure of the process may occur. Good planning, site preparation,
seedlings, planting technique, and subsequent treatments are essential to a
successful planting program.
The following text will serve as a guide to planning and implementing successful
planting programs.
71.1 - Objectives of Reforestation.
reforestation program are to:
The primary objectives of an artificial
1. Ensure prompt reforestation of cut-over and burned-over forest land at
acceptable stocking levels, with desirable species, at a reasonable cost.
2. Ensure that plantations meet desired standards for growth.
3. Promote a mix of tree species, or a more desirable species establishment, or
diversity of the gene pool in natural regeneration areas.
72 - REFORESTATION PLANNING.
Reforestation plans begin with the
silvicultural prescription for a particular forest stand. Subsequent planning for a
particular harvest unit or burned area builds on the initial prescription in order to
meet management objectives. The prescriptive technique should be a complete
record of the thought process used to make silvicultural decisions and include
predictions of the final outcome.
Planning involves at least four basic criteria:
1. Understand the site being reforested with relation to its abiotic and biotic
environments. These include soils, topography, habitat type, climate, breeding
zone, stand composition, animal damage potential, insect, and disease.
2. Understanding the specific seedling environment is very important. The
intensity of site preparation may greatly influence many factors affecting this
environment (refer to Chapter 30) specifically, availability of soil moisture,
temperature, light, nutrients, and micro sites.
3. Management objectives need to be identified and understood since
reforestation efforts have a great affect on many other resources including wildlife
habitat, soil and watershed, range and visuals.
4. The final step in the process is the actual reforestation prescription. In this
step, several items will be determined and include:
a. Selection of tree species.
b. Seedling characteristics.
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(1) Seed source.
(2) Height.
(3) Caliper.
(4) Shoot/root ratio.
(5) Stock type - age class.
(6) Bare root or container.
c. Initial planting density.
Stocking after 3 years and at commercial thinning.
d. Sowing schedule (including nursery selection).
e. Seedling quality testing.
f. Handling needs.
g. Snow removal from roads.
h. Planting.
(1) Date.
(2) Method.
(3) Special needs (that is, scalp size, shading, animal control).
i. Monitoring and evaluation.
(1) Surveys.
(2) Maintenance.
73 - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
73.1 - When to Plant. Timing is critical to success of the planting operation.
Factors to consider are season to plant, availability of seedlings, completion of site
preparation, and soil moisture availability.
1.
Planting should take place during the first season following site
preparation, without delay (usually within a few months).
2. Planting should be done during the dormant season in late fall, winter, or
early spring.
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3. Seedlings grown for the site to be planted need to be available.
4. Soil moisture needs to be available for immediate seedling uptake.
5. Soil temperatures should be approximately 40oF (5oC) or higher for
seedling root growth to take place, otherwise physiological drought may occur even
though stomatal control for transpiration is efficient.
6. Soils should be unfrozen below upper half inch.
7. Planting stock should be in the proper physiological condition.
73.11 - Soil Conditions. Soil moisture availability is a key element to a successful
reforestation project. Prior knowledge of soil characteristics can be important to
decisions relating to beginning planting and ending planting.
Gravimetric
measurements and soil moisture retention curves can be developed for each soil
type. Soil moisture retention characteristics vary considerably between soil types.
Soil moisture retention should not go beyond -2 bars to ensure that a 30-day supply
is available. Soil moisture should be tested at the start of planting an individual
unit and periodically thereafter. A Speedy moisture meter, properly calibrated, is
useful for these measurements.
73.12 - Weather Guidelines. All elements of weather are extremely important.
Wind speed, relative humidity, and temperature govern seedling moisture losses
and plant moisture stress. The more moisture the air can hold at a particular time,
the greater the moisture losses from seedlings occurs.
The decision to cease planting is a difficult one. Many things should be considered
prior to making the decision. These factors include:
1. The degree of seedling plant water stress caused by current weather
conditions.
2. Probability of receiving precipitation within at least a 30-day period based
on past weather data.
3. Present soil moisture conditions, for example: Is a 30-day supply presently
available to the plant?
4. Predicted future weather, temperature, relative humidity, rainfall.
5. Present condition of planting stock (dormancy).
6. Number of seedlings and/or acres remaining to be planted.
High risk weather conditions exist during high temperatures, low humidity and
high winds. All of these factors must be considered together. Normally, planting
can take place when:
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- Air temperature is between 30o-65oF, that is, above freezing and below 65oF.
- Wind velocity is less than 20 mph and humidities are greater than 20
percent. Wet bulb depression (dry bulb - wet bulb temperature) is below 8.0oF.
For further information and helpful HINTS, consult page 142 and Appendix C in
Regenerating Oregon's Forests, by Brian D. Cleary, Robert D. Greaves, and Richard
K. Hermann, 1978, Oregon State University extension Service, Corvallis, Oregon
97331, 286 pages. Keep in mind that these examples are GUIDELINES and MUST
be utilized in concert with local conditions and experience.
73.13 - Season. In general, two seasons are available for planting tree seedlings,
fall and spring, when soil and weather conditions are favorable. Winter planting is
also practical in coastal or inland valleys.
Late fall planting is risky in some areas because of the increased potential for frost
heaving in lighter textured soils, and also because of lower soil moisture contents.
Poor planting conditions following lifting and storage of seedlings can result in loss
of seedlings and a delay in planting some sites. Very wet sites can be more easily
planted in fall than spring, before winter precipitation creates highly saturated
conditions.
