Lincoln University Digital Dissertation Copyright Statement The digital copy of this dissertation is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This dissertation may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: 


you will use the copy only for the purposes of research or private study you will recognise the author's right to be identified as the author of the dissertation and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate you will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from the dissertation. -
-
.
pc
A
e' .
. worl
heritage It ·
M
•
4
.-
CONSIDI~RA'IIIONS
FOR
A DISSEHTNP.ION
SUBMITcr!f~D
IN
)?AH~(,IAIj
FUJ.Ji'IUffiNT
IN
l~/illKS
AND IUiiCREATION
LINCOLN
COLlJ~aE
CAWl~illRBURY
UNIVERSITY OF
BY
l~INClOLN
CO'LLEGE
1
ACICNOWLEDGEMENTS
I vl:!..idl to aclr.noV'/ledge n'!Y indebtcdl1.r"S6 to P"J' '"
Dc:vlin I'm:> p1:~cnrj/Ung gu:ld,anc:e; to the Mt. Cool\: Nsr",iollal
:Pal~lc llange:r.· stn:f:':(, :f'm: the:h~ k:Lnd suppo:c·t and enccmx1 age-
mont" eSJ?O(;L:l11y to Ht;:mgol;,s 1\1 ... Heine and C~8tewart f'Ol-gx"nmru8
CH)l. . l'ootions;
. . to ~r .. Herbison fen" t~he covel:'~
J)::d,nting",
I
am also mm:rL g:Pt:lt0~i?'ul to )?"H"C., JA\CaS and D:r."
l}hot.og:t:"a})h.G t'I.l."lU :in:C'o:t'l7lS:tiOllj to B(> Jeff'aries for p.hoto~
gx~o.))hs 9
tCI D<>J'
Bbal'l and lL,B .. 8mi thll Lincoln College,
I!I
t:O'l.'"
h~'\re
gX'amma M.cl:ll CQX"]:'eetion,g.\! and to the many othel:'s who'
cont!~il:mt;ed
towards the complet,ion of' this project.
2
Al thoug)l 0.r~2i,2:~J&~~,~,12!l:~:t,,;!~u:_~~n£g~!!~~,,12!.~,mRE:g~2£:
~'i';;":'!"~~~:'~:;;;:;;"~'~;;';;;;;"''':':;?:~:$~~':;;';';;;;;':~~;;'''L;::.,:.;:~,;,.~9 Ilt1G been.' pt>epa:t"ed pr':tmar·:tly as a
d:l.~lse:rtat:i.on fot' 'the comple tiOAl .oi' Diploma in Parks and
Hl7JCPGa tio[\SI tl1:ts 11Ut''t:t euler subje ct .I:UUJ bE}(~n oom,wn to con-
tX"ibu
towapds Nepal ~ I';;: conser'vatio!} programme
'rhi-:l dlSSG1"'tat:ton
c{mr~is
(>;
of recommel1d.a tions and
sUPI!'::n·ti:o.g ini'ol"'mat:ion, rather -t.han policy El't:;r"cemen'ts
Tlm.8 f1 ,:t t should l?I'o·V':1..de guidelines fOl"' man.agement planning
vather thfl.n to aGl""V'6 as a Pl"OP$!' mnnagerl1ent plan. fox"
0
SfAgf;u:·mat;ha Nattorlml 1?ark0
:t1:1
conservat:ton and tI'aini.ng in
N"itional Pal~lc managenwnt has made me aware ot: uI'gen t need
for conserva t.ion meo.sur'es in the Khumbu Region..
I ar)precia te
His Majer:d;y,t G. GovepXlment t S conCOl."n oval' the conS81"'ils:tion problems of the Khumbu ;('8 g:t on, a ncl 8 tl'ongly 8 UPPal')'!:; the idea ot:
pX"otect.ing the envix'onment of' the region uncler Nf::lt:lonal Park
My
:tntel~eI3t
11t). tUY'€)
statnse>
AD all. J.nhabi tant of the Khumbu x'egion Sl I am also
awGtr'e of' the n.eedB 0:[' the lO<.~6\l p~;}op.le l'> and I aha!'6 their
(H>ncern. over> p'ostdble effects of National Park legislation
on their life-stylet;
T,h:Ls un,igue posit~ion has compelled. me to ex:plol'e in
depth 9 the
sible :impacts of my recomme,n1atiollS on the
conzs1."V'at:ton J):t,"ogrmnme and on pN~8ent human no ads
This, I
b.op~~ II hHt:ll contribt.\ tod towards making bala need recommeriia t1~.mB
in ordex" to min1m:tz{~ the cOlmCl'V'(;ltion ani use conf'licts in
(t
the Khumhu
reg'1o").~
CON~~li}NTS
PAGE
1
2
1
CON8ERVA'l'ION PROBI;EMS AND OP1?ORTUNITIES
3
IN NITIPAIJ
1..,1
1 02
Internat:lonal oI'igi.J:ls and. development
of' National Park concept.
~rhe es talJl:tshment of Nepal's Na tiona],
3
Pax'les
4
1 3
A checkl:is t of National Parks and
5
1 ,,4
Reserves of Nepal
The difficulties as~ociated with the
establiG.hment of' Nat.ional ]?i'lX"ks and
Heser'ves
6
(J
13
2
tion
2.01
l~oca
202
Size
.Al ti.tude
2.,3
13
13
13
13
Boundary
2 .. 5 Access
2 .. Lj.
2 .. 6
2,,7
2 .. H
3
14
Human population
Land ownership and nse patteX'n
Domestic animals
15
15
17
BASIC PHYSICAL, BIOIJOGICAI.A AND HISTORICAIJ DATA
OF SAG-ARMATHA
301,
302
3413
NNrIONAI~
PARK
'ropography
DraiwJgc systems
Geologloal h:lstory and 8011.s
19
19
20
21
CHAl-'TER
PAetE:
3 .. 1·1. Climate
5 Vegetation
3,> 6 Wildlj.:re
t~
22
23
25
REASONS FOl1 (rUm ESTABLISHMENT 011' SAGARMA'I'HA
27
NATIONAL PAm\:
5
EVOLU1: ION AND
n.IT.VJUJOH~.hiNT
0:1.1' SAGARMATHA
29
NNJ.1I ONAIJ PAlm:
501
Mt 8agar'.matha becomes a me-jot' visitor
29
attraction
5{J2
En'IJ1r·onmento.l dogx·£lclatiol1. in. the Rhumbu
Valley
Step('J toward 111.1 t.isting the
New Zealand co-o))era'~ion
6
7
29
:Pal~k
31
3.;J'z
ADm AND OBJ1~CJl'IVES Ol~ SAGARMATHA NA'I1IONAt
PARK
35
LAND US};: ZONING AND CLASSIPICATION CONCEF~
36
Histol'\ical background of land use in
7 0'-0
Khumbu
Need for land. use control practices
36
38
DeEHn~ipt:i.ons
and Doli cy !'0commenda tions
f'ol." the dif'ferent land use zones
8
39
RESOURCE MANAGB.!t1ENT
43
B,,1
8.2
8",3
What is a natural resource?
Wise use of resources
Importance of natur'e conservation in
43
43
Khumbu
44
Sf/I.,.
ReSI!ons:l bili t.y of SheI'pa pe ople to
consex'vation
Protectlon of nati 'va flora and ,fatmn
Protect:ton oJ: cultm:'al land.scape
S UppOl't
8&5
G(f6
44
45
l.j.8
PAm\.:
8", 7
8.,8
80 9
rr1.mbeT.' harvGstj,ng
li!:x:ot:l.c plant-a and ,a.nlIanls
l,Uning in. the National Pal. . k
8",10 Cc)llecting
55
9
9.,1
f11he changes in the
9,,2
theLtl l.mpa cts
Recommel'ilat:i.ong f'or management of' Park
Sh~1rpa
. :tnhabl tants
903 Hestr'iction t'lnd cont.rol
9 ",4
10
50
52
53
54
Ii'ee)s and chfu"ges
ADMINISntATIV.B~
StnvlMARY
APPENDIX
RE:COMMENDATIONS
commu.nlty ancl
56
58
61
66
68
69
3
CHAPI'BiR 1
Ir~&:2Z:n,g:'~LqA1~11_gJ;:!E\t~2.lLJt~UsL,Q~~~t£19J?1~tl."XQ,:£.
1 01
N ~~~;1.QB/;~~t~I:§;~:(:1i~~Q~?21~S112~
.
~(1he
No.t:l.oxw.l Park idea 'was 1n1 tiatecl
~tn.
1 8~12 :tn
Yellow r:; tiono ~ Wyoming:> U oS eA..
GI'adual1y the idea has been
8<)'oJ?ted 'b.-if lTIo.ny :nD.thn~8 of tho wOl"lc1 flnd is 1'10W becoming
ulmoc.t wc>);."lclwicte
'l'oday almofJ t every na t.ion h~?~8 es tf.:l hIt r:::.hed Na t i0t13 1.
Pa!"1cfJand J:?1'.)80:r·V00 of one k:tnd 01... another ..
'l~he8e National
PEl):"ks '111'i!:t:'y gl:'c~a"tly i'r'om one another" i.n their naturalness,
degre~e o:f proteet~ton and [3 tagef3 01" development Ii
'IIlle
Q
ll1ot:tvatlon fOl. . establishment of r)al:>lu~ and ReGe.I'vee also
d:lf':E'era f':rom Orle nation to anoth~~r(!
In oI'dat' to avoid cO).'lf'Usion about what qualities a
Natiol18.1 Park should po~:m0S8 ~ the t.enth General Assembly of
Intel:>nat:i.onal Union :for COXlf30T'va'tton of' Nature and Natural
ResOUrCe::l (IVaN) intX'oduced the f'ollOIi\r1ng c:r'i ter"ia fOl"
National PaI'l\':s in 19690
. "A Nationa1 Park ls 8 rela t:ivE"dy large area
(1) WhE~:i:'O i:>ne or' st;)veral ecosystems are not Ina t€H:-:tally
D1 tel~ed by human explot ta tt01'l and OCCUD3 tiOll, where plant
and 8.nimal species lI geomoI":ohological sltes and habitats are
of special scientific, educative ana. l"ecreati'V'e ~lntel~e8t or
which eonta:ln natul'al landscape of' great beauty; (2) and
whex"e the highest competent au tho 1:> i ty of' the country has
talten steps to J?t'ElVE,nt 0:" to elim:i.lw te as soon as pos sible
explo:i tr:d.;ton or 00 etl.DS tion in ·the whole area 8lld to enforce
ei'rect:tl.nz~lJr the re8J)ect of ecologieal, geomol'llphological or
aesth.eti.c :reatur'';:38 which have led to :J.ts establishment and
Cs) Wh(H;'O ViEd t,O};'El are allowed to en te!"> 9 under special oondit:i.ons, for in:;;,mirational" educative f cultm:>ul and l"ecreati ve PU:C'POill es ll (Ii\::H3 "tel" 1 973)
TheBo criteria ara found to be Btrongl~ biased
'toward pr.·8Gl0rva'tlon and the 8cien.t:lfic~ recreative EUld
educat,:t(H1al' We:l:0 not recog·n:l:~H:Jd..
'.rhG restrictive nature
0
of' the cn.~ite!'ia also tends to' limtt t~hf.l opportnn:lties of.
eate.bllsntng many National Parks 8,1noe t,hel"e m:o no'!; many
al~ea8 lef't :tn the world which are 8uff'icientl;~1' wild to
E:le.tisfy these cr1 tet'ia
uJ3I.~C1:nlti(1 of' thio 'che Internfl tional Commis sion f'or
0
Na ti.Ol.w.l I'al-:"ks (ICNI)
at JUCN t s 11 ttl Genez'al .M:membly held
:tr.l. Bant:f 9 Ganada t in 1972~ agr'eed to eontinue to accept t.he
IUCNts de:)t1nition but with the mooJ.1:1cation tha'b National
PaI~ks could inelude zones having as the lr pr:lmal"'Y func·tion
'the :protection of. man t s cul tux'al hEn.. . 1'tage" (Iros te:r.· 1973)
Among many nCttions who adoptfld the Na'ltional PL'l.!~k
<.~onc~el~t, NEJpal is one elf tht;, recent. found(9,rS of' National
F'arks..
Most or NE;;J,Jolt s Nattonal p.m:~1t:sll espee.:taJ.l;Y-Sagarmatha
(Mt EVol~e8t) Nat:tonal Parltfi have gr·e:1l.t potential for protection of man~8 c~ltural heritage.
0
Nepal had taken the 1:'il'?st tents ti "13 s·tepa tovi'cu:"ds
nature comH.n;"'V"at:1.on in the late n1n.et.ee.n""f'l:t~t:Le8 when His
Majesty' 8 GOV61"mneu:t t s attention' was drawn to!Nar'ds the
d:Lm1nisbing vd 1d11;['e by such eminent conserVB t.:l (nlis ts 8.B t~he
Is. te E" Po Gae
However ~ dcfini t~ l/lans and. p:t~ogra~1Jne8 :E'or
consel"yation were formula ted. only when H&M"G", sought the
help of' Int.~)!·l1.atiol1al agencies - Food anc). Agricnl tural
O)~gan:tsation (li'A(J) p World Wildlife li\lnd (W\['/BI»> Smithsonian
Society to etc..
rJ~l'tely the Australian and New Zealand Governments came :Cor-ward with help in the establishment of' National
l?cl1~ks and W11di:tt'e Heservea (Nepal Nature Conscl"vatiol1
Ii>
SOCit1ty 1 977) ~
.
NePal os f':!J:"st National Park was estab11sh.0d when
Hj.13 Late Majesty lUng Mahen.dl~a. begueathe~ the Royal ht.:mting
ground at Cl':t1t:wan to be 'tu:r"nGd into the Royal Chitwan National
Pal."'k e
Irue le.tfj K:"l.ng Mah©ndra .va 8 a lceen na tm:e lover", To
clu"ry ou·~ His Late Majestyt s wish to conser,re .i:l(;1ture and
natu.ral beaut.ies. :t'or the v~llb®ing of manlt1l1.d ll His Majesty
King Bi!~el'1dx'a Bit' 13ilwam 8h.':;,11. Davia . (:lead· the "Na t j,onsl
Parks lu¥l Wildl:1.fe COXlr:ler'VB t.ion AC'l~ ~!,029 (1972) w.hich 1'ac111...
t.ated the settin.g up of the N~'tioJ1o.1 Pfll'ks and Wildlife Conservation Of"'~'ice of:' His Ma;} C!8ty ~ B l){;1]}tl:t·tment of" Forests
II>
!
National Parks & vVildlife Reserves of Nepal
I
(
N
+
!
l
,
I
!
I
I
nK-;'~U
.u
, W 11<::lllfe" Reser-ve
[
I
I
I
!
I
I
1
!
I
i
!
I
]
-rl
<!)
j;.I
~
-.-1
~
~ehe
Na tional ParIes and W11cU1f'e ConsEH:vat1on Office is
'the of'fico
l:,{~~r::{ponsib10
for d.eveloy)ment, admin:l.stl-at:ton and
ma:n1.1gement
Nat.:!.onal POl:l\l2~ an.d Wildlife! Resex'ves th:t~oug~·
out t,he K:iJ;:JgclOlll
cc·~cmel""ation \n.1. th vf:.ll"'lotl8 intex'nat1o:t),~1
Cl)J;1s(;::t'vn,,(j1.on. 1';.\g<:.H1cles sttch as Uni.ted Nat
Dev'elopmen't
Pl"ogramme a
I~.AO(>
Since the establishment
l{(}yal Ch:i.twan National
Pa
in 1
thl:'ee Hil.1'!al.9.yan. Nattonal PaX'kfj and fi va Wildlife Heser've:::.;
in varj.ous I>srts of' :I;,he C01,:l.lltl"'Y!l oovoring an area more than
~38p8L~9 km2l> ulmos'G 3% 'of' 1~h.e tot.al area of Nepal",
(1)
B>2il§.L,}]}21~:trr91l~QP.!llL~~
th,e first officially constituted
Nat,ional Pal"k at" Nepa10
It is the lasl~ remaining habitat
ffhi8
W£tS
t.he on(>"horUi~d ph:Lnoceros Cgll1!.1g£~r:2.~ .~mi££?";:U:tq) II and
ine:ludes 36 other species of' mB.mmals and more than 250 bird
oiea
This :Park is located in the ):'owlards of' Tel"ai in
southern NeI)al~ cover:J.ng all area of 543 lon 2 .,
0:['
<)
(2)
It is loea ted. in the l{humbu l'1)oglon and is
'1228&8 kln(' in area"
The major- f'eatul"0s of this Park are
it~J Dlountai.i:1lJt including Mt Sl:lg'::u:mathll (Mt Evel""est) and the
cuI tuX'e of the Shel"]?$. people
I')
0
( 3 ) ~!!8E~2E~=tl£~1!2l'~~l;2Erl;
anothE)i'" mount8in Na t.ional Parl{ of'
NC'n')al wi th a total area 01" 122.8 Itm 2 ..
