KNOWLEDGE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
THE AMPLIFICATION
FOR CONCEPTUAL
OF CREATIVITY
DESIGN:
From: AAAI Technical Report SS-93-01. Compilation copyright © 1993, AAAI (www.aaai.org). All rights reserved.
ERNEST EDMONDS and LINDA CANDY
LUTClll Research Centre
Department of ComputerStudies
LoughboroughUniversity of Technology
Lougtdgorough Leicestershire UK
Abstract. The paper is concerned with computer-based support for conceptual design and, in
particular, with the support of creative design. The nature of conceptual design is briefly reviewed
and the lack of effective computer support noted. Recent developments in computer-based
KnowledgeSupport Systems, that offer interesting possibilities, are reviewed. The study of the
early design of a clearly innovative product, the Lotus bicycle, is used to inform a discussion of the
requirements for KnowledgeSupport Systems that can support conceptual design.
Introduction
Thus, the process is as muchone of problemdefinition or
selection as problemsolution: it is essentially creative.
The designer generates a set of scenarios or possible
prototypical solutions at this stage. A potential problem,
in relation to innovation, is that they tend to eliminate
options early on in the process (Lawson, 1980). One
important role that computer support could play is in
keeping ideas open longer by providing "external"
memoryand concept managementfacilities.
As Faltings (1991) puts it,
"Most research in intelligent
CAD
systems has focused on detail design,
the adaptation of an initial concept to
precise specifications.
Little is
known about the process
of
conceptual design, the transition
between functional specification and
concept of an artifact that achieves
it.".
Figure 1 gives an impression of the role that computers
play, at the moment, in innovation. The boundaries
between these activities
are of prime concern. The
question is, simply, "Can the CAEsupport begin sooner
and can it, as a consequence, amplify creative design
activities.". The problemis that the earliest stages are
characterised by uncertainty, tentative decisions and
informal representations of design ideas.
It is suggested that creative thought often occurs at the
conceptual stage and hence any support that could enhance
the designer’s performanceat that point could be extremely
valuable. A secondary, but significant, issue is that the
transition from conceptual to detail design often involves
the manual entry of information into a CADsystem,
because the conceptual data had not been captured
electronically. These are the issues that the paper will
aclrlre~.
The concept of KnowledgeSupport Systems, in which the
end user manipulates machine representations
of
knowledgedirectly (Shaw &Gaines, 1988), has recently
been developed in LUTCHIand applied to scientific
exploration (Candy et al, 1993a; Edmondset al, 1993,
O’Brien et al, 1992a, 1992b). This work has clearly
demonstrated a potential for supporting creative work
(Candy et al, 1993b). At the same time, other workers
have beganto study the approachin the specific context of
design (Fischer &Nakakoji, 1992; Hori et al, 1993).
Background
Perhaps the most important point to note about the nature
of conceptual design is that madeby Visser (1992), as
result of empiricalstudies of designers:
".. a problem solver is not ’given’
problems, but ’constructs’ them."
Research into the design process has suggested that many
of the requirements for support tools are similar to those
observed in the LUTCHI
study of scientific exploration
above (Visser, 1992; Fischer, 1990). For example, Visser
proposes that tools to assist in the management of
memory load would positively support design. Her
results relate closely to those of Candyet al (1993a) in the
use of Knowledge Support Systems in the science
domain.
Or, as Hori et al (1993) put it:
"In ... creative design, humansbuild new
concepts out of nebulous mental worlds.
They have some seeds of a new concept,
incubate
them and create
a new
concept..." (my emphasis).
145
Exploration
and
Innovation
concept
design
detail
design
CAE
support
II
1
II
II
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
mmmm+
Figure1: Thedesignprocess,the designer’sexploratoryandinnovative work and the support from
computers:animpressionisticview
based uponthe design conceptdevelopedby MikeBurrows
The central problem
(figure 2). Thedesignof this bicycleis the subject of the
study reported. Computerswere not used at all in the
The main concern of the paper is to consider the
development
of the original conceptwhilst, in contrast,
feasibility of applyingthe recent researchdevelopments
in
Lotus operate a sophisticated CADinfrastructure. The
research reported is investigating the feasibility of
computingdescribed aboveto the provision of computer
bridgingthis gap.
supportfor conceptual
design.
Support for creativity in practice
Apragmaticapproachwas used for the investigation in
whichthe development
of a successful innovativeproduct
was investigated. The results of the investigation are
related to the practical use of advancedCAD
systemsin a
closelyrelatedcontext.
Lotus Engineering are firmly committed to the
exploitation of knowledge-basedtechnologyto support
design. They have used the ICADsystem, from ICAD
EngineeringAutomation
Ltd, for several years in order to
developflexible andefficient supportfor the earlier design
stages. Theyhave beenable to demonstratethat a number
of clear benefits accrue, includingreducedrimescales,the
In the 1992 Olympics,Chris Boardmanwonthe rust UK
gold medal, in the 4000mcycling pursuit event. Hewas
riding a revolutionarybicycle built by LotusEngineering
146
effective handling of complexityand the possibility of
buildinggenericdesignmodulesthat are readily available
for re-use (Gregory,1992). However,
so far this workhas
not involved the creative concept designer in direct
computeruse. The Lotus ICADusers are specifically
trained andfrequentlytackle particular problemsthat are
morewell definedthan the onesthat onefinds at the very
initial conceptionof a product. Nevertheless,that work
includesinvestigationsinto supportfor early explorations
andis at the leading edgecommercially,clearly pointing
towards the increased use of knowledge-basedCADin
conceptualdesign. Ourconcernis, primarily, the use of
systemslike ICAD
to act as a bridge betweensupport for
early conceptualdesignand the standard CAD
system.