Winter and spring planting is most desirable because soil conditions and weather
are most favorable to vigorous root growth following outplanting.
In any event, planting dormant stock maximizes seedling resistance to exposure
and environmental stresses. Lifting during deep dormancy and placing seedlings in
adequate cold or frozen storage necessarily limits planting to periods during spring,
late fall, winter, and early spring.
73.2 - What to Plant. Selecting planting stock is a relatively straightforward
proposition. Considerations in selecting stock may include stock availability, site
characteristics, management objectives, and timing.
73.21 - Site and Environmental Factors. Species and seed source factors have longlasting effects on plantation performance, while a seedling's morphological and
physiological characteristics have short-term effects. Seedlings which are of the
correct species and seed source will ensure adaptation to climatic extremes, disease,
and insect outbreaks which could conceivably destroy or limit a plantation's
usefulness.
Seedlings which exhibit preferred morphological and physiological characteristics
are better able to withstand drought, frosts, competition, and other environmental
hazards that may threaten initial survival and subsequent growth.
73.22 - Species. Proper species selection is more than simply planting the same
species which occupied the site prior to harvest or other site disturbance. Some
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species may perform better on the disturbed sites, which occur following intensive
site preparation or wildfire, than others.
Seral species may survive and grow better on planting sites than climax species.
One seral species may be favored over another because of frost or drought resistance
on certain slope positions.
Some species have a higher susceptibility to certain diseases or insect infestations
and are, therefore, not recommended for some plantings.
73.23 - Seed Source. Using adapted seedlings from a known seed source in the
vicinity of the area to be reforested helps ensure the plantation will develop
normally, and be relatively free of widespread mortality and deformation. Proper
cone and seed collection procedures should be followed as discussed in FSH 2409.26.
Generally, seedlings should originate from seed collected within 500 feet in
elevation of the planting site. In some cases, up to 1000 feet elevational band can
be used safely.
73.24 - Seedling Morphology. Matching of stock characteristics to site conditions is
important to predicting growth and survival.
Nurseries can provide useful descriptive information that includes shoot height,
stem caliper, shoot/root ratio, age, and stock type.
Planting stock field tests have not been able to establish what stock characteristics
ensure the best performance. Root Growth Capacity (RGC) is an important
measurement. There are a number of methods for determining this. A large
number of new growing tips may be important to early root growth. It is important
to note that there is NO single factor or seedling viability test currently available
that should be exclusively used to determine the quality of seedlings. Rather, a
battery of tests should be used and the results from all of them examined.
73.25 - Seedling Physiology. It is extremely important that seedlings are dormant
when lifted. As a general rule of thumb, it may be stated that seedlings lifted from
nursery beds from December to March have the most vigorous root growth after
planting. This, however, is VERY dependant upon species, seed source, annual
weather conditions, and nursery location.
Dormant planting stock may be stored longer. The field performance for early or
late lifted stock may decrease the longer it is stored, dependant upon the above
mentioned factors, as well as the type of storage utilized.
Ideal lifting times will vary from nursery to nursery and species to species.
Seasonal variations will occur as well. Lifting window curves can assist in
determining proper timing of lifting for a particular species and seed source at a
particular nursery.
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73.3 - Matching Planting Stock to the Site. Under ideal site conditions, achieving
acceptable survival and growth does not require seedlings with extraordinary
characteristics. Sites with sufficient moisture, favorable aspect, slope, and sparse
competing vegetation are not as difficult to regenerate.
Large (tall) seedlings of all species do well on favorable sites. Seedlings with larger
stem caliper exhibit better growth than those with smaller calipers. Using this
criteria, reforestation personnel should consider each lot separately within a specific
nursery. Conversely, sites that are considered difficult to reforest may need stock
which has other specialized characteristics.
1. High Elevation Sites. Container stock is sometimes used because the
root/soil interface is not disturbed by lifting and pruning. High elevation sites are
usually planted later, after snow melt, and when soil moisture may be rapidly
depleted. Another technique is to fall plant PRIOR to snow fall, yet early enough to
allow reestablishment of root growth.
2. Brushy sites. Tall seedlings with longer roots may be needed where bush
may overtop seedlings quickly.
This is especially important to Douglas-fir
establishment on the Oregon/Washington coastal sites.
3. Frost Pocket Areas. Seedlings which are frost resistant are those which
are completely dormant. Some species naturally have a greater resistance to frost
damage and should be considered for such areas.
4. Droughty Sites. A well balanced seedling with a high volume root system,
larger caliper, and correspondingly shorter top usually perform well on dry sites
where competing vegetation may cause a drop in survival. South facing slopes also
may require larger caliper with thick bark.
5. Soil. Shallow soils may require short, brushy root systems; while rocky
shallow soils may call for container stock.
74 - SEEDLING HANDLING AND STORAGE. A major cause of plantation failure
often results when seedling handling and storage standards are not closely adhered
to. If more than one of the tree care steps is not performed correctly, the effects are
cumulative. Quality performance must take place throughout the process. Tree
handling, unlike weather and other unforeseen factors can be controlled. Once
lifted, seedlings are extremely vulnerable to poor handling and storage techniques.
74.1 - Objective. The objective of proper tree care and handling, as discussed here,
is to provide the most favorable environmental condition for the seedlings while
they are in storage, in transit, and are on the planting site. Other tree care
programs are discussed in Chapter 60.