I:t V\'B.S estnblish<:,d
mainly fOl" its Bcen:tc value and was gazetted in 1976 ..
This
j.f:3
RaY.'l?l Nat-tonal. Pal"k is lOcated in Nor·th-west
It has' a tots]. al?0a or only 103 Itm3 and includes
the largest lake :In. Ne:oalt>
6
LU?l?X'.2JS!"",,~
1
0
Slllt:le. Phanta W:J.ldlj,
Sh(;~y
2
4.19
2
lun
31 km 2
KOGhi Ta.ppu Wildlire Reserve
b.,u
1 55 lcm
W1ldlJ,te HElserv/!;)
TheI"S tU"o maDY areas ""hil1h possess conl-J:tdeI·~ble
p,otemt.1al t.o bl!H~Olrle National Parks 01" equi Vl:! Xl t Reserves
due to their- scientif'j.c, SCf.:!l.1..c, N::cr'eational and CUJ.tUt'fll
values.
However, setting up National Parks ,and Reserves
in a develc:oing 118. tic!! such 8S Nepal l'eguires a lot of~
ef'f'ol"t due to the variolls soal.al I:.lnd economic cons traint.a <:>
Horr'BY (1972) recognised four basic: cond~l tions Vl.hich are
~ssel1tial. )':'01" ef'fective crea.tion ot' ~-Ut'kB and Reserves.
They
(1 )
H.re~
A f'l:e'ill political will on the part 01: the co\mtr'1es t
leadex's ;,
(2)
A trend in public opinion whlch demands sUDPort ox'
at least accel/ts t.his official 'will;
(3)
The mobilization of i'u!1r1s required to bring this
vall into fruition;
(L~)
The intel"vcnti.on of an. admil1istl 'ation in the 'widest
Se!1f;HJ 11 tlftvir.lg the na ccssary eft'eat1 veness and
comp(!;te,m.1e to t.ranslate this will into actiono
1
In Napsl mos't of' the above-Dlfmtioned cond:'l tiona are.
met or could be met, except fox' the public SUppol"t and
acce:otanc0 of consel"'vation programmes which is still \'re:ak.
Tl"!(~re r.ooy exist other constraints whi.c11 may 1 r.lb.ibi t
the establifihment and per];)et.uutiofl of+ Na tional Parks and
Soma of' the m()re obvious cons traints
Reserves in Nepal G
aX'e as £Ql1ows:
7
<.>
Ava11,b111tz ot Sp1\!ble Land Re8ogrce.
So•• nat1oD8 are .ore t'ortunate than others in UU.
reepect.
Young countr1es auch as Ne. Zealand, wi th a 8aall
populat10n and large tracts of rtrg1n landscape, have t he
greateat opportun1 t7 to estab11sh Nat10nal Parks which are
relat1vely unspo1lt and natural.
With proper management
and ample finanee, 1t is possible to protect these Parks in
their natural cond1t1on with .in1mal further deteriorat1on
by human 1nf"luences.
Nepal, on the other ham, has a total popula t 10n of
more than 12 II1l11on spread over a total land area of
140,637 0 2 •
The popula t10n is denae and the de • .Dd tor
land 1s extre.,17 high.
D1ngboche, an agr1cultural area at an altitude
of 43~O m in a high H1malayan valley shows t he
1ntens1ve utU1sat1on of a boat11e env11·onae nt.
Even the .ost host1le env1rollllents such as the .bet
tropical jungles of T.rai and the trozen slopes of tm
H1ulaya. are no t without huaan settlements.
Theretor e, 1t
1. d1ft1cul t to acquire land tor the purpose8 ot establ lah1ng Nat1on.l Parks and Res.rYes without encroaching on other'
8
t
8
living space
in:f'luen.c:t
01'
human ij,"th.abi tat:loXl)l; t.he oP1?ortuni ty :1:"01'
e of
:(,0 pr'OC(;Jll ta t i V'C
:re~lttu:~eB
theix' way of l:l:t'co!>
[';lample l3
m~0 l:lm:lt(;~(lG
(1))
:' gail'l econornJ.c
mo;o.e'iaI"Y advantages <l
But, Ittour'!gm can
be in.
lo't 'lffl th ho..ture aortae Ma ti 0111' l}9.I-t :tcula j;>ly 'iwJ.on. :C'he
sm and. who t i t impl:les
pr'efH;:.nco
. nH·tur'e} alld na
:t
in(.~reGGing
tm.:t'e
rC80U:t.'(j0S of"'
. re1;.1(~I·V0S
detl"':tmental to
resources tt (Bodowslci. 1977) ..
llwn'ber'l;J and dem,:;i ties otl
i'~or'a and
(:Po:;.~
f'Ol~
accomnHXl.e.t:t01'l. fox' "'Gour'ism are
wO:S;'ld~13 Nst:l.onal f'al:"ks and equivalent
1973)
\!I
Since tcm.:r'isID :18 one of' the biggest il1dustl:'ies and
an. imI)Ol:'tant Boux'ce of' :t'o:t:'eign exchl3.·nge, :t'(~ is dif'F.:i.cult
and. ppobo bly
sa not to deri va economic 'advantages i'r'om
1t
The \'II(l:I.:"k of' nature C0!18el~vation and preseJ:'vatiol1 i tacIt'
requi!'es la
SlUUS cd' money..
However~ unless tOl1.r1.sUl is
stric"tly controlled anei moni tared!) overcleveloJ,;mlent ot: a
tourist indtHltry may
nt:;lgetive Edda t~i':f.'ect8li' some of which
may be int,;H1c"iIibleg yet
gl'f:::e.t sj,g"nii'icance to soc:tal~ cult...
ul:>al snd. Gnvi:t}onmental cCH1s1derat:J.ons"
(>
'rl'le Na 1;;1, onal Pa
and Reser."VGs of Nepal have a large
number· of pe')J~10 l:l.v'il1g ::tnside. 'chail" boul1dal'ie
s who are
.
depenr1CJJ.J.t on t.he resoul~cea vii. thil1 theil" boundarie s fOl'" sur ...
vivl11,.
The :lnflu0nce of' mon 011 th.eae al'eas mey have been
con t:lntlous f'oI' contur:t(Hj and i 8 a cu rl'l(:H"1t and :fu. tUl"B 1'{)S 11 ty
D:tsplac£')ruent of' these
witJ). w.l::dch manugerlY>3nt m't)J;;t contendc.
populatlons may not be f:H:.onom:1,cal1y f'easl.ble or fJocial1.v
just:i:e:table
~rhe O\f'el'f~0l::U3 eXfuop1.es oit such ,act:1.ons havo
been h:tghly nnsrtoceosfuJ. &
fJ,'hus, in pr:J.nci]?lc It the il1.tegl"'at:tonof' the WB.JfS (if Itfe of ttH~ l'aI·k 1.nhab:l.tant.s into 'the
(>
9
National Park system seems to be the better alternative.
It is already recognised by experts in the t'ield ot'
National Parks and .oat taportantly by His Ma3esty's GoYernsent that the traditional W&7s ot' lit'e ot' the people, their
cultivated l~~scape and architecture in s~.e_~~ the exiat.
- ing National Parka ot' Nepal are ot' high anth.ropologi~l,
----s~en1c and aesthetic values.
The ret'ore, these cuI tural
aspects of the Parks require the tull protection of National
Parks.
~
-
---
Man! Rimdu festival at Tengboc.be monastery.
An important relig10us festival for the Sherpa
people also provides an interesting cultural
attraction to the tourist.
Unt'ortunately, the inclusion ot' human populations in National
Parks will pose considerable management and administrative
difficulties.
The ways of life of the people are subject to
rapid change.
The increase in population places increasing
demands
on t~
--- na
-tural
. resources ot the Park which creates'
conservation/use cont11cts. With this type o£ Park, application of resource management techniques are not sufficient
because people fS needs bave to be considered first". -
10
( a.)
HO:t'ray (1970) has o::q;>x'essed the view t;hn t unlike
oconomicf111y advanoecl cOUl.l'tr-:1.es,. publj,e opin.ion and fiHIPPO:t~t
:COl.~ contj(:n~·flU't:'i.on
mtwh. .hapc10!" to get, in ItOOl:'fH~ n& tiona £'
of' t.he P01?ule. tion cona~b::d.~ oJ: (:)conomically weak
opla b.o:wing Ij.ttle int0:t'0f.1t :l.1l COl:1lH~1"vo.tlon of:
8P0C:i08 01" eC()Gyst.EHllS llJ
frIlls view is
sHlpported. by
MaslowifJ 'l;hcio:r,"y
hmilan mot:Lvatiolll1 which 8SYS that ma.n~8
beCaUtl0 thf,) m(ljor":l.
Ii
drive to }?'tu:'st.:te h:tgJler' oneGo
'arlee to indj.vidrmllJ fJl~e:
, man will not ba va the
in o~d0r o~ importThe
needs
needs
and belongi.llg needs
needs
Vtan.' s desil~e to have Ua:t io.n.ql 1?-,,"l,l,"ks srr! nil ttu'llnl areas,
of theil' aesth~)t1c and DO. tura1 beauties Il' hi s
desire to leEu'n a11<1 know more abo\.! t .t1fJ. tlU"8 ana. fin tural 600systell1'~J'
113 into the en tegory ot: higher-·level xWGc.la (e<l> g~
1\
The refore, people show
t'l61f-uctnalisstlon and. cogn:!..tl va)
li,ttle BU,:p'PO!·t and interest in coneervation in Nepal because
t.hey alto busy try:tng to fuJ.t'1~1 their lower basic needs (e.g ..
food~
1 ter and Baf'etY') ..
I.n ol~der t;o. gain their st.lJ/1?Ort
and
tion the Pa:r"lc mUBt con'tribute tOW8.);,""'ds flll:f~ill1ng
their lo\'¥eX'~10vel needs t;.
ConSel"'V'f.oJ, tion education may be
another l!1cans by whj.ch the ~":r support can be gained.
apprec
~)
€!I
(e)
.Ava11ab11:1. ty of'
xwn.t~e tor running Na't:tonal Parks
:l.!~ a l1!{\.j or p'I"Oblem even
r:tch(~r' nat.inus
Nepal has been
:p<:}ceiv:Lrtg @.~11el·ous finaxwifll and technical assistance f'.t'om
G
11
1.ntoX'X')[J.t:tonal
orgfH1.1.G~tionD
it!:l Nat:tonal <Peu"ks fi.nd
fOr" Bf:d;abl:tshmen.t
nowever~1
thi~3
flnd b:U.b1 terRI rsdd pX1 ogr'nnllllOf3
:ts only the begi.nn1ng"
He8el"ves'y~:d;el1ls ...
The lIm.in f'u:ture res-
pouf3:i.bil.:ity o:£' HClmj.nistE:ly.':tng and 111Fiil1ta:ining these Parl{s in
I>EH'J?etutty :taIls em t.b,t~ count:ry itself'<,
T.br·H'oi'ox·ef/ s.
guaranteed 60Ur(~(:: 0:1':' f'ir.IJ;lnc:e
111ture admin:i.st:('atl(m (;;1.ttd.
ma,intel19.rlC0 mnsd; be ensul:'ed In:·:i.oI" to 0stab11s1:uncrJ.t of' a.ny
mo:ee
Th~
costs aSBoeta:tecl wi th setting up and rUl1ning
l\ratiiorml :F)HI'lm and I?o801:'VeS Hl:"e V'2l:3t and can be calculated
in moneta:t'';)1 tet'lTls"
Bu:1i t .ne
. bel:le:i:'i ts al'e mostly intangible
and often i.ncth,'1I€:H!:t"
It i13 no't eaBY to m(~asure these
bEHU;:x'i tfJ in monetar'Y' terms l'
it i.8 diff'i cuI t to put
JJl'ices (mon.ey) on benef'! t.s such as pubLic wellbeing g
recreation~ aesthetic values and prcaervation o
It 113
Q.i:f.'f:t cuI t to make 1xwes tmen:t nnalys is j.n tel"nlS that ever'ybody
(San undcj:s'I:i.ancL.
ThcJ:'ei'o):"6 Sl
tt:tng allocation of' sufficient
ftmc1s :f'Ol." cOlJ.servat:ton Pl?ogl"smmes becomes a problem e
'J:om:'if:llll m,\!y act as an imIH)1·tant justit'icatiol1 f'O)."
lw.ving Nai,:i.cm.ml Pspke and obtaining f'1J.uds tOll establislllnerrf:.@
l1oweve1'~ the relj.ab:J.:U, ty of the tOU1~j.S't industx'Y cannot be
gual'>anteec1.
~
. Despj. te the va:C'i0t1f3 cons tralnts;!I the Nelial GOV01'nmc:lD.t
:ts me1tin!::~ l"apid ppogre8s in developing its ))Ie. tional Parka
and Resel'v0 t3ystemD
It l"'ef'lects t.h0 cons:tdel':able interest
and dec1tcat:toll of' lUf3 Majesty'lS Gov61":o.ment in the presEJ1"'vat:h")u of th.o cultural an.d ns. tux'al heritage of "the world"
1:1:: ,. t wasl'lot :t"'or the clealh ·"s:i,ght.ed leader8hip ot: Hie
!Jate Maj
King Mahendra, His Majl:)st~t K:tng Blrendt'a and
th~ keen pel'sonal interest 13ho'wn by H"kl"H .. Prince G-yanendra,
'/:.h.e :elnancdal and technical 8$sistance pro'vided by internatj"onnl conf;lorvation organisations, hila teral aid p'!"ogr.ammes
of'i'erf')d by natiorw such aa Aus tralia an.d New Zealand, and
final.ly 'L;he dedication. on the part of' the staf'f' of' the Natj.onal PEu,,""l;: and .W:lldLlte Conse).:vation of'f'ice~ Nepal would have
lo(~!'I:. some of her' 111.0St valuable natural and cu.lt\.ll~al assets",
IIlhe 10S8 would not only' be Nepa1 9 8. "Na tlonal ParIes B,nd
Wi.lcllifc
serves aro more than the .nat.ural an.d cultural
heri tage oi' one na tion .~ they are the bJ.rthright o:f' all
<l>
12
Ii!? tlld uel"
@
i.t{
fJ.\.b.e~y
af'i'eCf{; the wor'ld as a whole $
,)~he
f'm" COn8{H'.'lration measUl"CS i8 aout,e :tXt Nepal.
'LElunch:ing rl.tlt:lonwlde conser·vatio:n. pr()g.;ramme8 requi!l et3 major
e:t.t'm:'i,;",
Irhe reo.son.s wtll be further. htghlightt'ld in. the
rs w1 th some pOfH31.ble nolut.:lons ~
13
SagarmfJt.hr.i No.'t:.ional Par'le 1. 8 on the la:!? ot: the
Hill1'llDYB.s in
NOl'th.":,,Eas1;f)l"n reg:lon of Nepal@
It is
located at ~~I(J ~OO l"itorth Int:i.tude B.nd a6° . 00 gsst longitude
and 1:t(:!8 withtn. Sol\l<=Khumbu dJ.fltl"'1.ct of" Sagarmatha zono",
Na tional Park occupies aJnn~ox:i.ma 'tely 1228 .. 8
It includes the whole area,.
,
"'£
previously known as Khum1:n:t:J
Sagarma
lon2 of' the Himalayan landscapef)
Q
203
AL~.~
'l'.he a1 ti
2Boo mat; MO):ljO
2 .. 4
t()
S8lgal"matha ·Na·ttona1 Parole ranges from
884B m [;It the top
Sag£wmstha (Mt l"ilverest) ..
I?.2~lnilll~t
b olmcl;:u.:w of.' 89.03.1"1).10 thl1 Na. tional Park
foll()VlS the NepEll/Ch1na bc)):·dr.n" extencl1n.g from Nal1f£ga La east ...
WFlI~ds al~;:..ng thE1 J;>:i.dges O.t" Cho Oyu, Gy!~chung IChang, Pumor·1.~
Sagat'flu:ttha. and mee'ts Lhotse Sool"'¢!
The eaC3teJ;"ll boundal"'Y rUl1s\ :f'l:'om thetae Shar
ridges of: PethtttlgtsE>,@ Oho Palu and Mingbo Ult)
In the Bou,th the bounda~'t;y '1~lm8 :from Mingbo l.a along
'1'ho
m)1~thel·'il
of Kb,t)..f.').g Tf:'d.ga p
Ti~9~
Sex'lm. 8.nd i~ollo\'!1S the course
w:l th Dudh 1(013 i.