OlympicGamesin 1992has formedthe basis of the
study.
The results of the LUTCHI
work have identified key
design requirements for KnowledgeSupport Systems.
Theresulting underlyinguser interface architecture is
designedto be generallyapplicableandeasily tailored for
specific domainapplications. Theworkis extendingour
understanding of howknowledge-based systems can
supportscienceandthe intention is to nowinvestigate the
same approach in design. The cognitive findings are
concernedwith the nature andaccessibility of knowledge
to the domainexpert. The important distinguishing
characteristic of this workis that it is concernedwith
complexdomains in which the expert does not have
complete knowledgebut, rather, where the approach
enablesthemto extendand refine their ownunderstanding.
Thisissue is central to the creative professionalworkthat
is the subjectof our concern.
2. Personalandprofessionalgoals intertwined:
It is, therefore, postulated, with Fischer and Nakakoji
(1992), that the knowledgesupport systems approach
could provide helpful supportfor conceptualdesign. The
authorsare exploringthis hypothesisin order to drawout
the consequentialrequirementsfor such a support system
in a specific caseof recentinnovativedesign.
Thedesignprocess seemsto havebeencharacterized by a
numberof salient factors or events identified by Mike
Burrows
as beingsignificant.
1. Timeduration:
Alengthy gestation period existed betweenthe formation
of the initial thoughtsand the final realization of the
revolutionary concept. This wasa normalexperiencefor
Burrowsin his design work.
Burrowsis a serious amateur cyclist and monocoque
recumbent racer. Personal ambitions provided the
stimulus to achieve advantage.Indeed, he expresses his
maingoal as havingbeen"to go faster": i.e. to satisfy a
personal requirementsfor his racing in cycling events.
However,he is also a professionalengineerby trade. As
well as motivation,skill and knowledge,he had access to
machineryfor making, for example, hand madebicycle
frames. Makingwas, most probably, an important factor
in the designprocess.
3. Knowledge
of the field:
Apart from general design and engineering knowledge,
Burrows has a keen interest in the history and
developmentof the bicycle itself. Heis very awareof
aspects of the process,such as the fixed ideas held about
bicycles, and the required series of conceptualleaps and
experimentswith prototypes that can eventually lead to
breakthroughs.
4. Convention
and creativity
The Lotus bicycle concept
There are, amongstcyclists, deeply held views of the
bicycle concept.Verysmall changesin the angles used in
a frameare verysignificant to the perceptionof "experts".
It is not clear that this expert opinionis well foundedbut
it is certainly strongly held. Thus,amongstexperts, the
search space of possible designs is thought to be well
understood. Thusa critical factor in creative bicycle
designis the ability to moveoutside the existing search
space; i.e. to breakwith the conventionalexpectationsand
images.
MikeBurrowsis collaboratingwith the authors so that a
cognitivehistory of the development
of the original
conceptof the newbicyclecan be re-constructed.It is
pertinentto placethis history in the contextof other
empiricalresearchinto early designand, in particular,
Knowledge
Support Systems. For example, amongstthe
conclusionsof the LUTCHI
workreferenced abovewere
that the userrequired:. to be able to take an holistic viewof the data at
any time
¯ the ability to suspendjudgementon any matter
at any time
¯ to be able to readily makeunplanned
deviations.
Thelast point waselaborated,in the contextof design, by
Visser. Theseresults providea framework
for the analysis
of the early designhistory of the bicycle. Asa result,
therefore, preliminaryrequirementsfor computer
support
are postulated. Thedevelopment
of the bicycle concept
fromBurrows’early explorations(c1979)to the time
Lotusundertakingthe productionof the bicyclefor the
Moving
outside of the search spaceis closely connectedto
the ability to respondand exploit the unexpected:for
example,the combinedideas of a lady-frameshape with
the BMX
small size frame, triggered by hearing of a BMX
used for racing. Thechanceavailability of carbonfibre
material (1982) causedthe realisation that a small, but
conventional,framecould be improvedby filling it in. A
changein the British RTCregulations, allowing the use
of rear disk wheelsin time- trials, generatednewdesign
possibilities.
147
Figure 2: Chris Boardman
breakingthe world 5000m
record on the Lotusbicycle.
These events led progressively, over years, to the
realization that increasedspeedcouldresult fromthe use of
a small filled in frame, set backfromthe usual position,
using a very light weightmouldablematerial anddesigned
without the need to shield the rear wheel for wind
resistance. Theresulting bicycleconceptwasdevelopedin
practice to the extent that a workingmachineexisted. The
next step was to movethat initial concept into the
processesof the Lotusdesignsystem.