74.2 - General Care of Bareroot Stock. Safeguards must be taken to ensure
dormancy, and eliminate exposure to high temperature and low humidity, as well
as, rough handling and desiccation of roots. All occurrences combined may result in
physiological deterioration and ultimate plantation failure.
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74.21 - Maintaining Dormancy. Bareroot stock must remain dormant prior to
outplanting. Seedlings which have broken dormancy (as evidenced by bud swelling
or elongation) deteriorate rapidly. Once this occurs, even when stored under the
best conditions, respiration continues and trees begin to use food (energy) reserves
for elongation and root growth. Temperatures need to be in the 32 o-35oF range
inside tree containers to assure a low level of physiological activity. Physiological
activity may not actually begin until temperatures reach about 40 oF, however,
survival and growth suffer dramatically as a result of poor storage and handling at
any point in the process. Cooler failure will generally create conditions which
rapidly alter seedling physiological state.
74.22 - Exposure to Temperature Extremes. High temperatures cause problems
other than breakage of dormancy, including mold development as temperatures rise
above 35oF. Unplanned frozen conditions, and temperatures below 28oF may cause
cells to rupture and desiccation to occur due to an inability to translocate moisture.
Bud and twig breakage occurs more easily, as well. However, seedlings prepared
for freezer storage may safely be held for periods of up to 1 year in a frozen state.
74.23 - Humidity. Seedlings in transit or storage have very little moisture available
to draw on. Much of the seedling's moisture-absorbing capacity has been removed
during the lift and pack process. Low storage temperatures also retard the
translocation of moisture to the tops. Humidities greater than 90 percent are
necessary to prevent water loss and desiccation of root hairs and tops while in
storage.
74.24 - Exposure to Atmosphere. Unprotected, seedlings lose moisture rapidly from
root hairs. Shipping packages, packing medium, jelly-rolling and covering all aid in
keeping moisture losses to a minimum. It is also important to repair rips and tears
in the packing containers.
74.3 - Monitoring Storage Conditions. Seedling shipping containers should be
monitored for temperature by using probe thermometers. Even though tree coolers
may meet temperature and humidity standards, container temperatures may be up
to 10 degrees greater. It is important to monitor cooler and container conditions to
ensure compliance with the stated temperature and humidity storage guidelines.
Inside container temperatures should not exceed 36oF. Refer to Chapter 60 for
further information.
74.4 - Monitoring Seedling Conditions. Seedlings must be checked for symptoms
which may indicate abuse or neglect. By identifying this condition early plantation
failure can be averted.
1. Dry Roots or Tops. Tree roots should feel moist and cool to the touch. If
the roots feel dry, Plant Moisture Stress (PMS) should be checked with a pressure
chamber. Stresses above 10 atmospheres any time during planting or handling may
be detrimental to seedling survival. Seedlings in storage should be at or below 5atm PMS level. Roots can be checked for living tissue by stripping dead cork and
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bark off with a sharp knife or fingernail. Living tissue is moist and glistening
white, while the inner tissue of dead roots is brown or yellow-tan resembling a
skinned apple after a few minutes in the air.
It is important to know that seedlings without high PMS can also have dead root
systems. This is because dead roots can absorb moisture through watering and can
slowly transport water to the crowns. Trees, such as this, may appear healthy
externally as well, but die when out planted.
2. Foliage Color. Seedling color should be a bright green. Any deviation
should warrant more investigation. Yellow, red, brown, or spotting may indicate
damaged trees.
3. Odor. Sour odors from a freshly opened container indicate that trees have
heated up at some point and fermentation has started. These trees should be
checked more thoroughly before planting.
4. Fungi. Molds and fungi can cause serious damage to seedlings tissue. Be
alert to detect this and get confirmation on the species encountered.
74.5 - Transportation to Planting Site. Transportation to the planting site needs to
be in vehicles that are closed and insulated. Open trucks or trailers are not
acceptable even if the seedling containers are covered with canvas, space blankets,
or other material. Seedlings are subject to wind and sun desiccation, as well as
freezing injuries.
74.51 - Insulated Vans or Boxes. Insulated truck boxes, canopies, or trailers are
adequate for short trips to the field. The boxes should be cool when seedlings are
placed in them otherwise inside bag temperature will increase. Insulation of the
truck bed is important because of heat generated by the vehicles exhaust system.
The insulated canopy will only serve to trap heat if the floor is not also insulated.
Racks are needed to prevent heat buildup from poor air circulation.
74.52 - Refrigerated Vans.
A refrigerated van is the most dependable
transportation system. Racks are still needed for good air circulation. Vans can be
parked at the site and used for several days. It is important to note that without
regulated humidity very dry conditions can result. Water can be sprayed on walls
and floor to maintain a high humidity.
74.53 - Desert Cooler. The desert cooler utilizes evaporation heat loss technique for
keeping seedlings cool, provided evaporation surfaces are kept moist enough. Wet
burlap is generally used to hold moisture. If bags are covered immediately after
removal from refrigeration, temperatures of 39oF can be maintained in the shade
for an entire day even in ambient temperatures of 61-64oF.
74.54 - Reflective Tarps and Covers. Covers, such as space blankets and other
reflective tarps, maintain a cool environment by protecting seedlings containers
from drying winds and radiation. Sunlight and heat are reflected outward and help
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maintain cold of refrigeration. Canvas tarps are NOT acceptable as they build up
heat inside and lose cold rapidly. The physiological condition of the seedlings is
greatly altered when this occurs.