Fr0m the junctI
Khf.)l[~
Mbn;jo
which lnf:Hi:ltEl
:ton. of' Dt'l.(lh Kon1 and Mon;jo !Chola j}
along
"idge s
or
icontinues wes twal"'ds
KOl1gde Ili. Tal1F~I(bangpOChe and l'1 ghars go
j. t
i
8h.aX'o
~:he
woatern boul1chn"y runs f':F'OlU I?ighergo Sh:;;lr' l1o.t'thalong Te.shi Il81>cha
sa and the ridlT.CS of' 1/8ngmoehe Ri,
!tl:
Hene(~
$I
the
nt'lTIEJ
IUl.Uwbl1 is ott n .used as a synonym for
8a.gurmat.ho. Nat:\,onal
th['01.1,ghont 'this tc:rx:'t ..
'\
D:tngjtmg H.i, Ptl!lgbug R:t to mcc;t Nangpa 18 (see mnp in
Appen(11x) '"
8£!gaI'matJ.lcl National ]?al"k iB only aecas
ble by f'oot
(a)
is surl"ouncled by mounta:.tns
wh:Lch :f'ox'lTI. a str'ong physical barr-j.el'"
Thel"ef'o.r-e, accessibh~ entr·y ))0 in. to a1:'0 limHied"
The:t"'e are onl.y 'three ma:)n access
l,'outel:J
Among thel'll:l' t.h~) m08 t impoX"tant one is fl'*om the
tlO\l1~.hE~r'n. Edde of t.I:V.3 Ptl,l"'k ttl:pough the lower Duelll Kotd aOl'ge
whic.h. link~'l I<htunbu. vvith the rest of Nepal",
This rout.e 1s
heav:lly \:I,ood by both hUIM;;l.1. nn(} animr~l traffic Bnd is accessroll;.
t\
ible all
tb.~,
year' x·ounC! ..
The next :tlfll?Ol'·tan-c Ii\(~(:ess po:tnt is Nangpa lJa II a
5791 m high P3SS which linkD Khwtlbu VI::!. th the rr:l.betan AutoJrwmous
Hegion of the Peo:oleo He1?ubl~~c of Ch_1.f!J'l,,· In the ,Past this
aCCf:HW was pOI>uJal.'1.;y used by both Ner)ali and Tibetsn tI'HdG!'s
It.s s:1.E:r)J,f'I cm'J.(le hus clecl:l.ncld In l~ecEmt years due to rna jar'
l)olit:tcfll changss' j.n. rribet"
'rhis pass is still used. by
Shel"pa t.1"Hdol~S f'oJ.:' ). 1mi ted t,l:"Hrl1ng l?UppOSes
But it is
st!'ictly prohihited i'Ol" :f'oreign visi to:t's"
It remains closed
dUT.·ing winter due to fjxtreme anow and ice ("Dndl. tions.,
'rashi !l!.'ll?cha Pasf3 CHl the wes'(; links Khumbll \vi tb its
tH::ligl1bou:ping Rol\'i1al:Ln.g Valley"
Th:l.8 route bas only limited
\.U3e to t.JJ.f:1 local
opla but ill frequently' used by tourists·.,
The aCC;(;10S is l"e::d:.!"icted ma1:nly due to hazardous 00001 tiona
01,' snow and ice and :raIling debr:i,sf)
It :1,8 not. accessible
evel'YOl1eeven c1u1:·:l.ng its best; c(').trli tiOllS
Some motUltairleer(II
0
to
&
(b)
. Ai);' acc/t)f.H3 :tnto the e.l'~~a was first established in 1964
when th.e Himalayan '£I'ust In:d.l t an air~·st1'1p. 1"01," short take-off
and 1~H),c1.1ng 81 x'(~x'a:t't at Llllcla.
'.l:h.16 ail·-·s't:rip is located in
'~he lovter Dndhi Kosi VallC'w' Hbout 10 It:m south of the sou t.h()rn
bonnds.);:';)'
the 1?;·u'k a·t an a1 ti tudE) of 2800 m•
.Another air-at.I'ip 0:(' a simj,llflI' t'Yl1e was buil t at
15
Sbyongboche, at an altitude or 3760 11 in 1972 by a Japanese
This air-etrip
company to serYe the Everest View Hotel.
is located inside the Park boundary.
2.6
HUilan Population
The Park has a total population or almost 3000 residents, living in scattered villages along the glacial
terraces and riYer valleys of the Dudh Kosi and its tributaries.
The population consists Ilostly or Sherpa people
plus a tew Tibetan re:f'Ugees and people t'rom other parts of
Nepal who work ror the Government ofrices.
The Sherpa pe ople ga ther at Tengboche to
celebrate religious festivals.
2. 7
Land Ownership and Use Pattern
Lam areas ot the Khumbu region are ror the most part
rugged and unproductive.
The more fertile and stable flat
areas along glacial and river terraces are used by the local
people tor res~entia1 and agricultural purposes.
These
areas are divided into individual rie1ds by using stone walls
and are privately owned by individuals.
16
There is no system of zoning.
The residential
houses are built in association with agricultural land.
The fiel ds are una ui table tor extensive cropping due to
unfavourable climatic conditions and low soil fertility.
They are used during the warmer season for growing crops
and hay, and remain frozen during .ost of the winter.
The main food crops grown in Khumbu are potatces, buckwheat, barley and turniPS.
Thame (3800 m), a permanent Sherpa village
in its monsoon greenery.
The remaining unoccupied land consists ot steep
slopes, forested areas, alpine grassland, glaciers and other
infertile surfaces.
T.hesearea8 are collective17 used by
the whole communi ty tor grazing and other co_unal purposes,
e.g. the collection ot soil, rock, tirewood, graBs and animal
manure.
17
2.8
Domestic An4aals
Animal husbandry is one of the oldest occupations
ot the local people.
The tradi tional Sherpa way ot' life
is largely dependent on animals and ant.al prcrlucts.
Yak and Nak, common cattle, sheep, goats and horses are
the domestic animals reared by the Sherpa people.
Crossbreeds are also produced by crossing Yak and Nak with
Tibetan dwart cattle.
Most Sherpas own livestock, but only a few are fUlltime herdsmen, keeping large herds of animals.
Livestock
plays a vital role in the local economy.
It provides local
communities w.1th wool fibre, protein and most importantly,
manure for agriculture.
Yaks and cross-breeds are also
used tor ploughing and transportation purposes.
Yaks and Naks, the most important domestic
animal in the Sherpa economy.
The comparison of amul censuses, carried out by
Heimendorf in 1957 and Bjonne•• in 1978, show that the livestock population of Khumbu in 1978 _s about the 8811e as it
was in 1957.
However, there was a boe:. aDd crash period in
the early 1960's caused by a sudden influx of livestock
\
18
In:'Clugh,t 1,n by the 'ribetan
r~}f'ugeea
'"
'l'he static :rate of grow:th in the animal population
01:."
Khmnbu. region ove)',' the last two decades may have
(lue to Itml ted support:l.ng C8J)8Ci ty of the envir'onment
813 well as the development of tourist industries wh:lch
attY'8ci;ed the people away f'rom aniIl1a~ husbandry,.
BABIC :P.HYSICAIJ BIOLOGICAL AND
HI S fJ.'O HI CAL ])Nl~A
ieOathcr:Ln.g :Ln:forroa tIon on
v&\lues of:
:sm at'eu iB always an eEH3etltial fh's't ater) 1€H;1cl:\,ng to t;he
0s·tabllElhment of' t}, Psr-k u ' CLinn 19"16)
Detailed inf'orraat10il on phy:.:1ical p b:!..ologi.cal and h1stcYc'ical rasout'ces of'
.
.
the P[lrk is an oSBential requirement 1'01" development ot
pr"oJ?er ploflnillg lt good management and 1ntel'preta t10n oi' the
I'080UIICe1:~ ot.' the I)eu"'k.
Hl:'lnCe, the following basic
int'ormation. on 1.18 tur'sl resources of' the PEn"k has been put
togethel" f1.\om var·:tous SOU1"ces"
l"EH:JOUt'ces sUld'
G
3 61
!.QJ22JJl',lU).J1y~
tiThe ph,yelograp.hy of' Sagal"'matha National Park is
deter'mined by ·t,n.e great H:.\.malayan Ranges, 1 ts glaciers and
r:i.v0r valJ.€:)ya..
It is enclosed to the north by mL'Issifs of
Sagar·ffif.\tha and Oho Oyu vdt11 thei:t.' subsidirH'ly Desks and
glac:l.el'sjI ana. to the east and west by lesf-Jex' but still. formidable l:'811ges rising 6000 to' 7000 m ahd extending at
roughly l"j.ghtallgles to the ms1n divide" (Lucas 197~.) e
The me.jox" mountain peaks in the area are Sagarmatha
(8848 tIl) 11 Lho'~se (8501 m) 9 Lhotse ShsX' (8363 m), Cho Oyu
(8153 m) fI GyaChlln.g Khang (7922 rn), Ih~pt8e (7873 m), Furnori,
(7145 m)fI Ama Dablang (6856 m), Tram Serku (6808 m), Khang
Taiga (6685 m) g 'and TaWOc..b.0 (651.~2 m)
ffh6se mountai.n peaks enclose the Khumbu Valley which
comds-ts of three srnalh-::r." x'i va!' valleys - Dudh Kosi 9 Bhote
Kosi and Irnjl~ 1<1101a Valley $ which all join togethel" to :form
the. Dudh Kil."Hli Jttvor.
Q
The uppel' valleys of Khurnbu have U-Bhaped pl"'of'iles
from J?D.Clt glsQ:tal action whiltl the lowel" valleys are very
·steep"'>Bid.ed and V-shaped in proi'ile due to stream erosi(lu.
20
3.2
Drainage Systema
(a)
Glaciers
There are glaciers of various sizes at the head o~
the valleys and sub-valleys of the Khumbu Region.
The
most significant ones are Khumbu Glacier, Lhotse Glacier,
Imja Glacier, Ngozumba Glacier and Nangpa Glacier.
These glaciers are not very large owing to low
amounts of precipitation and absence of large neve basins
to act as catchment areas for snow and ice.
These glaQiers
are mainly nourished by summer avalanches from the steep
mountain slopes.
According to Hagen (1963), there are no glacial
cirques to be found be low the al ti tude o~ 3000 Il.
The
lowest terminal moraine in the Dudh Kosi Valley extends as
far as Chaunri Kbarks, about 8 kID south of SagarJl8tha
National Park boundary.
Khumbu Glacier
Most Himalayan glaciers are in retreat.
Their rate
of movement varie s considerably.
"Khumbu Glacie r, according to Fritz Miller, moves only about 50 metres per year
while some other Himalayan glaciers are known to move 10 km
21
(b)
The main r·j,"\rer> eys'temf3
ot
Ne,))al o.,g .. !cosh:1., GanL1akif/
K::u'nal:t and Mahaka1:t fl (:'JX'igina ted bel'ore the rise of t;he
Hiinalays ~
It 1s 'believed tb.a t ~l~he H:lrnalays upli:f.'ted so
slovlly til.at these
vers had no ditf'icul ty in ccmt.il1uillg to
0:[;' the IUmalayan
flow througb, their channelf~"
The
c1w.:tl1. flnd t.he et'o<l:tng action of: the
WJ:r"8 togt~'thel~ developed
doep tral1f>:lvorr"w gor'ges"
The cleep gorge along the lower
coupse· of tho Dudh
It la intOt'flst:tng to note tha't g €lIt.hough Duo.11:1, Kosi,
l:l.nd.
t)~ibutal"'i(~s!1 Bhote Kosi and Imja Khola are ted by
melt.ing glacie~"B ~Hld hav(~ thd,I' ol.. :tgin entirely within the
Khumbu Valley!) geol.ogist Hagon (1962) 8uspects that the
valley of' Ha Chu which f'loWG J.lol·thwf;lt"Cis :t'rom the slope of
Cha Oyu nlight; have been the form oz' upy)er course 0:[' the Bhote'
Kosi G
'rho NangllH V(alley as :('8Y' as Thame villa
has no
phys:i.cal connectj.on with its p!'~HJent glaclers or rivel" ..
Also Nangpa PaGS is more a level cl"'ossj.ng than an actual
paBs"
mOI~e
'l'harci'ol':G
possibility exj.sts that f'ormel:1y a much
11 the
.
.
impOJ:'tant ri vel' might hove flowec1 down through Nangpu
Valley"
Because of' their glacir:tJ. or:tgin.~ the summa:t." and 'winter
leva Is of' t.he J:'1 vel:"'S of' the Khllrllbu do not va'ry grea tly 0
Howev!:}!,>!'! a sudd.en r:.tse in tilf') level eotud OCO\'11'· during the
monsoon <1ue to bUl"sting at: the glac:tal lakes in the upper
~f.1.hi8
catchment D.l"'eao
tYJ?E:l of sudden f"lc)oding has caused .
sove.t>e devastation in t.he pastil
'1~he
Himalayan. mountain :/.:'ongea are the youngest cha:tn
of moun ·trdns in. tho world
. It is
nerally accepted by g~~ologistEl that the area
wh:teh ccm.sti tU{,EH3 the IUm-!'11ayas ~ was once the bed of' the
'rethy's S(iJa, wh~teh stl"ctch!Jd. along the soutoot'n ~~dge 01" the
til
l;:m.'Cis ian l.and marlS
If:l'!~(:l Cx'('!:tI:lCEH)U$
reling the eal"'th
4
Slowly, through the
Age l? the :tl1.d:l,an te<.,,:tonic plate moyed north-
wax'd, f'ollowing the
Gondwannlan(l~
E)Al(~l
bl~eak.up
of the srx'oat. sotlther-n continent,
D\.U;>ing the Eocone
po
sorn{~ 60
ml11iol1 yeal'S
ago~
22
col1.if3ion took place¢>
~(lhe l,"ate of convergence bet'l\'oen the
two (:ont.:tnent.,nl plater;) was thereafter ,1~educEKl9 but lar·gescale tectonic! movement continues",
The reau]. t vms cl:'uHtal
shot·tCJ:d.11g and def'ormat:lon wi thin the Continental 11. thofJphm:>e
w111011, in i t.fJ
nal stages some 10 t() 20 million yeaJ:s ago,.
))r'oducetl the Htmnlnyas.
'r11e bEl ckbone of the Ii:! malaYf).(1 sys tem is f'Ol."'med by the
Grea t IUmaJ.n.yas which X'ifH} to 'the ir' maximum hei ght in the
Khl1.Dl btl l:"i:) gi on ..
'rhe Hlmalayas have pj.scn at least 1371 m since
th;) m:tdclle Pleis tocene, about 1 ~ mll1ion years ago, Em
OCCU1"':rence wl tnes8ed by early man,; .
Scientists are at the opinion that the Himalayas are
stl11 I'ising"
~rhis rise :is evidence:l by the upheavnl of
youngel" river terraoes
Genel~al1yp the IUmnl.ayan 80:1.1s arc infel't:1.1e"
'frey
Brc thin and. poor on steeper slopes but on cult1.vated. areas
s011s may be l.mpr'oved at't;ii~iclally by the addition of organic
material.'
Prom 'the Obo~H'vat10n of t.he vegetation typ(~S,
.soils ape likely to be acidic in. lID. t.u.ra.,
(>
The KhulUhu Valley 1s encircled by high Himalayan rangB8
which off'er unique types of' clime ttc cond! tiona 0
The 0011dltj,Ol1cl may be described fH4 somethln.g between that of the
central ~'lilly region ot: Nepal in ·the south and the ~u"id
Tibetan plateau to the north, having cool wet summers and
cold dy'y and mos tly 8tlDl1,;y wlnte:('s <l>
In summeri! the pl"incipal mountain peaks to the
south!) el"gl> Kal"yalung, Kongde, Kh.9.ng Taiga and Trl:ml Berku
i'm'ill 1:1 barz-'ler w.hich i'Ol"lces the \\~.:U'lll moistul"'e-bearing monsoon
ail.'" to l1'i6e..
In the ppocef:Jsi most of' its precipitation is
d:lschapged on the southet'n slopes of this l"unge ~
'Fhe Khumbu
Valley" theref'or'e p I'eoei ves Ie ss r ainfe11 than valleys of
the low~31" moun.tain region of NepalI>
Cold continental
air from the
~ north
~.-"~~-~
Monsoon
precipitation
('2-'()
.
~
II~-,-,/ f.)
I I ' • l-r-rr
-~.------*
I
l i 11,..11
I
I
lit
~~~'"-'~~,?'
.--~
~-.------------------~
IrigUX'f; 2:
The cl:1.mate of Khumbu is
moa.et'ated by its sUl.~roul1d:.!.ng
mO\1l1tain range <>
Some moi~,t.ux'e bear:l.ng ail" Htill gets into tJ.-J.e Khumbu
Valley through the Dudh Rosi GOI'ge and othr3r low gaps along
tho ranges» but. soon confronts the Sagar'matha and Cho,Oyu
maBsi:l's and dl~f)lJS all its moisttu~e in the Khumbu Valley.,
~:he s~\
X'matha fJ,nd Oho Oyu massifs also obstruct the
passage of cold con tinBntal aj,l:' from the north
Hence,
wh:tle the 'I'lbetan plateau on the othel" side of the l'lange
exper'~~en~10s 8i:"id condttions, the }{humbu Valley has ltl.sh
vege ta t.:tOIl gr'ovrthe;
The winter ra:ln and. snowf'al1 in the Himalayan ranges
is ca\1s~d by dCl?l"'essio!ls advancing from the west which become
wenker as t;hoy advance towal~ds 'the ear3t.