The use of CADin the earlier stages of design within
Lotusis advanced
andinteresting. Nevertheless,it did not
influencethe initial bicycleconcept.Particular attention
is paid to the exploitation of the ICAD
software, which
has successfully enabled Lotus to support design in a
significantly more iterative manner. The parameters
within whichthe postulated additional computersupport
might take place may be placed in that context.
Outstandingquestionsinclude, whatare the constraints on
the formof data that couldusefullybe transferredinto the
¯ current CAD
systems?To whatextent could the existing
systemshaveoffered support to the bicycle’s conceptual
design? Whatare the future requirements of CADfor
early design?
148
Implications for intelligent support to
conceptual design
Therequirementsfor the user to be able to take an holistic
view, to be able to suspend judgement and to make
unplanneddeviations, that were mentionedabove, have
beenstrongly supportedby the bicycle study. Additional
points havealso emerged,however.
The need to keep a multitude of design processes alive
over long periods of time must be supported. Thegoals
of each of these processesmightbe at a very high level,
such as "go faster", andso maynot, in themselves,define
a search space. Domainspecific knowledgeis clearly
importantbut the creative step maywell rely uponan act
that "breaks set" with conventional wisdom.In other
words,creativity maybe associatedwith a re-definition of
the problemspace.
It is concludedthat supportsystemsfor conceptualdesign
mustallowthe user:.. to take an holistic viewof the data at anytime
¯ to suspendjudgementon any matter at any time
¯ to be able to readily makeunplanned
deviations.
¯ to return to old ideas andgoals
¯ to formulate,as well as solve, problems
¯ to re-formulatethe problemspace
It is the process of interaction between a Knowledge
SupportSystemand the designer that is the key element
in enablingthe amplification of the designer’s creative
achievements.This process mustbe allowedto occur in a
waythat, as a minimum,conformsto the above design
ideals.
GREGORY,
A. (1992). Separating Fact from Ficti¢
Manufacturing
Breakthrough.1, 6. pp 329-333.
HORI, K., SUGIMOTO,M. & OHSUGA,S. (199:
Applicationof Articulation Aid to Design.In: Informati.
Modellingand Knowledge
Bases IV, Oaakkola,H. et al (ed
IOSPress, to appear.
LAWSON,B. (1980) How Designers
ArchitecturalPress, London.
References
CANDY,
L., O’BRIEN,S.M. & EDMONDS,
E.A. (1993a).
End User Manipulation of a Knowledge-BasedSystem: A
Studyof an Expert’s Practice. International Journalof ManMachineStudies. 38, 1. pp 129-145.
Think.
The
O’BRIEN, S.M. CANDY,L., EDMONDS,
E.A., FOSTE
T.J. & MCDAID,E.(1992a). End User Knowled
ManipulationSystems:The SpeechKnowledge
Interface. ]
Proc. of 2OthAnnualComputerScience Conference,Agraw
J.P., Kumar
V. and Wallentine, V. (eds), TheACM
Press.
359-366.
CANDY,
L., EDMONDS,
E.A. & O’BRIEN,S.M. (19931)).
Amplifying Creativity: The Role of End User Knowledge
Manipulation Systems. In: Artificial Intelligence and O’BRIEN, S.M., CANDY, L., EDMONDS,E.A.
Creativity. Darmell, T (ed). Studies in Cognitive Systems, FOSTER,T.J. (1992b) Knowledge Acquisition
Refinement Using End-User Knowledge Manipulati.
KluwerAcademic,Dordrecht,to appear.
Systems. In: Applications of Artificial Intelligence
Systems Conference, SPIE ProceedingsV
EDMONDS,E.A., O’BRIEN, S.M., BAYLEY,T. & Knowledge-Based
MCDAID,
E. (1993). Constructing End-User Knowledge 1707,Orlando,Florida. Biswas,G. (ed). pp 25-36.
ManipulationSystems.International Journal of Man.Machine
Studies. 38, 1. pp 51-70.
SHAW,M. L. J. & GAINES, B. R. (1988). KITTE
KnowledgeInitiation and Transfer Tools for Experts a
FALTINGS,
B. (1991). Qualitative Models in Conceptual Novices. In: Knowledge Acquisition Tools for Expc
Systems. Boose, J. & Gaines, B. (eds). AcademicPress.
Design.In: Artificial Intelligencein Design’91, Gero,G. (ed).
309-338.
Butterworth-Heinemann,
pp 645-663.
FISCHER,G. (1990) Communications Requirements for
CooperativeProblemSolving Systems. International Journal
of InformationSystems. 15, 1. pp 21-36.
FISCHER,G. & NAKAKOJI,
K. (1992). Beyond the Macho
Approach of Artificial Intelligence: EmpowerHuman
Designers - Do Not Replace Them. Knowledge-Based
Systems. 5, 1. pp 15-30.
149
VISSER,
W.(1992). Designers’ Activities Examined
at Tlu
Levels: Organization, Strategies and Problem-Solvi
Processes. Knowledge-Based
Systems. 5, 1. pp 92-104.