74.6 - Seedling Field Handling. Handling by the tree planter is the last step where
careless handling can cause survival and growth problems. Poor handling at this
point can completely undermine planting success even though previous handling
procedures were satisfactory.
74.61 - Planting Bags. Planting bags should be light in color, free of rips,
contamination, and not retain heat. The minimum depth should be 15 inches or
greater for complete coverage of tops and roots. The insulated bags consisting of an
insert of canvas or cloth covered foam can be used when adverse weather conditions
are encountered (see subsection 73.12). The use of inserts made of canvas, rubber,
or bare foam is not acceptable.
74.62 - Jelly-Rolling. Jelly-rolling is a method for seedling handling and protection.
Seedlings are first dipped in a horticulture grade vermiculite (No. 4) and water and
then rolled in a piece of water-soaked burlap (36 x 18 inches). The seedling tops are
exposed and roots are enclosed. Each seedling jelly roll should make a roll about 4.5
inches in diameter (about 50 2/0 seedlings). Seedling jelly rolls are placed in
planting bags and then loosened slightly to permit extraction of one seedling at a
time for planting. The jelly-rolling process provides good insurance against high
internal moisture stress and root desiccation, when planting takes place during
periods of high climatic stress.
74.63 - Root Dips. Dipping roots in plain water or slurry mixtures, prior to
distribution to individual planters, provides good protection from root desiccation.
Ground peat moss, horticultural grade vermiculite (No. 4) or a mixture of these
components is acceptable. Terra Sorb (TS) has been used by itself or mixed with the
above materials and helps keep them in suspension.
74.64 - Field Handling DO's and DON'Ts. Tree planting contract inspectors and
Contracting Officer Representatives (COR) should be aware that the following items
should be watched for during planting, as they are all clauses in the Standard
Region 6 Tree Planting Contract:
1. Planting bags with too many trees to permit easy extraction of seedling
without root damage (stripping).
2. Planting bags which do not meet specifications (64.61).
3. Dry burlap or undipped seedlings in the planting bags.
4. Trees being carried in planter's hands between planting holes.
5. Root pruning or root stripping by planters.
6. Dropped trees.
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7. Sitting on planting bags with seedlings in them.
8. Taking lunch breaks with seedlings left in planting bags.
9. Intentionally hiding seedlings (by the tree planting contractor).
10. Dipping or counting seedlings in the open without shielding in tent,
insulated box, or canopy.
11. Improper storage of containers.
12. Throwing, standing, or generally rough handling of seedling containers.
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75 - FIELD PLANTING STANDARDS. The planting operation requires attention
to detail in every respect. This section will describe the importance of choosing the
best methods and tools which will help achieve the desired objectives.
75.1 - Planting Spot Selection. Selecting the planting spot is the first step in
meeting tree survival and obtaining acceptable growth. It is most important to
place the seedling in a spot where it can survive and grow with reasonable
assurance. Guidelines for selecting suitable spots are outlined below:
1. Locate planting spots on north and east side of stumps, logs, rocks,
hummocks, snags, dead brush, slash and debris piles, wherever practical. On east
aspects subject to frost, the planting spot should be located on the west side of these
objects.
2. Planting spots should not be located on top of hummocks, berms, dirt piles,
rock outcrop, compacted skidtrails or landings, slides, slumps, swampy ground, or
on human or animal paths.
3. Avoid planting in depressions if it appears that water will not drain off.
However, the sides of depressions may be favorable.
4. Select areas on the downhill side of large rocks, logs or stumps, where
seedlings would be protected from soil movement (ravelling), snow creep, and
debris.
NOTE: These spots may need to be avoided if surface runoff is a problem. Water
movement may cause erosion and subsequent root exposure.
5. Avoid wet areas which have a high degree of organic matter which will dry
out quickly; or where trees cannot be properly planted.
6. Avoid steep draw bottoms or chutes which run water from time to time.
7. Avoid areas which have soil mixed with slash and debris.
75.2 - Factors Affected by Spot Selection. Survival and growth of a seedling is
dependent upon adequate moisture and nutrient levels and protection from animals
or other local damaging environmental conditions.
1. Soil Moisture. Availability of soil moisture is influenced by soil
temperature, soil moisture content, texture, bulk density, and evaporative losses.
Competition from other plants in same rooting zone as the seedling also influence
moisture content.
2. Transpiration. Reducing losses due to transpiration will benefit seedling
survival. Seedlings which are not stressed continue to grow and establish a more
permanent root/soil interface. A seedling which is exposed to excessive amounts of
short-wave radiation build up sensible heat which, if higher than ambient
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temperature, increases transpirational losses. Shading helps to keep temperatures
lower.
3. Photosynthesis. A seedling must produce its own food in order for it to
survive and grow. If exposed to high temperatures, serious growth reductions are
likely to take place. Shading helps here, as well.
4. Root Regeneration. New root production is necessary for seedling
survival and growth. The sooner this can occur, the greater the chances for success.
Cold soils inhibit root growth to a great extent. If heat losses are reduced, the
seedling will utilize available moisture for root growth for longer periods.
75.3 - Spacing. Tree spacing may vary greatly with site characteristics, animal
damage potential, and expected mortality. In any event, spacing should ultimately
be established to meet desired management objectives for stocking.
For example, an increased planting rate may be desirable if the area has been
determined to have low plantability so that more attempts are made to plant trees,
even though the expected number to be planted is not greater than the desired
initial stocking levels. Preplant surveys are essential for this concept to work, since
many areas could conceivably be over planted if the area's plantability is not known.