Th.us, the effect
of' these Ctelrress:lono £11"'1'3 hert so obvious in the eastern
Iiimolnyas"
'],111''::: KllUmbt.;1, Valley fJ theref'ore, does not get
. heavy snow :E'c-il1s.
Q
The Himf::l.layan vegetation icJ broadly class:lf'iec1 into
fotu." gr'oup8 tina 'J.nly bas!)ci on 81 ti tude and l~a:f.nt"alll!l
Tho
groupf3 are tropica1 9 8ub,.. tro:p:icalji ·t.emp61"'ate and alpineo
The local variation in relief and climate causes
considerable difference in the composition or the vegetation
within each grouP.
The vegetation of Sagarmatha National Park falls into
the temperate and alpine categories.
The temperate forests are known to extend from about
3048 11 to 3657 m and contain coni:ters and broad-leaved
temperate trees.
The plant species found in temperate
regions of Sagarma tha National Park are Blue Pine (!!!n!:!i.
excelsa), Hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), Oak (Quercus se!dcarD1:tolia) and Bamboo.
The alpine zone extends from about 3657 m to 4572 m.
The major forest trees in this zone may consist of Silver Fir
e
(Abies spectabilia), Silver Birch (B~tula util1s), Tree
Jumiper {Juniperus recurva) , Rbododeiidron sp. (Rhododeooron
campanula tum, R. eam:pxlocarpwp, R. anthopogon, R. lepidotum
andRe nivale), and Shrub Juniper (Juniperu!. wallichiana).
Irises, 8 common flower during monsoon in the
Khumbu region.
25
3.6
Wildli:te
There are only a :tew specie s o:t mammals found 1.D
Sagarmatha National Park.
The human interference, e.g.
competition :trom domestic animals and loss of forest habitat,
may have been responsible :tor the low density o:t mammal
popula tion in the Khumbu region.
The larger mammals known
to be :tound in the Khumbu region are: snow leopard
(Panthera uncia), black bear (Selenarctos th1betanus), red
panda (Ailurus rulgens), wolf (Canis' lupus), Himalayan tahr
(Hem¢ragus jemlahicus), musk deer (MoschuS mQschit'erus),
blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), goral (Nemorhaedus gpral) ,
langur (Frebytis entellus) and Himalayan mouse hare (Ochotona
roylei).
Park staft' re~oving a dead musk deer from
poacher's trap.
')6
c. )
Among t,hI;}He mmllm~~ls II bIna
Ilava disappEc'l
1'!'ClXl1 the €I!":)!l
she(?x)~
gm::'al Dnd Barow may
Mush: doer an.d snow leo;pard
a1'0 still. f'ound Hl the Park, but are becoming !'are(f
The
tah.p populI)). t:b:m 11£\8 dropped over 'the last decade.,
'fs..hr and
nmGl-c
ar'(-) :tllegally hunted :['01" mea't amI extl'action o:e
'J:he wolf' is ;~he only an:i.nwl whose
cc.'1l1trol is ene()m'~:Jged by the Sherpa people ~ because they
prey on domes tic aninl'l'1f:.1"
lIowellE!:t't Khumbu :U3 rela ti vely l:ich in. bir'dlLf'e ~
The bit'dB ar'e :no't hal"'rned by the local people cUr0c't.lYfl but
the:i:r: popula t:ton may be uf'f'ected incli:!'ectly by tb.e act;i vi ties
(>
•
HmA~:)ONS
II'On 'J:BE ES'llAHLISHMENT OF
BACV\RMATHJl NATIONAL PAHK
:t'o11 (lVJ}]
~
highef3'l', point on the ef.ll"th's B'l.U:"i'8lCf:) II Mt
U~vel'<:.H'-d;) and i t,8 sUl\roul1ds $I'e 01:' maj 01' f:.l1g.rrlt'iCt:lXlm3 not only to
~ bllt to the whole \vor-J.ds> and its
s t.El. tv.s as a N~l t.
1 J?al:,lc would bX'jJJ.g international pX'e8t1g~)
and Su.:orH,:n.'t to tJ.1.e count.:t·y
Q
(b)
The Khumbu x'egion iE1 already an impoptant tourist
D.r'ea s.nd :l t;s impol:,tanee does not show s.ny a1 gns of' declino
'J;J:w scentc ancl wilderness value II which aI'e its major attra(~t~·
:1.0Hs- mUB t be protected i.'rom f'Ul'thf:lI' oxplo:1. tat.:l.on and ill(I
thx·ough posit-i1re. management based on sound conscjr'\ration
PI' lnol.plc;fJ e.
not only of!
twsthetl.c value but c:H'e vi ts.l ;for th.e peoJ)le ot: IUlUrtlbu
(c)
The dwindl:tng
1:01"(;)[;1
of Khumbu
UtI'€!
~s
a
The. ~oreots also
l? Y an important 1:'010 in c:CIl1Sel''Vat1.on err so:!,l and watel'~
Hnd they hn:cbmn" mrwh of' the w11dl:1f(21 o
A8 1;!Il. ecolog:i.cal Ul1.:i.t~ :1.1'1 t.he 'highent reg:lon of the
wl)!'lc1 t1 the Dndh Kos:t dl"Gdnage fJ..vstem j,s of' much scientific
w:l1ue ('1.11.<1 of'f'ex's '~~ unlq\lfJ x"E';searcn i'leld to sclentist~s
thJ:'onghou t the V'HY(' Id"
(d)
(e)':[lh~1 a:r'ea :to of' rna j(Jt. :religiotls and cul tUl?al
sign1i'ical1(lf.'j :tn Nep81 since :l t ab CJt.l\1c1s :f.n holy places 1:Uw Tengboche
[;l.t1d alno if> tho h~)molan.d. of' Sherpas Wb.08t~ way ot: life is
un:i.q\'l(:'~ C()mp1~1,
w:I. t.h ot.her high a:t t:i. tude dwellers
Q
28
Tengboche Monastery, a major religious centre
and a popular attraction of the Kbumbu region.
29
EVOLUTION AND }JEVEI.oPrI1ENf1'
8A(}.AHMNJ.1HA
NA'l~lON.AJ-I
0))'
PAH.K
Slnee :tts d:t~3C:()Y('.1l."Y :In 1 8~)2, Mt BV(:H:'est hC-ls become,
well known to the '.!tfOl"'ld D,S the hi8):'leH~ 1; mountain on the GEll"'tht>
Ittl uniqUEl):1eS8 as tlJe highef3t point on eal"th was enhanced by
·the g-rtll1rleur- o:£" the Khwnbu Valley vd th its flora and :fauna
D.r>.d tho un,:lque human eultur€J"
Until 1950, Nf:mal was under the rule of' the Rana
P1":tme Ministers who adopted the policy of' isolation e
ThusI'
the count!';)' waB closed to the outside world and KJmmbu was
l:'ar'ely v:tsi ted by :f01:eign. vi 6i tors <l
Af'tcI' the 1950 ],)ol:ttical loc·volnt.ioXl.S! the last Ran')
J?r:tn1e Mi.nist!:'H? was f'oli;'ced to yield and t.he Kine \'V'as restored
his por:Ji tion of aut.hOl:j.ty in 19'51
Nepal was f:1.l1e.lly
opent;;d to :rore~lgn vis! tOJ:$
The' climbing' oxpedi t.ions to Mt EV'E;x>est ~ previo'l..ls1y
led thl'Ol1gh Tibet~ wel"le now led through Nepal.
Af'ter
several a ttempts by '\1'81,'10U6 eXll\~di tiOl:lS through the Khmnbu
Valley fI the \NO 1"1 d ~ s h:1.ghes t. mounts:tn was finally conquel"ed
by l1:idmtmc1 Hillary and Tenzing Sherpa :tn 195.30
The ascent
o:r 11~v€lr'es·t attracted large numl:I\:~r8 of clj.mbers t explorers
and treJ:'~kf.~l·;B to tht3 Khumbu r-egionfl . Hence Mt Ever'est, w1 tp.
:l t.s benutL('ul Khuml::Hl Valley and its local inhabitan:ts,
became one: of' the lTIf:\ :l1'l tacto:rs il1. maldng th.e co tin try knO\'1Xl
to
G
Co
t;othe outside world."
5~ 2
r~!}!~t~:s:~~n~l:L12S";:£?;:~sl£1i9 n. ~p.-H?:.~~l.\Lllun b.~_YEl:,lJ:l
urrho early v1.Edto!'s to the. Khumhtt Valley found majest:tc
mountains ri.si.ng i'rom vlell-j:'ox'ested valleys, rich in wlldlife
Dnd abonl:lc.:t:tl1g in coloux'ful plant communities" (Micb.1·g 197:5)()
MUt~h of the maje~1ty has boen. lost c1eBpi te the cOD.til1uing conSC::rVlltj.on
c1;lce~;: CD rried OU.t by th(~ local people..
11be
i'r8.g:tl0 mountain eeosystem was gl'>ad.ual1y degrading undep the
J):t.'eSBtlPO of
inCre8.f:d.ng human mil an:l.mal popula tiona"
30
Namche Village (3440 .).
Note the expansion
o~ housing development on the steeper slopes
causing soil erosion.
This problem became severe with the sudden int'lux ot Tibetan
refugees and their grazing animals, atter the Chine's e takeover of Tibet in 1959.
The huaan and animal carrying
capacity ot Khumbu was exceeded.
The over-grazing of
alpine grassland led to soil erosion am maasive death of
stock.
The excessive use ot torest tor firewood led to
the permanent loss ot torest in some areas. and severe depletion in others.
In recent years, this delicate Himalayan
ecosystem was brought under turther pressure by uncontrolled
and rapidly increasing tourism and commercial deTelopment
which has little respect tor the environment.
The rapid rate ot social and political enanges baa
also had some adTerse ef~ect not only on the natural environment of Khumbu but also on the human society.
Some people
hold the view that there have been more changes in Khumbu in
the last 25 years than there has been in the previous 250
years.
Unless this massive ra.t e of change is controlled through
positive measures, ecological disaster, irrational economic
dovelopmerlt 9 oXJ?lOl"c,8 t,1()J1 of r"ef30lU~CeG $I env:tY'orml(:).n'l~al
pol1ntlo1l 9 tl0(:dal upheavals ~lJ,1d ell I tural deterlox'O,t:ion are
all
~tDev:Lt8.
Q
ThiG will not only enclanger the biologIcal
so woulo. spoil one o:C the gX' 0otest
toux'ist at'tJ:'(;H.:::tiol1s of Nt::fpa19 caus:l,ng enormous aesthetic
and eeonom:lc losses to the cOllntr'Y
Hence, Blowe):, (1972)
and Mish}:"D. (1 97~3) h8ve stl"ongly st2:~eElsed th.8 need f'Ol:' Nat1 om", 1 Pal:'k wta tus for' the l{htunbu region 1;6 ens ure conservation ono. ·to :tn(:pease the COl.ll1.t:l::'y t s revenue f'l::,om tourif:lln"
(>
In. 1 97~;~ fI J c.H" Blowex' p a w:tld11fe cODlaervat:lon adviser
put :f.ol'war'd an Qutl:tneol' a :I!rojec~t proposal with
a cOlnpl"ehensi've jus't:i.J:'ication f'or the estahl:tshmen:t of' a
National PD1"k in t.he Khumbll Valley"
In May of' 197.~3j) a co,mJs:r."'v::;tt:ton comm:tttee was formed
under the .Chnl!''l1lElnshil') of H"R .. li .. Pril1ce GYflnenclr'[le
In the
f'it's~(j committee meet:'Lngl' the Chail:nnan direct.ed H"R. MiohNl
(an ecolog:hri:;) to meJ{.(;} a f'ielcl :tmresti.gation of the posstbili't"",
108 of establ:ish:i,ng a National Par'};: in th(~ Khumbu Valley"
The I>cd.nts elrl))h!;1Siz(~d in the Royal directive were 2f;) f'o11ows
ot: F".A"O ..
9
(M:lB.hl"a 1 97.:;)
:
(9.)
Selection ot the ;Park boundary so as to ensure
opt:tmufll. pl"oiJ0ction of' flora and fauna of' the region; and
enclosing Mt Everest inside the Parko
(b)
To investigato the tourist utility ot the area"
(c)
To suggest the necessary development work required
wi th:l.l1 the framework of' a nature conservation progl'amme.
(d)
'1'0 est~:tma te the eost l"equh~ed fOIl staff and for'
development
(0)
proposBIB~
To sttHly the :f0l":\sibj.J.ity of involving local people
in COrlSel'Vat.tOl.1.
progl:'tUnmes",
A :rel?OJ:·t ba sed on a f':i.eld loves t:tg' atioD cal'll)j.ed out
be t.woen May and June or 1973 was presented. by ,Mishra ..
In the f..Jf,Une yoar (1 9~13) 9 H"H.q,H .. ]?;p:l.nce Gyanendra
atten.ded the World Congress of' the WOl"ld Wildlife Fund h1
32
Bonn and made the following announcement:
"Since it was first discovered in 1 852, lit Everest
has been attributed special status as highest
mountain in the world. We sincerely believe that
this region am its surrounding in the grandeur
of the Khumbu Valley are of major significance
not only to us but to the whole world as an
ecological, cultural and 880graphical treasure.
which we hope should provide · peace and tranquili ty and to be a sign1t'icant contribution to
a better world heritage".
Sunset on Sagermatha and Lhotse lIassif.
A decision in principle to establish a National Park
in the Khumbu region was subsequentlY made and His Majesty's
Government of Nepal decided to approach the New Zealand Government to assist with its establishment.
New Zealand's experience in mountain Park management
and Sir Edmund Hillary's continued association with the people
or Khumbu were ravourable factors which contributed towards
obtaining the New Zealand Government's assistance.
33
Now Zoalana Co-onorAtion
l.i~"'..r<"'L-!oI""';''''''' "~",,,,,,,,,,,,,--::.,,-,:,r"P,·~::.".'::'~.~U~"!\J'''
__'''~,:';-,;;,-='~)-_,~,,,,"f',,,"....,,-~...,,~
A ·t:..hx'e(;"·rnan InlssJ.on led. by P,JloC .. J...U(,:rJ.B WfAS Gent to
Neprd. In Mny .j ~.rnl. by the New Zealand GoV'eY'Dmen:1:i to assess
and YIvJ.ke :COC01.JHIlCIJ.d£1 t.:LOnf:l to t.he Nepall3se (l()ver.'umen.t on the
J?)}opof:~al
WC'lJ;'(:l
'/';0
e
Dt,~~bllsh
Hl:::;o :pogu:l1"'odto
th.e
m:.;~ke
8agr!l~mat;ha
l."ecommenc1,~:!
Nat.:lon.al l\u"k"
They
iiloklS to -th,e Min:lstry
(NoZo) ns to the pl"e("dse rw:'tu:r'c of' any
f'trtuJ:'e N",Zo Il[:trtiolpatl,on in the i)l"'o~lect (Lucus .~:~. ~Ell" 1974).
01' ]lol'edgn. Af:('a::t:r."8
In Hoped!p the New ZG;al<,~nd misf:Jion, togethe:t.. \vi th
Mj,l:d11"'a a.nd Dolton. «?(Wlogists), made a group field :inspecti.on of the pr'oJjo:::1(:d NaM.ona1. )?al'lc al:'0n o
M(!}et.ings and dis·cU88:Lonr~ wEH'Gbeld 1n VariO'lU3 places with thE} local people"
A :I:·epo.r·t; wns pr'eparoc1 by the group and III'esen ted to
the M:lrd. ster' of Ii1or'(:)Gts tI tJ.10 Fore:tgn Aiel Division and the
National Paz'ka f),nd W11dl:l.fe ConseJ}va.tion Office of His
The recommendations
in the
l"epOl"t. 'W(;;JJ;,'e [lccepted by His Maj esty" 8 GovernIne nt"
CoODGI'D. t.ion be tween tlYd New Zealand and Nepal Govex'nmen:cs in
'the field' of na tux'e conserva t1 011., as 1'8 commended in the l"'8por·t
presented bsr ' the Hew Zealand miss:.i.on :tn associa tlon wi th
Mishr'[l and.' Bolton fJ began"
Nepalet30 Na t:tonal J?az'k personnel WGl'O sent to' New
Zef),land to l'leC(!;t ve t.:r·nird.D.g :In bot.h adm:tl1.i st.ra tj.ve and:p1:'act ical
asps c:ts ()f' Pal'lr. management undel.... hila teral a,id programmes 0
The Nevi' ZOal~H)d (Jovenmment appolnted G Nicholls 11 f'ormerly
Supex'v:Lsor' of l\fo.t:Lonal Parks ill New Zealand, 0.8 the f"irst
]?l"oje ct mann.gGx· '"
He left Nt3W Zoaland in May 1 975 on a
two <=3tea r' asr:ilignxnent to fM:>f:Jtr:3t the Ney)al Go'trermnent :til the
o ntI3.bl:tGhmen t of'. Sagarma thn National Parke
The National Park
and. W:lldlLfe C:onf:'lol'l·\r3 tj.OLl. Office of Nepal, with the consent
of tho. rUriis tel" of' };i'O:(,0stS jI appointed and dispa tchecl a Wal'den
Off:icE.~):" and t"i'lO Ass:tstant WaI'del'ls and other staff' to Khumbu
:tn tho DEua€: YfJE.lY· 0
A teml)()l~ary offlce was established in
Kht1m~h:iug \vhich' Ia ter' was shifted perma.nently to Namche o
During 1 976/1'7, the Sag(:lramthr;.l National Pal'llk Off! Cf.!
of' Hif.i f!iajeEltyqs GO'lfernment, togl3t;her with the New Zealand
11::'ojoct 1\1f:UJ.Dget"?- eOnlp'letcd most of the constI'llctlon worle on
Gtaff accommodf>. tion E!.nd the dHVelopm(3nt of vts i tox' facili t. iee
'r:r Ol1splDnt:tng of :l:ndigenOtl8 seedlings 'was
fJ
d
Tn'~lcle
34
carried out on an experimental basis.
gazetted on 19th July 1976.