Refer to Chapter 20 for further information.
75.4 - Clearing and Scarification. The area cleared of debris and live vegetation
around the selected planting spot, should be of sufficient size and depth to:
1. Prevent debris, ash, and dry soil from being incorporated into the planting
hole or mixed with soil being used to fill the planting hole.
2. Accommodate soil removed from the planting hole. This requirement is
dependent on the planting method being used. For example, auger planting
normally spreads soil in a circle approximately 18-24 inches in diameter.
3. Remove vegetation which will compete with the planted seedling. The size
of the cleared spots is dependent on the rooting characteristics of the residual
vegetation.
This method of planting preparation is primarily restricted to freshly
logged or prepared sites with light to moderate herbaceous vegetation.
When vegetation occupies the area more completely, spot size and depth of
scarification must be increased to ensure that underlying roots of
vegetation near the spot are destroyed.
4. Remove slash or debris that would physically interfere with the planting
operation.
5. Expose mineral soil.
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Lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine respond more in height growth to larger scalp
sizes (4 feet) than does Douglas-fir. Scalp size, however, depends on site
characteristics, vegetation present, and other environmental factors.
75.5 - Planting Hole Preparation. Planting hole dimensions should be large enough
to fully accommodate seedling roots without jamming, tangling, deforming, or
damaging them. The planter should be able to see into the hole and correct any
problems that develop.
In general, holes should be:
1. Two inches deeper than the average root length of the trees being planted.
2. Approximately 3 1/2-4 inches in diameter or large enough for proper root
placement, depth, and firming of soil.
3. Broken out on three sides so that soils are easily penetrated by roots.
4. Vertical, or nearly so.
Slit planting in easily compacted soils, or without breaking the hole out on three
sides, places tree roots in one plane. Trees planted in such a way do not develop
roots in all directions, causing poor support. Slit planting may be the only method
to use in extremely rocky conditions. Slit planting can be used in light and medium
textured soils provided the roots are not being jammed into the hole.
75.6 - Tree Placement. Proper tree placement includes root arrangement, planting
depth and stem orientation. If any one of these items is not done with attention to
detail, root system development, growth, or survival will suffer.
1. Root Arrangement. Circling, twisting, or jamming roots can cause
strangling of the roots. Strangling of the roots restricts development and may cause
mortality or weaken the root itself. As the tree continues to grow, and gains
biomass above ground, it lacks surface lateral roots to completely anchor it and is
susceptible to windthrow. Stunting can also occur as a result of poor lateral root
development because the tree does not have adequate access to water and nutrients.
J, U, or L roots are all detrimental to tree growth and/or survival. Roots should
take the same configuration as they grew in the nursery, that is, fan-shaped,
without twisting or other deformations.
2. Planting Depth. The seedling should be planted at about the same depth
as it was in the nursery. Shallow planting will consistently result in poor growth
and survival. Exposed root tissue usually results in sunscalding and desiccation.
Deeper planting, however, above the root collar (cotyledon scar), reduces moisture
loss and stress by providing protection against frost heaving and soil settling after
planting.
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Deep planting puts roots closer to available moisture and lowers moisture losses
due to transpiration. Deep planting can result in more J or L roots due to planting
in a normal depth hole. Deeper holes are needed to plant same size roots if deep
planting is desired in droughty soils. Regardless, planting should not be more than
1 inch above the root collar for most species.
3. Stem Orientation. The stem should be erect, or at an angle, not greater
than 25 degrees from the vertical.
75.7 - Soil Firmness. The standard recommendation is to pack soil firmly against
the roots in such a way as to make good contact without creating air pockets. Hand
tamping is recommended. Heavy, wet soils may be tamped so tightly to reduce pore
space necessary for moisture and aeration. This can cause stunting or mortality.
Care should be taken during this operation not to damage the stem.
76 - PLANTING METHODS. The method of planting is dependent on many factors
including topography, slash loading, stock size/type, soil depth and structure, and
the type and amount of vegetation present. The ultimate goal of each planting
method is a properly planted tree.
76.1 - Hand Planting. Hand planting involves the use of handtools, including power
augers, for opening the planting hole. The tree is placed by hand, and the hole is
filled and soil formed by hand. In addition to power augers, hoes (hoedags),
mattocks, shovels/spades, and planting bars are commonly used.
76.11 - Tree Planting Augers. Auger planting should be used in preference to other
methods of hand planting where soil and topographic conditions permit. Augers
have been shown to result in improved seedling vigor and survival where they have
been used, as augers open clean holes which are large enough to permit proper root
placement and firming without air pockets.
1. Advantages:
a. Cost per surviving tree is lower than other hand planting methods on
moisture deficient sites.
b. Each step of the planting process; from the scalping, auger operation
and planting, is done by a separate person, a specialist, rather than one
person doing all jobs as with the hoedag or shovel.
c. Root lengths of many sizes can be planted properly with little
adjustment by the crew members.
d. Seedlings usually exhibit better vigor and leader growth than with
other planting methods.
e. Mixes poor soils of C2 horizon with more productive soils in A and A2
horizons.
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2. Disadvantages:
a. Not suitable on many rocky sites (with > 30 percent rock) since
actual number of trees planted may be very low. (Needs to be
determined by preplant surveys).
b. Steep ground, over 50 percent slope, makes auger planting very
difficult and overly expensive.
c. Higher cost per acre, initially.
d. Larger scalp needed adds to the initial costs.
76.12 - Mattocks and Hoedags. These tools are suited to steeper and rockier ground
than the auger and do an excellent job when properly used. These tools do,
however, have drawbacks, particularly on flatter ground.
1. Advantages:
a. Breaks the hole open on three sides on sites which are steeper than
30 percent slope.
b. Able to plant in soils with 50 percent or less rock.
c. Provides good scalps free of duff and debris without need for other
tools, such as needed for augers.
2. Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to obtain adequate planting hole depth, especially on flat
ground, which may result in jammed or balled roots.
b. Difficult to break the planting hole out on three sides on flat ground
which may result in poor root orientation and air pockets.
c. May result in high contract administration costs. Cost per surviving
tree may be higher than other methods.
d. Tree orientation, that is, perpendicular to the surface, is difficult.
e. Difficult to plant in loose, gravelly, clay (dense), or shale rock soils.
76.13 - Spades and Shovels. Shovels designed specifically for tree planting have
been developed during the past few years. These shovels are reinforced for planting
in heavy or moderately rocky soils. Shovel planting may result in greater survival
and growth than hoedag or bar planting because the larger hole permits more
favorable root placement. (Refer to the User Guide for more specific how-to
information).
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1. Advantages:
a. Seedlings with larger root systems can be properly planted.
b. Root arrangement can be more easily viewed.
2. Disadvantages:
a. Very rocky soils difficult to plant.
b. Larger hole requires more time to fill than other methods.
c. Initial cost may be more than hoedag planting.
d. Difficult to scalp adequately.
e. Contract administration may be more costly due to the inclination to
slit plant.
76.14 - Planting Bars. KBC and dibbles are capable of planting good trees in very
rocky, sandy, or pumice soils. The tool is strong with a great deal of leverage to
move rocks in the soil.
1. Advantages:
a. Greater number of trees can be planted in rocky soils, unplantable
with other methods.
b. May be less expensive than other methods.
c. Smaller scalp is needed in order to keep dry soil and debris out of the
planting hole.
2. Disadvantages:
a. Limited to planting trees with roots less than or equal to 10 inches.
b. Difficult to obtain an adequate scalp in thick vegetation or slashy
conditions.
c. Slit planting may result in light soils.
d. Not suitable for heavy soils due to the propensity for air pockets and
compaction.
NOTE: Refer to the User Guides for specifications and procedures of this method.
76.2 - Machine Planting. Planting machines are capable of planting trees precisely
time after time with little variation. Planting machines should be used only on
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large areas where soil and slope conditions are favorable. Seedling survival and
growth, on suitable sites, is often better with machines compared with hand-planted
areas. There are a number of different designs available. The basic difference
between these designs is in the method used to place the seedling in the furrow the
machine creates. A small crawler type tractor is usually required to pull the
machine. A front-mounted V-blade is used to clear dry soil, debris, and vegetation
from the planting spots in a continuous line.
1. Advantages:
a. Better survival and growth because many planting errors, common to
hand-planting are eliminated.
b. Less administration costs than hand methods.
c. Improved tree handling procedures can be employed because the
seedlings are protected from exposure to wind and sun while in the
planter.
d. May be less expensive than other methods on well site-prepared
ground.
e. Large areas may be planted in a short time to take advantage of
available soil moisture.
2. Disadvantages:
a. Higher intensity site preparation is needed than for hand planting.
b. Soils must be relatively rock free (< 20 percent rock content).
c. Cannot be used on slopes greater than 35 percent.
d. Micro site selection is not possible.
e. Maintenance and repair costs may be high.
NOTE: Refer to User Guide for specifications and procedures of this method.
76.3 - Container Stock Planting. Container stock usually requires no specialized
tools in order to achieve an adequate soil/root contact in most soils. Generally, more
shallow planting holes are necessary and can be made with any of the methods
presented earlier. Planting dibbles, however, made in the shape of the container,
should not be used in heavy or clay soils where the sides of the hole may
become glazed. Root penetration may be poor and an air layer between the plug
and the soil can result. Frost heaving usually occurs when the air layer fills with
water and freezes.
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76.4 - Special Needs A seedling's individual environment can be altered to reduce
the effects of severe exposure and drought. In addition to deep planting, shading,
mulching, and even irrigation have been used effectively. Even the highest quality
seedlings that have received superb handling, benefit from these techniques.
76.41 - Shading. Southerly aspects, in general, create higher temperatures and
more droughty conditions. Soil type and slope serve to increase the intensity to one
degree or another. To help minimize these conditions, trees are either planted in a
favorable micro site or are artificially protected with slash, dead brush, shade cards,
or shingles. Survival of protected seedlings under these conditions, usually is
dramatically improved over those which are unprotected. Even live brush may
improve survival, but it can also increase moisture stress due to transpiration losses
from the brush.
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Planting in naturally existing shade is a better alternative than artificial methods
largely because of cost and reduced maintenance. The use of slash, placed next to
seedlings, sometimes may cause damage if it moves on top of seedlings.
Initial planting costs are expensive but may result in a lower cost per surviving
tree. Shading may be necessary on some sites regardless of costs IF it is the ONLY
way to meet objectives.
76.42 - Mulching. Rocks, paper and plastic products, straw, wood chips, and
sawdust have all been used to reduce evaporation from the soil surface. Black
plastic or black paper have proved to be effective. Black plastic remains intact for
several seasons, dependent on the thickness and weather conditions. Mulching is
also beneficial in retarding the invasion of vegetation near the planted tree.
There are also some disadvantages to be recognized when using mulch materials.