The Park was formally
Gordon Nicholls (the f'1rst New Zealand Project
Manager) building a shed near the Park HeadQuarters on Mendel Pu Hill.
Gordon Nicholls returned to New Zealand in 1977
atter the successful completion of his two-year term.
He was succeeded b,. B. Jet'f'eries in 1977, followed by P.
Croft in 1979.
Sagarmatha National Park is also due to be added to
the World Heritage site list.
With the recommendation of'
P.H.C. Lucas, a member of' I,.'U. C.N., the o:tt'ic1al procedure
is under_,. to cieeigna te Sagar_ tba a8 a World Heri tage
site.
35
CI-IJI.]?l'l!m
6
AIMS .AND 0l1JECTlVES 0:&1 SAGAHMA'JlHA NP.rrIONAL PJ\HK
of
't.h~:;
It wcm.ld seem cler:,dx'able that the aims arK''!. objectiv®s
1?ar'h: be aft f'ollOVlG ~
'the continued ex:tstenc0 of' tl1.El Sherpa
peo];ll(~ j .. l1 tIle Khu.rubu rogton;
to 0.l;lCOlJ.r·ag(~ 't.bed.:c· J)ar't:i.ci
pa tiO!1 1n con~jl;;")x'V'a '\;:i.on Pl"oe;,f1-'ammeC:l; to pI'event any f'Llrther
detcriox'stion in the :r.attu;·al and cultural 0nvil'or,;lnents of
the Par'k thl"ough the appl::tcatic)n of propel" management and
corH3cl",ration techniquE,ls so that Sag,::u:'mat.ha can be an example
of' aXl D.I'ea wbex"e m.a.n. is 11\1'1 ng in. hm:'mony vn th his en:vi!'o:t1~
1 '"
~r() tH1S\u:-e
ve
ment..)
2..
As fay' as possible to conserve native flox-s an.d fauna. ..
na tUX'Dl and ou1 tur-a:l lan.clsc3:p8S of.. the Park w:t'thout depri.v:tng -the p):'G=exist1ng rtght.s and privileges enjoyed by the
Pa:t'k inhabi tak1ts
(>
3.
To maintain a balanced rel(ltionship between. conservation and 'tour~i.smo
'rhusfj while natUI'al and cultural assets
ar.-e cOl')sel"ved' DG :far as possible in thsip or':lginal stat(~j)
peo:vle·ot:m. contj,nue to deY-iva pbysical ll aesthetic:: p cultuI'al t
sci.en'!';1.f'ic and. educe tional bel1cf'i tsf'l'om these asset:::J
At
the Elame time the countr'Y C011 derive the economic bonefi t of'
the iJ1Cl~eD.8ed riumber of' visl tor's o
0
L~"
To det.cn:>mi.ne the human (locals and visitor's) and
dom(:)f3ti.c ?nimal carr~ving capaci ties wi. th l"ef'eren.ce to the
11atur'nl resout'ces of the Park and maintain them wt thin desir-
able limits€,>
36
CHAPl'BR
7
LARD USB ZONING A1m CLASSIFICATION CONCEPI'
7.1
81'\O£i9.1 BackBEo9Pd or Land Use __in Khwabu
Human settle.nt began in the Khumbu region with the
arrival or the ancestors or Sherpa people about 400 years
ago.
The early settlers were pastoral people 111 th a seminomad1c way or lire.
Bence, the land areas were pr1marily
used ror pastoral purposes.
A typical high altitude pastoral hut built
out or stones with minimum use or timber.
The pastoral nomads practised a system or seasonal
migration and ahirted rrom place to place with their livestock,
seeking better climate and rodder conditions.
They did not
own any rixed property such as house and land.
The ir
property consisted or what they could carry and drive in rront
or them. The impact or these nOllads on the environment W8S
probably minimal becaus e both un aDd s took popula ti ons were
37
The migratory
within the carrying capacity of the land.
habits of the populations also helped to equalize the
pressure on the resources over a wider area.
With the use of more intensive agricultural crops,
e.g. potato ani buck wheat, people began to occupy fields
and build houses for shelter and storage of agricultural
products.
The ownership of n xed assets led to the adoption of a more sedentary way of life.
The pastoral nomads
began to practise both pastoral and cropping cultures.
Thus two land use types emerged in Khumbu.
Khumjung-Khunde Village (3780 m), a major
human settlement area.
The practice of agriculture and consequent adoption
of a fixed base residence had both social and environmental
implications.
It improved the living conditions of the
people and increased the local population owing to the
availability of surplus fbod.
Forested land areas were
cleared for agricultural use and trees were cut for the
con8t~uction of houses and shelters.
The aggregation of
38
local:tsed
The e:r:>opr,>ing and past0.Pal uses have been two domiruu1t
land uac tYJ)OG in the J\:humbu l"cgion f!Ol" several centurlesl>
These Uf3"'~B 'have 1nd u(~ed, some environmental changes e '"
gX'£1dual loss of veget:;ition. and wl
lifee
TJ.I(HH~ ohanges
wen"(;: alow and mo!~e oX' less :in balance wl th l1atu~L"e 0 S ab11j.'ty
to ma:i.ntatn",
l.>El.nd and f'O!'ost resOlu'''C(;18 were abun.dant,. a'nd
a low popule'l:.1011 (lensi t.3', the at)SellCe of modern technology
and othe:r.' natural and cultu:('aJ. :fa ctOl""S .have pX'even ted the
r'ap:td explo:L tion of' resources.
Thcl'C W61:'e no con.:f.'licts
aSGociated. wi t.h d1ff01"'ont land uses t'
Hencoi' the need tOl"
land. use z0111.ng and contl-'ol measures did not. 81"180.,
The
land wa~ tX'Qated as a nommoll!,:); open 1":01:" :f'X"eeoccu],)El tion and
explOitation, but people did not compete f'or prj.vate ownel'=
sh:tJ:,) of the commons",
~J:.'his was ma.inly because land. had
ljJnited value (economtc) E>
'rhel"'8 j"nilS no other way of df;n::·:lv·lng economic advantages from the land except bY.cultivation",
~.\h0 deman/ifor' land :ra!.' cl:D.tivat:Lon was low due to the
tU1Pl"oc1l1c"Give J.latl.X!:?e of: the environment am man's limited
e.bj>ll ty to ti 11 lancl
This situation has cbangedin recent years
The
increuse :tn local population has placed add! tiona1 demand on
l';lnd since mor's land J.1as· to be cuI t:i va ted to SUppol"t 0xtx'a
nnmbGrs",
l1he ax'sas pl"ev:lously regarded as utl.sui table tl:r:'0
culti'llated ignor:i.ng the natu.ral limitations of the J.8.nd"
TOU1">iElt developments have 1ntl"'odq ced conun0rcial
:I.nterl.~s ta t11 the area which have placed conaide:('uhle preSstlt'~
'. on the unoccupied lapel areas..
Public and pri va'te lands are
inv'(;1sted fOl" the puy:pose of developing tourist facilities
whlch is a majol" causo of deforestation. because tt needs
t:l.mber fOl" cOnf'::Itruct:1.on and fir'ewood e
li'ul..ther P.X'0EH:HU'8 has be en added by occupa t:ton of' land
ereas by GoYer'nmel1t and privf.:l.to organ:lsat:l.Otl8 for val~ioUfi.l
Q
6
PUll 1)OS6a (I
R0(:111:f2ling t.he :l.tlCI'easil1g demand an.(l l?ot(:::nt:l. a1 commercial
,\U3l'lWi s
o:tU.1€~
land ,II
:!!e(,)J;Jl{~
aX'8 at tGml?'b1ng to 00 CUPY
COIIlmunal
und~n' J?'~':lva te
owrwI'ship.,
'Iint;3 X"anaom OCC'llp'El ti on
and c1cr'lfelopment ot' land vtl thout ref'ere.ne{'~ to planning pl"O·n
codul~e8 can
ad to land uses which could result in. unfavoul'~
(:l. hIe :fLltuX'~31 soeial and env:tronmental consequences '"
Unless the tr'end is ch(:;)cked th.rough proper lan"l. USle
l?lann:1.ng and corrtx'ol measu:t·(~S fJ the :rama lning o:pen spacer;l of'
Khumtl'ilg vit.;i11
public uses p e g .. l'eereat.ion, gr-a.zing!l
coll(l;c:t~ing
vTl1dl
pr'o·taction art~ in' da.nge): of diminiah~
ing o
'1.1110 ag1.-'lcn];tu!'!:l.l and, fox-ested arealEl ar'e also in danger
of getting en8~.),1:red. by resj.dentlal and other major development~h
nce!i> it ii;1 .i.lll~~jOr'tant tho.t the concepts of: land
ClI-18fd:[,j. Oil t,ion and. zon;lng fH'0 in tro:1 ucod to pl~otect d:lt'f'erent
The clossif'tcation and
a 1"0 8.8
zoning sh.ould be carr.ied out according to the inher'ent
qualt t18f::l D.nd dealrable uses of' the 18nd..
Each type of
d.esig.of;;!tion should .have sepa.r'ute manl';!gement policies COXlstructc(l by qualif'j.ed plannel"~ incon8ultation wi th Park
,managers and l:'ep1'0sGntati ves ot: the ·local people 4'
The policy doeumen'ts must be fiexj.ble 80 tha t they call
be reviewed and checked for ne c0ssar'Y read.jns tn18n ts and
modif'ication to !'need; the needs of' tl1f.t changi.ng circuIDstancEH:l
. To meet the need 01' the local D(30))le II to allow :fOI' the
demt:lnds of· the tourists ~ and to provide recognition und pr·o . . .
tect:l.o.n of: X'es. tux'es whi.ch sa tist'y the Na tion'3.1 Park cri tC1"ia,
the s['~ I'lnn th.a Na tion.al l"Elrk could b<:, zones under the, f'ollow:l.l\CS six dU'fel ent land use tj,lpes:
IHl.1..tl f:H'(;H:lO
CI
fl
l
Io
II.
II!
IV"
V.
VI ()
:r
Q
set as
v:tllrl
Human settlement zone
-Agr:tcultUI'£1.1 zone
$
Pa£d;ol"al zone
Nt~ 1;ul'al lamscBJ?0 areas
Special areaa
Wilo.el'" MSS . zone
HUMAN SE/.e'ITEMENT ZONE - This i.e an area :Qr1.ma rily
:f.'or l:'(7sldentiuJ. PU1"'poseSe
All the permanent
enclos
wi thi.n t.he Pal:"'k bmmdF:.J.ry should be i.ncluded
:tn th1. 8 zon.a"
All the c:r.1st~:tng maj,op Sh.erpa vlllages, eago
Namc11ejl KhltlJ1;jl'l.ngs> Khuude fI 'rhame p PhoX"cse $I Pangboche etc.
whtch are lUH}d as pennanelllt bases hy the localslnus t be
(l2l)
ted tas Human
tlem0nt Zones c>
(b) rrhet:,;e zones should pr'imal"11y be under' the adminif~ttr·atio.n of' Local Gover'nment, i()8(> Village Panchayat",
(c) ,It se t of' vlllage planning regula tlons must be
prOd\lCf~d and 1mplemGnt,ed"
These regulations should aim :f.'l)I'
elimination of' bad land use px'acti
11 protection of' the
emr:l,r'onmElnt p improving heal tIl and fH:mltt:l,tion, J?J:'eventing
tmrlesirflble develoI)ment and oV'eI'crov.ulng and reducing conflicts/il
(a) Operl f,:paces should be provlded in appropJ:'iate
1008 tiona
t.hin th~ ville.g(~ to proV'j,de :COl" communi 'GY uses ~
e~g ... sports!! BOCl,al gatheringa oner o thEn:· (..'ommunity purposes o
(e) When deter'mining the botmdtu'Y of a Human Settle]U(':mt zone .. Buf'fic1011t buffer should be allowed fOl~ future
expansion and extension of the ,d.l1age <;
des:t
IIo
AGRICULTURAL ZONE - Agriculture zones are stable areas
ot:. land 'w,h.ich are arable and suitable for production of local
Cl~OpS
Hence p all the su.mmer and winter settlemen'c areas of
t!J
l{humbu which have signif'icant £tgricultural value should be
:lncludecl uudel" thls clo8siftcat.1.on.,
E££"2!ll!'!l&~m.;.~~:1.rul~ :
(a) Ag.('1cul tural zones mUE) t be retained pri marily for
proc.'iuct1on of crops 1'01" human and animal consump'cion ..
(b) Agricultru"sl development should be encoul' sge<i but
dense housi ng and development not x'ela ted to agrlculture may
l
be discouraged e
(c) Graztng animals may be excluded from this zone
dUl~ing the cropp1i1g season p :if' they 81'e damaging crops Ol'"
incompatible with the rotational grazing system.
l"EHlGPvnd for the
unoecHpi(:)d by
pUY.'I)(',)HO
fC)!?OstfJp
grazing"
Thel3{~
zones 8ho\.'l.ld be
a
housing"
Hecomrne ndo t lons
~1""'~'~'¥>z.:."""";;u",, L"'''!.'''4;1-,-U~'''''-~.'''U=''-~-_
(;:1)
OWn0I:'BJ11I1)'
All
t,m:<'aJ. areas Bhould be free of pri va te
'and th.e Natl.onal Park should mainta:l.n control
OVI31:'
it"
Hlf.Hl,(;~nt oocupat:ion of' larid within this zone may
(b)
not be permltted u
However, temporary habitation associated
wi til l>::Ul tOl"'ali.:31n [l,hould be allowede
(c) Px>oBpccting and mi.n1ng should not he perm1 tted
unless t,hey al"e part of 1ih3 tr'Bdl t:ional rights of' the local
i nha hi tantEi
Q"
IV"
.
NATUTU\.L
.
T,ANDSOAPJ~:
AHEAS
~
Th:}';;>
zone includ.es aroas to
be ma:lntfd,nedpredomlnan,tly tn their l"l<.'1 tll1:,al state.,
Howevel'" ~
local people Ilw;y: obt.ain the:il"' livelihood thl"'ough mO~1l1s that
do not· Lnvol'lre extensive c1..11'/)1 vati(Hl 01" othel" major modi1'icatr~
ion of' \7('3 tat:ton and wilclli.
.rl£,ru:WJ,m~?'}()slrdJ,J;u?§' :
(1';1)
The ma jor :rorest stando. of' Khumbu must be PI~O~
tected unc1En', th:1..s der:.:ignat:lon :for t,he purpose of biological
conser'v8tioll$ 'eeGthetics Bnd suste.:lned J)rodlwt.ion of :plant
mater':i.al (e .. g~ r1nad wood Dnd leave:3) essen't:tal to!' agl'icult-
ural and domestic use of the peopleD
( b)
Needr-.; o:t' the J?al"'k ,111hab:t 1.iants should be recognised
and the ex:tstin.g colleetin.g rights should be proi;ectedo
P€t)..~i()dieal baLlS on collection and limi 1;ation on quanti ty
obtained eoulCi bo :lraposed. if necessarYG
(0) Gra ng ma,), be l'.'Gstl'ict.ed in this zone if' it is
detrimental to the natupol 1'eatures"
However, lirl1i ted grazing rns,y need to be intrcxiu,ced period iC811y to minimize t.he
:f1 re til sle '"
(d) I,:Lghting fircG)'l trapp:tng~ 1d111ng and removal of'
t::lr!y na tiv0 wildlife Bpectos ~an.c1 en ,t t:lng gr.·oen trees sh.ould
not b<;; allowed v,11 thout
x'mh::s:ton of th.e Ns'tion81 Ptu"'k Of'fice.