One common problem is that animal (mouse) damage may be increased, as the mice
use the mulched area for nesting sites.
Determination of cost of mulching per surviving tree is needed and may be better
than replanting severely dry sites.
Mulching material is often difficult to handle and must be securely fastened to the
ground. Large scale mulching projects are not recommended; however, small
project areas may benefit from this practice.
76.5 - Snowplowing. It is important to remember that planting units may be free of
snow before access routes. Roads need to be plowed so that planting can be
accomplished during the period of highest soil moisture.
77 - CONTRACT PLANTING. Contract planting accomplishes over 90 percent of
the Regional acres reforested. Prior to deciding to contract a planting job, the
following items need to be addressed:
1. Complete surveys and exams necessary to make decisions relative to
planting method, planting rates, and other factors which may affect the physical
task of planting.
2. Prepare a reforestation plan.
3. Check nursery inventories for seedling availability.
Government furnished equipment availability.
Also check other
4. Become familiar with contract requirements and procedures (FSM 6309.31,
Federal Procurement Regulations).
5. Become familiar with the Standard Regional Tree Planting Contract (Blue
Book).
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77.1 - Contract Preparation.
77.11 - Site Condition Examination and Data Collection.
Site condition
examinations are needed for each proposed contract area to determine actual
treatments necessary to meet silvicultural prescription objectives and for assisting
detailed reforestation planning. Preplanting surveys (Chapter 20) are needed to
determine:
1. Estimate of the number of planting spots per acre so that the number of
seedlings needed and planting rate (attempts) used will meet stocking objectives.
2. Estimate of the amount of rock content as a guideline for the planting
method to choose.
3. Amount of hand site preparation required, that is, scalp size, slash, and
vegetation to remove.
4. Actual acres requiring planting, that is, there may be some acceptable
stocking present.
5. Special needs, such as shading, mulching, and animal damage control.
6. Estimate of amounts of compaction needing additional site prep or
unplantable ground within the unit.
7. Size and location of units to be planted.
77.12 - Acreage. A logical collection of units into one bid item is desirable since bid
item size affects bid price more than any single item. Units in one bid item should
be within a short distance of each other and should contain units requiring similar
planting specifications. Attention to these items should help reduce bid prices.
Contractors may default small contracts so that they can move on to larger more
cost effective contracts, if time or labor shortages become critical.
77.13 - Government Furnished Property. Government furnished property can
include the seed, seedlings, animal damage control devices, planting equipment,
and seedling preparation materials.
Seedling root length should be uniform and must meet specifications listed on
planting data sheet in the contract. Stock not meeting these specifications can
result in costly claims. Describe stock in broad terms.
Make certain that the stock size in contract matches what you plan to receive.
Check to see that planting equipment is in good repair and that all materials are on
hand or have been ordered.
77.14 - Planting Method. Specify the type and size of planting tool required for each
unit and be certain it fits the preplant information collected.
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77.15 - Site-Specific Clauses. It is important that planting spot selection, spot
preparation special needs, and seedling spacing meet site-specific requirements.
Review of the standard and optional clauses in the Regional Tree Planting Contract
is necessary so that all pertinent provisions are included.
77.2 - Contract Administration.
77.21 - COR and Inspector Training. Contracting Officer Representatives (COR)
and tree planting inspectors must have tree planting experience and formal
inspection, tree planting-handling, and planting contract administration training.
COR's must attend basic and advanced service contract administration training
sessions.
77.22 - Contract Inspection and Monitoring. Inspection procedures must be carried
out as specified in the contract. Any modification to this process is not fair to either
the Government or the contractor. Proper tree handling and planting technique
needs to meet contract specifications without exception. Inspections may be either
performed as hot or cold, for example, right behind the contract planting crews, or
after the contractor has turned in the Inspection Cards. Also, formal inspection
procedures using systematic plots are needed to ensure that above-ground and
below-ground specifications are being adhered to.
77.23 - Inspector Responsibilities. Inspector's responsibilities include:
1. Checking the contractor's rate of progress.
2. Checking weather and soil conditions.
3. Ensuring that proper tree handling procedures are used.
4. Ensuring that proper tree planting methods and procedures are used and
that planted trees meet above- and below-ground specifications.
5. Ensuring that stocking objectives are being met.
6. Reporting noncompliance, as well as soil/weather conditions to the COR.
77.24 - Contracting Officer's Responsibilities. The COR's responsibilities are many;
however, authority to take action is delegated by the Contracting Officer (CO). In
any event, the COR needs to:
1. Keep informed of the contractor's rate of progress.
2. Keep informed and take action to cease planting or move contractor to a
new area when it is determined that weather or soil conditions are unsuitable for
planting. See section 72.1 for weather and soil information.
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3. Keep contractor and CO informed of work progress, planting quality, and
other pertinent information through work orders and daily diaries.
4. Ensure that contractor inspectors are on the job and are inspecting
properly.
5. Ensure that verification inspections are done properly.
5. Keep informed and take action to correct any discrepancies.
78 - READING REFERENCES.
Anonymus. 1989. A Guide to the Care and Planting of Southern Pine
Seedlings. USDA-Forest Service, Southern Region. Management Bulletin.
R8-MB39
Barnett, James P. 1983. Containerized pine seedlings for revegetating
difficult sites. Jour. Soil and Water Cons. Nov-Dec:462-464.
Baumgartner, D. M., and R. J. Boyd (Eds.). 1976. Tree planting in the
Inland Northwest. Proc. Conf. Wash. St. Univ. Feb. 17-19, 1976. Washington
State Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. 311 p.
Childs, S. W., H. R. Holbo, and E. L. Miller. 1985. Shadecard and
shelterwood modification of the soil temperature environment. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 49:1018-1023.
Cleary, B. D. 1976. The role of moisture stress and temperature in the
growth of seedlings. In: Regeneration of Ponderosa Pine (R. K. Hermann,
Ed.). For. Res. Lab., Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR. p.64-68.
Cleary, Brian D., Robert D. Greaves and P. W. Owston. 1978. Seedlings.
p. 63-97. In: Regenerating Oregon's forests (B. D. Cleary, R.D. Greaves, and
R. K. Hermann, Eds.). Oregon State Univ. Ext. Serv., Corvallis, Oregon.
Cleary, B. D. and B. R. Kelpsas. 1981. Five steps to successful
regeneration planning. For. Res. Lab. School of Forestry, Spec. Publ. 1. 30 p.
Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Oreg.
Cochran, P. H. 1977. Forest regeneration of arid lands in the Pacific
Northwest.
In:
Proceedings SAF National Convention.
Albuquerque, N. Mex.
p.88-91.
Cochran, P. H. 1984. Should ponderosa pine be planted on lodgepole pine sites?
USDA, For. Serv. Res. Note, PNW-419, 6 p. Pac. NW. For. and Range Exp.
Stn., Portland, Oreg.
Deyoe, David R. 1986. Guidelines for handling seeds and seedlings to
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ensure vigorous stock.
Corvallis, Oregon, 24 p.
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Forest Research Lab, Oregon State University,
Dickerson, J.D., N. P. Woodruff and E. E. Banbury. 1976. Techniques
for improving tree survival and growth in semiarid areas. Jour. of Soil and
Water Cons. Mar-Apr: 63-66.
Dierauf, Thomas. 1984. A comparison of "normal depth" with deep
planting of loblolly pine seedlings. Occasional Rep. 63. Virginia Div. For.
Conserv. and Econ. Devel. 3 pp.
Duryea, M. L. and T. D. Landis (Eds.). 1984. Forest Nursery Manual:
Production of Bareroot Seedlings. Martimus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junek, Publishers,
The Hague, for For. Res. Lab., Oregon St. Univ., Corvallis, OR. 386 p.
Edgren, James W. 1984. Nursery storage to planting hole: a seedling's
hazardous journey. p. 235-242. In: Forest Nursery Manual: Production of
Bareroot Seedlings. (M. L. Duryea and T. D. Landis (Eds.). For. Res. Lab.,
Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Oregon.
Guldin, R. W. 1983. Handplanting costs are influenced by planting site
characteristics. USDA, For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep SE-24, p. 30-33.
Guldin, Richard W. 1983. Regeneration costs for industrial landowners
using hand vs. machine planting. So. J. App. For. 7(2):104-108.
Hahn, P. F. and A. J. Smith. 1983. Douglas-fir planting stock
performance comparison after third growing season. Tree Planters' Notes 34:
33-39.
Harrington, Michael G. and Rick G. Kelsey. 1979. Influence of some
environmental factors on initial establishment and growth of ponderosa pine
seedlings. USDA, For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-230. 26 p. Int. For. and Range Exp.
Stn., Ogden Utah.
Heidmann, L. J. 1976. Frost heaving of tree seedlings: A literature
review of causes and possible control. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM21, 10 p. Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colo.
Heidmann, L. J., Frederic R. Larson and W. J. Rietveld. 1977.
Evaluation of ponderosa pine reforestation techniques in Central Arizona.
USDA, For. Serv. Res. Pap. RM-190, 10 p. Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp.
Stn., Fort Collins, Colo.
Heidmann, L. J. 1985. Ponderosa pine regeneration in southwest. In:
Society of American Foresters Convention p. 228-232. Fort Collins, Colo.
Hungerford, Roger D. and Ronald E. Babbitt. 1987. Overstory removal
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and residue treatments affect soil surface, air, and soil temperature:
implications for seedling survival. USDA, For. Serv. Res. Pap. INT-377. 19 p.
Int. Res. Stn. Ogden, Utah.
Jeffries, Kenneth F. 1983. Operational guidelines for handling
seedlings. USDA, For. Serv. Tech. Publ. R8-TP. Southern Region. 212 p.
Jenkinson, James L. 1980. Improving plantation establishment by
optimizing growth capacity and planting time of western yellow pines. USDA,
For. Ser. Res. Pap. PSW-154, 22 p., Pac. SW For. and Range Exp. Stn.,
Berkeley, Calif.
Kozlowski, T. T. 1971. Growth and Development of Trees. Vol. I and
II. Academic Press, New York, Vol. 1. Seed Germ., Ontogeny and Shoot
Growth. 443 p., Vol. II, Cambial Growth, Root Growth, and Reproductive
Growth. 514 p.
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stresses. Jour. of Arbor. 11: 97-111.
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Lewiston, Idaho.
McDonald, Stephen E., Raymond J. Boyd and Donald E. Sears. 1983.
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Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah.
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techniques for outplanting on a harsh site in the Western Oregon Cascades.
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practices for conifers in California. 359 p. California Div. For., Sacramento.
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Utah.
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survival and growth of planted conifers in central Idaho. USDA, For. Serv.
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28, p. 58-62.
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growth of Douglas-fir seedlings with spot-spraying, mulching and root-dipping.
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