An area posseEIS:l.ng Y'ar'C no. ti "10 plants
ox· ard.muls~ 01"' sign,:tf':LC81lt biologicals- geological ll 8rchaeo,10gical and bi81:,0:1:'10 :eeatures whJ.ch require Btrlct IJroteet:lon
and rnanagemen t should be class Lf'ied ml s. special a;r'ea '"
V"
SI'll;CnAIJ AHgAS
'II.he c1egl"ce of' p':pote(~tlon f.mc1 clovelopment 1"lOl~k reqtlh~ed
Oh 8 spG(;da'J. ar'oa \lm,11 deLlend. OLl the
niSI tUl'C
of' the :feature to
bEl 1"xrot(:lo'Gerl"
VI"
WILDI!mNES8 ZONE .,. An azoee whose f!harncter' :1.8 the
x'esul t oj~' an intel":plcIY of' Im.pely ll<'l t.uX',,).1 pl~()CeS ses 9 large
enougrl and 130 situated Elf" t ! ) be una:E'fected except in mj.noI'
ways by It1"o(lI;;BSeS which occur' :t11 nOll~w:tld0rne8s areas around
ito
Cn.) .The ar'eElS occupied by mounta:i.ns and glaciers on
t.he upper regions of Khumbu are na.tuX'al and unaffected by
man' s activl.ties~
Hence, they should be designated as
wl1d.errj,~8s al"'eas
(b) Gr'azing 8.nd collect:i.ng may not be allowed if' 1 t
l~edllCes the wildepness gua11 tie/3
(0) Access should'be by i'oo~ only and development
f'acilitiea should b\s l"6stl'ieted ll
I)
$
OHA J?rE~H. 8
ngSOUIWE
A na
mny hfl ve SOl1)t:;;
VD.l no 8 e. nd
MANAOJ~M:h-;NT
)'"'eSOUx:C0 may b<3 8!;)yt.htng in na tUl~e which
UEJ€'l
:t~3
to l'tiar.t<ll
of man
a rof'led~:i.on of'
likely to c.hs nge:
over
time D.nd
The
t of' wba t may be rm.:>QU.1?C0S is long, but the
tHnount~s o:i' various k:i.nds of' re~)ot.u\c(~~S are limj.t~)d rela ti va
to to·tal
n:t8 and dOEllX'es
,]~he result :1.s var'ying degY'ees
0:1: COIJ1}?lJtl
on fol' UBe of' I>eSOUI~ce8 which load to e.:x:ploitat·~
ion, :f:'o11owed by depletion mv.::1 complete eX11Bl.1stioxh
The
forest land &'D.d ·wildlj.fe l"'N'30Ut'ces of the Khumbu l"egion$l
t'o1." exaru:ple II ape liinited resources·.,
The i1' reSOUl"ces are
also vaX"ied p Oeg .. eeo.norrd.c, aesthetlc 9 educational, recreatlona3- and Bpll~itual<1'
Pr6serV'aU.on:tEi also a use"
Some
uses al'e mOl'0 appx'opx':i.at.e· than othe,.rs because t.heY' are
cOIIl])atible"
Incompatible uses create conflicts.
In fact$!
. many uses can' be in con1.'1:lc1i \d th other uses..
For example t
excessive cO.iT!l'nercia.l:ts!;1'tion of: forests will lead to aestJ1etic
81.1<1 long-'ter'm econom:l.c
SC.1S~
SimilEtrly, when :px'escl:,vation
of: i'Qr.'cst and vdldli:t'0J are oVf::lremph.asized., the public will
not be able toderiv0 economic II !3.0sthetic~ educe. tional and
r(~crea tiOn[;lJ. beneti tc) i'rom them
Thls
wher'e cOl18el'vation
meast'U:>6S become essen tialll
Conserve t:Lon is a means which
eUf.:J'I.u'es· oBlanced use· and henc.1e, may rednce conf'licts between.
o11t:ional uses..
F'ol?G
CO l1Ger'V'a t ion enBUl:'eS contirmed SUI'vival of' tho :rorest stands which can be used for aesthetic,
ec11.).c!atiox18.1~ recreational and even economic purposes to a
cer'tt-.tin (,:xtent..
Po
call collect dry wood, leaves and
timber fop' a long tj,me w:i.t;hout causing it to diminish if
con8EH-'~H-jt:ton 1)).'1110i1)108 are npplted.
III
D
.
.I}11PS:1::;hUlS!i~Jl;~~~ N_§!~il1!J:~~Lg2D.s ez:y ?J:,Lc?"!1~;L!L14).!L)5JH~!P b£
.B<~2LQ~212
It tool\. many mi ions of' year's :ror plants to es tablish
on 1;he £; teX'ile 8Ul':eace of' KlltJJnbu wh:lcb provided condi tiona
su:I.t.able :e 0 1" the existence of' animal li:t'e incl udj.ng man.,
less than l1al:t'-a-·thousand years ",'
Man h['18 be 011 :Ln l'Chumbu
alx'eady began to d:tminish"
explo:l.tation has exececled mlJGUre~s Cfl}?acity to
Under his i,mIla ct :r.laD.t 1:1.
1'a
The
rel?lu0G i tsel:t.' I~
Unless the tl"ond if:3 checked, fot'est resources
would soon difJDp])car and the consequences ar-a not di.ff'lcul t to
gueEH1",
fEhe vrlldll:t'e j,s all"'eady dlsapJ?eari.ng w1 th the loss of
hElbi t;[:lt.,
Soil 18 dlmirlishlng with the loss of' vegetat:ton
cover",
Agl"'icultural tH1.d
toral land will scon lose :L ts
pl~oductiv:ity"
Consequently, man has to either abandon the
area ,in search of alternative places where necessary reSOllrces
ar'e available
or' f'ina. an ontside source :f."rom which these
.
.1"'e801l1"'008 could be obtai:nl::;cl to suppo:c>t the il' lif'e-styles l>
If t.hese 0.1 tep118t:lves are not found, man will per-ish due to
lack of'
od and shelter'
'
<l
If" we
to avoid this trag:tc course 11 conserV'a tion
meaSUX'GS must be iht:r'ocllwed into the Khumbu region wi thout
delay to avoid excer:;lsi vo degrada tlion of lY~ tuX'al resom"'ees
Conser-'vation is the only' means which ensures sustained growth
and ex.:tstencG .of: resour'ces and at the same time allows the
use o:Ct,r.J.GfjC reSO\ll:'ces :fop human beneti t.
~\l:e
fI
..
Conse:r'v,,!tion :ts dofined as the r.ational use of 'the
earth t s r'esOlll'CC 1:1 to achioyC the highest' quali ty of Ij.ving
f'OI' manlt1.nd ..
Nat:ural resources f:l.re not only :tmportant for
.
l"aising s tandarde of· II vj_ng Dnd impl1 Qv:tng quality of l11'e,
but f.il'C 0s8en'b~1&\1 for- the surviva1 C>:l:' all animal life including
man"
The 8he.rpa poo]?le t.hus have a ma jor' I'espo.nsi bili ty
towtl):d C011sel"V8 t.ic)!} of' t:wtural reSOUI'ces of t.he Khulllbu x'egion
i~or the :ir own benefit. and the benof'i t of ftl tw:'e gene; ra t 1.ons '"
()f resoux'ce .consumption can not be altered
However !> the x'a
Shel"'pas are a.lX'E;£vly 1eadi.ng a compara t:lvely
gl~0atly ~dnel~
nOl1-couSlullJ?ti vo
of Ltt'ot!
APJJllca.tion oi' major restrict1
}-!·!5
ions on ·the pr08()nt pn ttel1:'n of' rCsoltr'ce use would afEect
theil' stamlal'd of' livtng unlef:ls a1 ter'ua ti ves are J?1'ov:.tded ..
1 /) 'rhe e:xi.~ltence of the native inhab:Ltants of' the
Rhumbu 1:'egion depend on t.he na ti va vegeta~(j.ion" Wood for
fu.el t:truber f'01~ hOu'sing 9 ox'ganic manure for agr'icultur'e~ and
:roddor fen' d.omestic r.:mtrnals are der':Lved f'rom fOY'ests and
g:t:'H8S1al.lds"
'l'he tx"ees and shrubs ar'e also used £'0 x' religious
'I'he forest ot' Khumbu has been
seve1:'el~r depleted over the last several decades because human
eXl)loitation has exceeded Ylaturalregenepati.on..
No e.ff'ort
haa been made to replant trees.
With much of the original
fores t cover' hav:Lng been destl'oyed I' wh~ t is r'em.~ ining mus t be
conserved to al.low regenel:ation.,
2& 'rhe Rhwubu Valley is admh"'ed by many vied tOl'S not
only fo1'" its panoramic mountains and. human cuI tur'e, but al so
f'ol~. its colOUl"'ful all)ine vegetation..
Khumbu is also known
as the 9 home of rhodooendl"'o.ns e .,
If' the native vegetation is
not l?1.'otected and is los t Jl tbe Khwnbu x'egion wi.ll Ipse on.e oi'
its main characteristics and attractions.,
3.. ·T.he loss of vegetation in the nortrel"n Himalayan.
region has caused severe .f1 ooding pl'oblems in the plain
lands of Tel.'ai..
This oos resulted in tlJe loss of' valuable
agricult.ural and forestry lands and even human lif'e..
As a
l'0r:mlt, .natlonal and local govel~nment, community org'(:.mizatiOllS and tnd:lviduals have the responsibility to prevent
thcs0 d:LsBst(H'S through protection of' vegeta tion on the upper
slopes to retain soil and moisture.
4..
The f'lara of the l<humbu Valley wi th its vertebratE:
and invertebl"ate fauna at'a not well l"eseal:'ched. and documented 40
It offers a wide scope foX' both amateur and prof'esGional
scientists to carry out ecological 8tl~1es and research progr'ammes on 11.:tg11 al ti tude f.lol:'a and fau.na"
46
5.
The wildlife of the Kbumbu region are of aesthetic,
educational and cultural signiticance, and contain potential
economic value.
Unfortunately, they are disappearing rapidly
due to habitat destruction and other human interference.
Their protection would not be possible without conservation
ot torest habitats.
(b)
Recommendations
1. Sagarmatha National Park has already placed
restrictions on use ot tirewood by tourists.
This is a
Significant step towards nature conservation in Khumbu, and
will be appreciated by the local people and environmentally
conscious Visitors.
To achieve the purpose ot this regulation, it must be accompanied by an effective implementation
programme.
Yak and owner loaded
with tirewood tor sale.
Selling firewood to
tourists and hotels is
recent activity resible for rapid loss
47
20 'rho sale and J)u:r.-;c:haso of'
should be controlled c
The case o:C pur'chase tm"ough door'.'t()·~doox· s81es lcadr1 to a Jack of Bvrarencss of' the ovel"'"
eX:Dlo1 t:ton in tJ;),e i'ol'o:;:rta
.Onl,v b;'f J:estri ottng Baler3 and
encoux'o.g:lng lndi viclu,tlls to C!o11ect their' OVll)). f'uel ~ can the
(>
waste be reduced.
cut't::tng of' gX'eell t:r'l~ea d:lminishes the fox'est
Hence ~ ~t1; f3houlc1 be discouraged unless it is
lowed by Pax'k
bylaw ar:3 part of' 'the traditional ri.ghts of the' people
30
~~he
&
(>
'rhe trl:l.cU,ttonal SllCI':PB. f'orocst and gr'assland C011sCx'va:lJion practiC(1B should bo strengthl~i1.ed and bl."ought bo.oll':
into J,)X'·oct.ice wi th some' modifications to suit the changing
The l?ubl:tc involvement and mo·ti vat1.on are alyvays
bettEn~ means oil bl"j.ngj.ng success to cO,rlscrvatlol1 programmes
'than enibl"cement of'r:1.g1d rt"'Jgulatj.cmso
l}()
5
The needs of' 'the pco)?lc' should be given. priOJ:'ity
and :oubllc! l"cP.resentatives should he consul ted when making
dec iona' regfu:'ding conservation, 'presc1:,vation and reser'vation Bctj,vi ttes whtch maY,affect the people"
(>
6..
The forest of' Khurnbu bas ,been depleted to such an
..
extent that m01,'e pr'otection of the reJI13,j.lling St,8n:J.S will not
. ttllftl the potential present and :i?u tux'a demand s f'or for'cst
pl'oducd.;s"
A reafforestatiOl1 progX'amme should be lrnplemented
both 1:081de and outside the Park boundary
II
7 co
Under human pJ:'otection, .the 'w:1.1<11if'0 popula tior!
could lncreasEI beyond a desirable level<l>
Control IJ;C'Ogr'ammes should qe carried out when it is necessary to maintHin the health of the species, the nat,ive enVironment, and
to s,afego.ar'd public health and safety ..
8~
Altel:'nativ0 forms of energy eogfJ w:l.nd~ power, methane
gas, sola),,'> energy and. hydro-electr:tci ty could be used to save
native f'oreste
Howoverjl it woul.d be ju.stLt'ied only if theil'
social aly1 envix'onmental impact is low and pt' oductlon cost :ts
.mi.n:tmal"
9(>
Man induced. fi.re should be :proven'ted to avoid
Na ttu>al fil'e
clesta'ue,;tion ,of 118. t.u.ral vege tat-ion ani wi lclli.:Ce"
anil ev~,m preGcr:t bed bUt'n1.ng are encotu"'aged 1n Na ti.onal Parks
l:u'o'tmc1 the vvorld lncludlng SegnoS,a un.d Kinga Canyon Nat.lonal
Parle, U"SoA"
One of the reaEH,)l1S if;) to prevent heavy
D.ceunllllatlorJ. of' plant; litter on the I'or'ost flo01'" which often
a:U:'t'n's 'the n.atul"'al vegetation composi tlon and also places
grc::n t(:H:' ri.slc in wipiJJ.g out 1;he entire forest by fi l-'e <I
This
doe~;
not occUX' :in Sagamaths: National Park s:i.nce
dX'y leaves .and wood are eollec'ted by man and gr'ass it) gl:azed
by dOJ.lle
j,e an.imals which. does not allow o XC 011H=J i ve accumu1a t:lon of t,'o:rf:l8'~ litte:t'1"
8i tuat.io,n
8 ,,6
J~:2!{Q9..!:~t£!:L£tJI~:!~,y;l>~l.UJ.l~~Q.\!'*'t,ll~~!.~2;,.1l~~lL~
The natlvlX'fll Bnd cuI tur'al landscape of' the Khumbu l"egion
are 't.he :c'esu.l t oi' :tnteract:l.on be'tJwee,n man and the envj.l~Ol'llnent
for f;~eveX'al centurh;s ..
'1'hE~De landscapes developed in the
absence of' mode:t"n scientific and technological forces \) are
f~ttll pr:lmi
i.n cl1E\rE\C·t;er~
They hElve t110 ir own distinct. ti'llG
.
;i.ve and un:tque i'e:;':\t.u:(,GS of' htstor~call' cultural and scel1ic
values $> which 81'e 'North p;potecttng"
Because of 1..ts human t'l.nd an~mal popula't:t(:m,. Sagarmatha
is not a park of nSltul"'sl v{ilclel"'ness vii th ndnimum human
.
.
:1.nflUt'Hlce'liwhex·e );?res01"vation may be the f'irs't l?l'iOl"ltyo
Thus, we mus t con.tend wi th the conserVa t ion 0;[' the exi s t1ng
na tux'al ~nd ou1 turnl landscape.
~:ho concept of inclnd:tng
man~Dlodi:riE:c.l lan.tlscape in FA National J?a1"k system has been
. ach.ieving populal'ity in l"ecr:mt years(>
!J.lhe Brj, tish National
Parks 9 foT.' oxarnple.r: 1.nclude pri.va te :f'armlands jl rnodif':1.ed pastures a11<.1 v:tllageB"
Hon Loclcer? a New Zealand so;lentistj'i has put forward a
PI' opo::,:d tion tha. t the .1'113 t101'1a1 Pal"k BYS tam should not orJ1y
include mountain w:tld.erne8s f! but also other representat:t va
.. example~~ 9f a c()unt:r;rt s 1andscapes $I f~ "go f'armland p wetland,
and coastal areas etc lI
He further'su.ggested that 'the
sensible trea tmen t of such kinds ahould be to keep> it S.s far
as possible in its pl'ese'nt ownex>ship and productive llSe.,
Good fax'l.u:lng viou.ld be encoul"sged while the scenic and 118 tural
featu.res of' the whole x'eglon would b{-) sa:f'egu.al,"ded by strong
plann:tng and In:'otoction(J
Onl,Y the land. neoded fox' sp0 1..:ial
reserves, Dr public recreation'access, would be acquired,
J?x'ef'ex"abJ,y not tbrough com.I.JU18:l.on~
'rhus 'pco})le v,oald !lo·t
49
be displaced' (Sierra Club Bull. 1976, p. 7).
Natural landscape
along the banks
ot Imja Khola.
The vegetation
has deteriorated
due to intensive
firewood collection.
RecoJlJDendation
I would strongly recommend that Sagarma the Na tiona 1
FBrk should tollow the guidelines provided by the above statements to manage the natural and cultural assets ot the Khumbu
region.
50
example of the cultural landscape of the
Khumbu region.
An
8.7
Timber Harvesting
Timber is an extremely scarce resource in the Khumbu
region due to the apparent lack of aillable forest trees,
and the expenses and difficulties associated wi th importing
timber from outside the region.
This scarcity has coincided
with an increasing demand placed by the increasing population,
affluence and recent pressures for tourist developments and
its paraphernalia.
Therefore, timber harvesting needs to be
carefully controlled and managed to cater for t~ present and
future demand.
Normally, timber harvesting would not be permitted in
a National Park.
But, Sagarmatha National Park should be an
exception to this norm, because the local inhabitants are
dependent on the forest resources of the Park.
However, to
maintain a sustained yield of the present forest resources,
it is essential to have some degree of restriction and control
on the rate of harvesting.
51
Reoommendations
Timber harvesting rights wi thin the Na tional Park
boundary should be exclusively to local inhabitants.
1•
2.
A permit, indicating the volume of timber to be
obtained, locality, species and harvesting period and other
essen tia1 details, mus t be obtained :trom the Sagarmatha
National Park's Office before harvesting timber within the
National Park boundary.
3.
A timber hlrvesting permi t would be issued onl,y if
the timber is required for personal use.
The commercial
use of harvested timber should be prohibited, unless it is
obtained from outside the Fark boundary or grown as production forestry.
4.
Timber yield should be improved through management of
the existing forested areas and re-afforestration of timber
trees.
5.
Timber harve&ting may be excluded from areas of farest
which are severely depleted, or reserved for purposes which
conflict with timber hlrvest1ng such as catchment protection.
National Fark development - a burden on local
resources?
'rhere are nume1;'OUS e:KEllnpleB from around the wor-ld
of" acciden.tS'.l or delib0!'ate :tntx'oo.uction of (nwtic plants
Mor:rt of' these:
tll:1.d animal
8 into a n~w area by man,!>
ax'o carrlecl ortt wi th 'tho be st
intentione, e~g~ introduction of deol" in N<.;w,r Z~)aland i'm. . sporting and economic ;PUf'had c1(fVastating' ef':Cects on na ti ve vegei,[1 tion..
The
:tntrmiuced ])lants and animal control progl"amrne in New
Zealand t S N:9.tlo.nal
ie cos ting the NeV'! Zealand Q·overnIDent. million.s of dollar's, ani the control oller a tion 1B a
cCJrltinuing l'I'oceSf3 ..
'I'he b:i.olog:i.cal :In:teraction and ecological processes·
eI'e so complicated that :tt is d:t..f'ficult to say that these
pr()b~Lems wlll not occur in NE}pal t s Na tional f.'al.~ks because of'
tbe enviror!t'uGl1'ial dtf'f'0l:'enCes and presence of"l)1"edatol' species",
An organizm does not have to be lSl'ge in size to cause
ecological 'problems o
Sma lIe 1" pests and weeds are more
dj.ff':lcult to c.~()ntr61",
Minuteorgan:tsIDs are also potential
dj,sease cI.H'rie:r:'s ana. could cal.wo cOl1sid.e:C'able biological and
e(;onomic J,Of:HieS Cf'
1
Introduction of' any :plant or animal species which
. aro new to the ul"ea should be cal'l~iec1 out wi, th cau tione
Q
20
E:xc1;;:\,c plant an.d animal may not be in.troduced in
wildel"'ness areas since
01"'1 g:tn.ali ty .,
w:tlderne~Js
qUEl,lity depends on its
3c}
Exotio animal and plan'c 8pecies, may not be introduced
:t!1. t ..b.e pas tOl'al zone I) no tUI'al landscape area, and speci 0.1
B.N::flS ff lntroductioh of' these sl?ec~es organisms threatens
the existence o:t' the nati va species and spoils the, natul"\a.l
and cuI tm"'al featUl'0 of the aX'ea
0
4..
Introduction and owne:r'ship of intl."'oouced plonts and
,anil1wl sped,es whi c11 bave SOCial, economic and aesthetic
:l.H1poptanee to the local .peoDle should be allowed ill the .human
t:{(,:'}'ttlement and agricultural Z0110
0
5"
should be j.LJ,tl"c:d need t.o control har'mful
an.im::ll.f.I, e "g" wtlc1 os. t l.H'lcl dogs w,h1 ch feed on b:l:cds and
F..;ma 11 ma mmals
Mear:3t:t:P08
G
8 "9
. MIn;i:,11£tJJ1,, ttf!~. )::IQ~~1.212&: l._gf-i :t~.k
Mtn:l.ng and prospeoting Cf.211 conetii~\lte one of the
worst :e01:'m:::) of exp10i. tEl. tion of' Na tional Park );-'ef30Ul'C0S
M08 t 1?al~l< Au t..i:1clri tieB al'e ,obliged to 0lipmJO the min:Lng
acti v:i.t.ies tt;) achieve the conseX"1/9.t.i.on gm".le
However', some' of' the Nat.ional Peu'lm or Brtta:l.n, United
States and 11':.tnlan,c1 ape 8et asido by enclos:tng a human sett1e~' .
ment area :eor' })1:'O tect,:'ton of human. cultur'e and cuJ.. tupal landsc:apc~ in the Par'k o
The native people lu'e eneouraged to
maintrt:i.n tl1e j.lt trac1i t.ioD.al lifestyles wi th the exclu8 ion of'
tec,hnolog:i.cal exploj. tatioll and the provision 'of economic
incentives ~ and special pr·ivileges..
The special rights are
gt'antod to use Park T'esources in their tradj. ti ona 1 way ..
Saga1"'ma tha Na tional li:l.l'k iEt establisbed :eop protection
0
of. natUl"'E:l 88 well as cultuPG"
The:refore p it seems desirableJ
tha t local inh8,bl tants should bc:i allowed to carry out mining
oper'att0118 in tbJir 'traditional WElySe
Since cont:l.l1uation ot'
human cultuPG is not possible without n.atural :pesonrces p
reSOlU'ce protection should be equally ernphasised e
Large~·scale
comme:L"'cial mining and prospecting at.'
mine:c'sl 1'f.)SOU1:'C0S w:i.t.bin the Park boundary by outside inter.'est
gr'oups Sllould be strj.,ctly p'X'oh:i.hitede
1 (.
2
People who are lawf'ully residing wi thin the Park
b01..lncl81"Jr should be pennitted "to mine minerals p remove so:11',
ext.ract sand, gravel and l,"oek ,etet> as it, is essential 1'01'
continuation of' their' WRY at.' 1:11'(;) e
Cl>
4.
Where a lawi'ul right to 11111'10 exists, both the m1:nel:'s
and authori ties who grant D8I'mission to mine should do all
the. t they can t'a mtn:l.mize envir'onmental and visual lmp[.l.cts.,
Landscape restor'ation and maintenance of disturbed s1 tea should
be tho pCH:1pol1sib:Ll:L ty of' the miner and as such should be done
to the satist·[~ctj.on of' the 8.uthOI'itYe
All the conditions
shOUld be s'tipula ted in the peX'111:l t issued@
Collection o:f Dfltul~al object!:> should not be allowed
in the
J:'I10SH zone to
serve the w:i.J.derness ehar·s.c.,-ter
and to
nee the wlldel'llo SF3 quality and eXIX-}X'ienc(;}(l
1
CJ
In the oth.(H~ Z()ne8~ 'the need:3 of' the peol?lo should
be !'0cog:fll.Zed and :r·:tgh.ts OJ':'
etion should be granted.:.
dlscourag(;~d if' it threatenJ3
ion sbould
20
to diminl
s 01.:t1;'<::e ..
ean be
:f.'reQuen.cy of' col1eGt:ton t.o pX'event e:KC€HJsive explo:l t£l'tion
ancl to r)l:'otect e:-:H:;eX! tial Park values; carm at the same time
to allow
30
£'02:'
so 01.8.1 neE';lds",
xwn·~Y'('w:i.dents
of' the Park may not be allowed to
collect .tlCal.'ce rwtu:('sl l:Csoux'ces unlesfJ authot'ised by an
rrho
a))pI'oprte.1:.0 a uthol':L ty ()
PE:OPLE MA):-TAGIGMENI)?
"We shall not; begi.n to tl"'eat natu1."e
.
with
refill/cet unless we :(,:Lr>st leal"l1 to deal with
our fellow man in ancient coin 'of Gocial
jus1;icw" <>
Barry Commencr (1972) ..
Gene:c'ally, Na tibnal Pal:,ks are es ta blished for the
benef:i t of marll{inCi..
Inca vidual' sJ)erc8ntj.on of benef'! t
largely depcnda on their' presen.t needs
futur'e aspiration:::; p which in 'turn ax·e. influenced by factors such as
edtwationjl income, SOOiHl and cuI tLu'al backg.t.. . punds eo
For
some people so Na tiona1. Pe.l'kE! may be places to l'lelax and
reCJ'ea te
POI' ot.hers fi they may b(5: a place to pecci va
educa tion .and knowledge or' wh3re conserVa tion or even
Q
~conom1c
factors may seem to be of
l)~l~amOuD.:l~
impol."'tance'l>
rrhus f! when malc:tng decisj.ons relating to the management. and
planning o1~ Na t,j.onal lurks jI the intel"cs t ot.' these dit.':t"erent
groups mus t be taken into con8:1 del"'lation w:L thin the framevifork . of' the National Park conceptf>
For ,s, National Pa:L'k pX'ogr'amme to be successf111p it
1'e qui:r.~es a combination 01" 18
p,l.1bl:tc support ane1 interest.s
coupled wi tll sound management and plann:i.ng"
In. the case
01.' Segax'1natha National Park" the public association wi th the
l?al>k j.s not l:i..mited to recreational, educationals> conservation
or €leonom.ia us~ only",
The Khumbu Valley is a home. for almos t
three thousand J?cople II beside be ing a recreational ground :f'or
thousands 01) visj.toY'S each year'"
Conservation in the I<humbU
r<:')gion will not be pOBsible without some realization of the
bas 1e needs of those us ers
'l'hU8 for pl:'oper managell:cn t of' a
, a t'ci tudes,
Par'It, the manager must understand the ne
moti.vation and behav:t.ouX' of the users and know the causes
lie-.lifnd ove:t~~fle:x,ploi tat i011 of th.e Peu.'k reSOUi.'ces as much as N:3
needs to know about the resou.rces requiringprotectloll o
Since man a.nd environment areintel'actlng parta Of. a
t.ot81 sys.tem~ the c11flnges in hUman society have 1;1n impact em
CI>
:56
t.ho envil'otlmont D.nd V:t co versa"
~eo
know the causes behlnd
the env:1.r'o1'Jmental changC:H3 r it 18' essentinl to examine the
ehanges tn tlx..: human soe:Lot.yoS>
9 1
@
:£k![;L<.W2Q;H.EflQ~,1:lLJ~lLQ.~liJJg ~:J21~..,r!..O}Llll~~ltrU~'L2J1Q
'rho :1.:1:' Inf()8ets
<:="3""ll'~_,-'
rJ~he
<:=,'-
\'t_"_;".,.._ ••:e",&,,,.=-.-=,,,,,,,---,~~-=- ..
need. :fo:(' COnS(jl:'YH'l::i.on in the IUmmbu. l"ogion has
long be on l'ec:ogntsod by' the local people"
One hE1.8 to only
look 1nto tlw tr'adtt:Loxwl :f.'o1"or::rt p cl:'oplancl and l?astm.~e
Hlr.(Yl(;Jgement pJ:laetic:ef3 to rel'd.i.se t.hat Uw Sher))a 1'001110 wt::);>e
avnu:,o of' the mounting env:1.x'onmental problems of' the IGlumbu
reg:1.on"
'l'h:i.n awax'enass [",Bve biy'tb. to various conser'vat:ton
t.r'ftcU tJ.OD8 which have boen gr'eat1y d:i.stol"t.ed in x'Gcent year's
due 'to the ad:von t of vax-:iollf:3 ehanges over a short period",
( a)
~eho EHnW8. of' re sporw:t b:1.11
tv
of the She r'];)13 pc oI>le towat'cls
The inf'luenee 0 f'
th:i.r::.; rellg10n on the ~3her'pa community htl.s been decr'easirlg
since the C1:dnese ·takeover.' 01" 'l'ibet$' wh:Lch led to 10ss of'
'J~he invasion also c8used a massive
religious contact~
e)~odus 0:£' '.Pibotan refugees and their animals into the l\:humbu
Valley which c1isr'u}Jtcc1 the 10(;[11 conservation tradttion and
. cl'::'Hilt.J,loyec'l fOY.'ent8 and grai::~81ancll""
rrhe trade between. '.ribet
and Nopa1 9 a majol:' ~:;U]?POl~t :f'or f3herpa eeO.nomy, was affectecL
rr'he loss of.' tp[J.dln.g l~ola t1.onB calwed ma;jor economic hcn~dsh:lp
in the 8.ber·J)8 communi ty whieh. placed m.or'e d.emands
011
the
57
The Sherpa people seeking protection ~rom
natural disasters by making of~erings to the
spirits dwelling in the rock.
(b) .
The Impact
o~
Tourism
The grovdng tourism and mountaineering activities in
the Khumbu region has direct and indirect impacts on the local
environment.
The direct impacts are over-use of forest and
lit~rlng.
The indirect impacts are caused by inducing
changes in the Sherpa way of life, e.g. the improved standards
of living and growing affluence in the Sherpa community is
putting more demands on natural resources.
Tourism also has
negative influences on the human culture.
Undesirable
elements such as dishonesty, violence and crime are becoming
more apparent due to the breakdown in social unity.
(c)
The Effect of Changes in Administration and Control
In the past the Khumbu region was a politically
isolated area not influenced by the central government control.
The Sherpas of Khumbu developed their own system of maintaining
social and environmental stability.
Law and order was maintained by the Pembu (Village Chief), the Nawa (f'orest and
58
rson nomirw ted to
'lib) power and
.functIons of' t.hEn:J0 personl1el wer'c lost W110),1 the Government
])oGted Adm:l.n:t[~t:c·atOl:'f' and Policl'!) Fm:ces to keep law and
cl'opJmHJ, gUEl.:f,'d) [-j,nc1 the Cho:r.>mopl',l, (a
in J:\lHlmbu ax'ountl the 1960 c Be>
~l\he
cha.n,ge brought
m.9J:l,Y lmp:t:'ovemen,tc; in the Sherpa' communi ty but not In t,,b,e
O1:dEH'
:f.'iold of' COllGC:l'Vt"!,t:i.on,,,
conG0~:'VCl tton
frhey f'a:Ued to SUP];:>Ol"t the local
ctlces which leclto exploitation of' f'or'ests
~
(d)
,
~rhe
She:t.'ptl chl.1dr'Gn began to l,"('}ceivG education f':pom
when S:lx' l~(lmun.d H:,Ulax'y buil.t s(~hoolB :1.n various
vi,118g~'H3 at the r·eguest· of' t,he local peo}?le ()
l'be effect of
the education on tl.r:l BocJ.ety was gEll'lerally benei'icial..
rEhe
Shel"ptls 108.:I;>n'l:; to speak the Nepali l.anguage which enabled
1'96'1
~
them to commurdca'te wi th ]l30J?10 :t'rom other ethnic groups and.
develop 'bettex' u1l.dex's tanding""
'rhe l{nowll'ldge of' the El1.fslish
languago rnaC1E) j. t easier' to 'work wi t;h the tou.1"'is ts '"
Wi th
the improyec1 edu.cation p people beeame more independent"
Theil" job oppor·'t.lmities ar(?} g:r'eater' and most im)?Ol"'tantly,
the educatlon has enabled t.hem to eOlia wi th the lllodex'n chunges",
1
6>
l;1ili.i:L.QcJ~Ie ~1~j;~!S?~~~1I1SLEftl:t i 1?:I·J?ill,.<?!!
'l'be sl1PJ.?ort and :lmrolvemen t of the Park j.nl1.abi t.ants
seems ,to be o(:")8ential for the i3ueCElSS of the Pal"lk's lll:'of,Tammea'l>
'mle National
I\u~k
Off tee shoulcJ. seek Jjartic:llls'tlon of' the
p'oOI)le :f.n majOl'" decision"'maklng p,l:ocesses o
Good publ:ic r'ela t:Lolls are the key to sue cess 0:('· any
prog:t"amme
(rho Pal~k Manager mUG t convince the people 1I both
j.l1 WI)1'q,fl and :tn actionS' tha.t th.e establishment of National
:Pal~}rf.l :LB in thel r be s t. :tnt~~res t.l' and should aim towards
eotsbl:tsb.:lng good publ:ic pele tions ..
fJ
59
2.
Local People must not be Removed or Displaced
'National Parks must not serve as a means for
displacing the members of the traditional
societies who have always cared for the land
and its biota.
Nor can National Parks survive
as an island surrounded by hostile people who
have lost the land that was their home'.
(Dasmann 1 975)
The local people who have been living in tre Park
and own land am property wi thin the Park boundary should be
able to continue to do so.
Removal of people out of
Sagarmatha National Park or their displacement within its
boundary may have destructive social and economic consequences to the people affected.
Such an action would
cause loss of public support and interest for conservation
programmes in the country.
It also may lead to a loss of
international reputation and support since the action would
contradict the umerlying philosophy of National Parks.
"Hotel Everest View" - the biggest tourist
complex in the · Park.
60
Due to tho f:r.'agile nSi ture 6:(' the JTImmtf:lin envi:t'orullent?
the total number 0:[' pel"mHnetlt J:'8sjdents the Khumbu. reglon (H3.n
of' 10(:81 pop1.l1a t:I.OJ.!. SEJems to he Ellow du.e to a low £'o:l:,t:111 t.y
an.d hi gh lOox'tal:l. ty l'a 'LC'J
€I
In. fact v
II
i
t f;een1a to be tI'end
tha t the }?opula tion o:t' I(humbu Jl8.S been decreasj.ng from the
beg:Lnning of' '1970 11 (Djonnes8 1979) e
'1'11i8 may have been due
to outwflr-d f.:l.nd.gI'wth11l of the yOW1.gel. . Sherpas and the 'rlbeta!l
l'e:LugOf'HJ..
'l:he cm:Lgr'a tion o:£:' the Sherpas may only be
ternpOJ"aY'Y w
'nX3 nltlllber of sem:t ~·per·manont :Lmrnigr-ants settling
. in the l')"htunbu x·eg:i.on over the past 'decade has been substcurtial o
It; consists ma:Lnly o:f Government employees~ casual job
Beeh:ol"El ani people with commorcial inter'eats in the area"
The po:puJ.a ti on 0:(' those tem.poJ:·81"Y :imm:1F'):'antEl ·could be expEl cteri
to 1"-i8(3 vli.th the :i.nox·casing Gov0J:.>nment involvem3nt and tom"'ist
ac'tivit.1efJ ll1 the x'eg:lon ..
Becaur:Je o:£' the simple and mobile 1.1a t\.u~e of the life~
style of' the :people? Sagal:~matha National Pal.. . k can accommod.ate
the exlG tlng Sherpa DOImIa t:ton w'i thon t undue ,Pressure on the
envlrODXnGnt"
HOV10V8P p any groat i.nor'ease in present l?opulat~
~H)n would. not bo d.esirable rd-nce the l'osour'ces of t.be area 81"'0
11hus p thm:.'e j.s a need :foX' a population cont!'ol
~im:ited."
poLley 0
A dcnJirable population size must be determined wi til
re1:'el-'ence to c8;(,t'ying capacity of' the land and policy moaSUl"e8
should be intl'od uced to aC'llieY0 the desired level and should
mainta:tn :t t by encoul:.'aging famil;~l planning and moni torlng the
lmmj.gl"'8 'cion and emigl~8tion balance"
In the past the SheI'pa people ma:tntained theil" con8el~vat:Lon practices tm'ollgh strong social and re1iglous taboos ..
Wi th tbe l'ecent cbanges J the social uni ty is breaking dmvn
and people's £'aith ill rel:i.gion is d0Cr'e8.sj"ng~
'rhis:i.n turn
i8 (laUB j,ng doteriora tion o:f' the age~old conservati.on tJ}adi ti on8
'l'he:r'e if;) £In urgent n:.;ed for conservation educ[ltiol1 to r>eplace
the decl:l..nlng fai ttl :i.n religion by [l 1'0al undepstanding of'
ConS01'va tlon education programmes
conservstion principlosQ
r)
sJ:wulct ba c1:u"r"ied
QU
t Uu'oughout the communi ttEis in the Khumbu
x'eg:l.on w:l th 8.l,)8cio.l empb.asts· on schools"
It mUG t be come
rot
0:(:' the school eU:l:'riculum"
The Na tiona1 Pal'k Of'f'j~ ce needs to
uI>P()int B11 exper·t to WOI'}c cf{Dec:Lellly in the field of' COnS81"Vation educat~LOn and inte:r:'pI·etatiOl.l ..
T.he mi,gl1)a tion of I}E;o}Jle fromh.i11s· to ~'o:ral and tnto
the ai'Gies is putt
.pI·es~m.:re on t.he agl?icultm'L'll and
fCH'ElElt.ry lend 0:1':' 'rerai;
and caus :Lng problems of' overcl"o\vding
.
.
and adjustlllent :tn the ·Cj,tj.0S
In the light of' these problems,
1. t Beems to be in the inter'0S t of' the whole na t:tox). to retain
the mounta:i.n pe ople in' theil' plE'ltco..
This could only be
achieved th.rough prO\rlrdon of' jobs and incentives l.n the
mOUl'ita.in l""egion o
The este.blisbment of Natj.onal Ii:u~ks in
the mountains 8Ild st;a:t'fi,ng them wtth lace.l people would be an
ideal exam];}1e
This w:l.ll Pl"ovide, an alternat1 ve SOUl~ce o:e
income to the peo:.ple which helps to reduce pl'esBul"'0 on the
Park l'eSDUl'CeSI/o
It w:tll also get the stlp])Ort and. 1.:nvol vement of t'ha :Parl{ inhabj.tants in :the Park In'ogrs.mmes..
liAs
.
' .
Hts' Royal H:Lgb.n.ess Prj.nee GY8.11endl:·Et emphasized, nfltUl"e conservat5.on :i.n Nepal can make litt.le prog'l. . es6 unJ.ess the local
oO!lununity is involved in conservation schemes \I (Mishra 1973) e
Hence, looal J;leople should be given fir st priori ty in Park
jobs I/o
G
(!)
.9 .. 3
~ R§:l, t
iQD£I.
,u~ e _<?£..Jl£§E.ill:£.8 8 ~ll!'i§.i..L~j~.I:l
The Khumhu region is a pCll1ula.r tom."is t centel""
It
has be en x-epol:,'bec1 tbs. t ~~ho number of touz" lata v:ls i ting the
I{hmnbu region has been incrensed from 20 in 196L~ to 3000 to
4000 in. a yael" tn 1 97J-/-..
The .impact of'. the grovv:tng tourism
on the no ttl.ral and cuI tUX'al environment of' the Khumbu reg:lon
has re en dt scus sed in. DI'eviolls chapters ..
Economi(lal1y, touI'ism has benett ttec1 the people of'
Khumbu"
Mos t SIler-pas derive their mon(~tary income from
tour1.sm"
~:ouY':ism has al so benefi t ted NeIll'll t s :f'oI'e:lgn exchango earnl.t1gS>Il
Howevel'l, if a cos t~bElnefi t.. cHr-;llysis of'
tcmr:lsm is car'ried out ent:LrGl;~l wjthin the Kl1Umbu 1"eg:lon,
the losses would outwe:l.gh the benef':I.ts stl1ce the :i.n.Cl:'0flsed.
62
upon vlh:lch tourlsIn' and local )?8ople depend ..
i,:'cn01.:cr'eotJ
This situation baa occurred mainly becBuse.tourist
• eo
d.evelopmen'c has never' been planned and. controlled ll and
J:'eElot:u~c(;S
WCPG not pl"otect.ed",
It
mU~:J t
be real1sed the. t the ecoJ;lmnlc benef'it of:
tour'ielTI ;i.B only a :p:l'lIduct en:" natu.1'al and cult\J:ral l"esou):,'ces"
'rhe:tr x'
tioJ:}.stdp ma,Y be compa.x'cd wi til thai; of' a hen
(l"(1S0Ul:~Ces) ~ whidl l&'Y[,j golden oggs (0(wnomic benet'i t f'r'om
tOUPiSt~l)
1'110 gol~len eggs can be ohta:tned only as long 813
the hOF.:llth of' tJJ.G hon 'POITIr-i :trm in good concli tio):}."
trhu~1 t
the r'Ll tl(1)a1. (180 of moun t8in. reSQurces wtll requj,l'G conser'va t=
j,cm and p:rotect:i.on o:r n8 ttu'al and cuI tUr'sl re~lOupces fl. . om the
hurmful :tmp8cts ():r.t;Ol:n~ismo
'rhls in tuz'n requires management
and cOllt:t'ol o:e tmlx'1G1;8 and tot11'ist developme,nts"
G
9 4
R~£7~;'.!!3J!l~c!@:,~;t911,£ :r.g£~~c9y.£J~§.:L~llilB£m£n~
( a)
Illl)2S?£1~!2££'.2:r w~g~g.f~~!~£.S!;~E£L!~J?~.2DIL.1:£~!!2~
(>
The proper' management and. control of tonrism development, ~ to en::nu"e p:t:'otoGt:i.on of l"eSOUX'ces p requires an unc'ler-
standing of tile toul~i8t.S t needs ~ motivations and behavioul""
Me,lsures such as stricrt protoction of l"esotU'ces, d:treci; oontr'ol o:f. v1.81 tOl" actj.vi tie s or' developmen t of extra facil1 t:l.es
t.o absorb the incroasing munbel'" may not be aceeptableo>
Thus 11
reEJOUrCes can be better' protected if v:Lsit,or activ1.t:tes could
be :tnflueneec1 t1 channelled and I'egulatecl through u11.del:"stancUng
of' thehll noec1s ana. behaviours
11'):].0 p:r.'oper unde:pstand:lng of' -the nature of' tourism j.s
also essential in :plallning and c'ievelopment of' tourist related
0
fa c:tl:t t ie 8"
(b)
~J21l1~:!J::>g:!?1,Ql:1.."2~t::~_9l!1'£il:iJ:~(L.,QQ12?~9 i teL.QQ..~t
The v:Lsi tOl" cal"rying capacity concept is the vislto:r
U.f:ie the :Pn:Plr can tolerate without causing unacceptable impact ..
There Brc no preclsely def'ined measures to deter'mine how muC"ll
:11Il!>f.-:lCt, is acceptable ox' unaecept.ableo
rrhis decision largely
P<:lsts on the judgement of' the Park plann01~s.
~~he physJc:31 car'ry:tng capaci ty o:e the Pal~k could be
m:318.sured :In· tel"ms of 8va:tl[:lble visitor faeili ties (e .. g .. cnmp-
63
ing grounds, accommodation and sanitation facilities) in
relation to the number of tourists present.
The biological
carrying capacity can be based on impacts of visitors on
vegetation, wildlife, etc.
The social carrying capacity can be based on the
impacts of visitors on local communities and also on the
experience of the visitor.
The introduction of the carrying capacity concept is
essential for providing a framework for limiting use in order
to protect the Park values.
(c)
Visitor Facilities and Services
The visitor facilities and services essential for
protection and maintenance of FBrk values muat be established
as soon as possible.
Accommodation and camping facilities should be
developed only when and where it is necessary.
The Park
planner should be responsible for producing development plans
which specify the amount, location, size and style of these
developments.
A reasonable standard of cleanliness and
sanitation facilities must be provided.
Facilities must not
be over-crowded and in conflict with the local environment.
A Park building designed to blend into the
local la rxis cape •
64
Interpretation and information racilities should be
established in the Park, so that the natural and cultural
resources or the Fark can be interpreteted to the visitors.
tThe better a visitor understands the resources or the Park,
the better he understands the problems and need ror special
regulations and zoningt (Linn 1976).
He then respects the
Park regulations more readily •
The understanding or the
Park values also enhances the visitor experience which in
turn provides encouragement to support and participate
actively in protecting the P.ark.
The main interpretive
racility should be located at the main Park visitor centre
at Namche and information centers should be built in several
other locations.
Park visitor centre under construction
Search and rescue racilities.
In the past, most
tourists visited Khumbu region in organised trekking and
mountaineering groups with guides and porters.
The recent trend has been towards smaller mountaineering parties and individual trekkers without guides.
This
change in the nature or visitor parties may have been caused
65
by recent development of air transport, accommodation facilities and availability of information. in the form or books,
brochures am. maps.
With the increasing number or these
smaller parties, there is a likelihood or increasing mountain
accidents and sickness which may call ror the establishment
or a search and rescue organisation.
The Sagarmatha National
Park should be responsible for organising this racility in
conjunction with the existing Himalayan Rescue Association
and Khunde Hospital.
The local people with good mountaineering skills should be trained in search and rescue techniques.
The rundinrr must be mainly through donations and contributions made by the individual or parties involved in the
accident.
Establishment or such an organisation will
benefit both local people and visitors alike.
9.3
~striction
and Control
The conservation or natural and cultural resources or
the Khumbu region is not possible without some restraints
on the activities or the tourist.
The impact or tourist on
the natural and cultural environment or the Khumbu region
has already been mentioned in the previous chapters.
Trekkers en route to Sagarma tha Na tional Park
66
~l1"e
ale 0 kno\':n to occur ~
have boen known to wash tho:il.' £:locks in the monaster'Y well
(th.e Oll.1.y fwu:r,'oe of' water' 111 t.he Tengboc:he area) <>
The
gong used
Emmmontng th(~ monIes has also been known to be
z· . .lng by toul"'ls'ts..
Some tourl~)ts abus:;~ local hospitality
by walldng 01.':1: from hotels and lodges wi t.hout 'paying their
frhE'l It:wk of' cons id.erat.:ton of. some tourists can also
affect other tourists.
In camping areas the singing and
dancing Il!'otmd campfires, consuming large quantities of'
:t'h'ewood and Chang (100131 roi ee beep), continues on until
It.lte l1ight..
This can have considerable impact on the
experience of the other campel"s wishing to sleep BEtel" a
tough day' 8 walk or. before one",
Tbe inconsidel:a te behaviour
of' a :rew tour'ists could cause loss of' respect for the tour'iats
by the local people"
It could also <-,ausa a detE)l"ior'a tior!
of rel::l"cions betweell vi. tors themselvesf}
liAs Lee (1975)
nC)teB, social.rela.tions between wi:Lde!'n3ss campel"s are more
impo1"'tan.t to' tl~ satisfac:~ion of' those users than was the
cond.ltion of the physical environment.
T.herefol"e" encouraglng apJ?rol:n~iate wlldeX'ness behaviour might be the most important action manago:r.. . s can under·take".. (Bm"ch$' 1978)"
Thel'le are two vfays of discom"agil1g lUi-desirable behaviour ot: the people
Sj.l'l.ce bad behaviour is often tj,18 ['8S1).]. t
of a lacle of cuI tur'al lUl.tiel'lS tanding, it can be imJ?r'oved
thr'out7,h education and intel"]!l"1etation..
The second o:ption is
dlrect in tel"'ventlon,P stl:'i{~ t regula t.1.011 anI enf'orcemen'b.
The second optlon should be taken only when the first
one haG failed to be eff'ec"tive
Q
Q
The cap;ltal cost ot: establishing a National Park such
as Sagar'matho is immense clue to the foregone opportw1t"ty cost
of' the resotJ.l:'CEH3, e .. g .. land~ wa tar, forest j) etc..
'llhe cost
involved in development of' vi si tor fae il:1. tie sand sex1 vices !U'O
massive.
A continued source of f'inance would be l'equired for'
perpetual ma;lntel1f1 nee and adminis tra "tion of' the Par].'::"
'rhe
development!.' maintenance and administra t:'tve cost increases
67
with increasing visitor' numbers.
The majority of the users of Sagarmatha National Park
consist of foreign visitors who do not contribute to\~rds
Nepal's tax system.
Therefore, it would seem desirable to
introduce a system cmrging user fees.
A reasonable charge
could be made for the use of Park and Fark facilities and
services.
The collected revenue could be spent on the
be t ter managemen t and pro tecti on ot the Park resources and
for improving and maintaining visitor faoilities.
Mendel Pu Hill - the National Park Headquarters
development site.
CHAPl'gR 10
ADMINIsrl'RA~[IIVE:
1"
Rl~COMMENDA'11JONS
'1:'hc Ps:t'k Wa~:'den Officer.' shoulc'~ be r-esllons:l.ble :ror
the
·d.ay~·,to~~(hlY
managel11Eint and adminis tl~a tton o:t'
t.h.e Park",
2"
S t8£'1'" meet:Lngs EJh.ould be held l."egular·ly 'bo x'eeei ve
t,hct.l' vioWG £tnd f'eeclback as well as t.o make them
hettel' tnf'oPTnocl :r>egal'd:i.ng tho various Park pr(Y.j;rammes and.
o b j e c t l ve ~J
Q
'rhe public image o:f the staf'£, :18 impo1"tant for the
Hegulal' tl~aird.ng se::wions shOtlld be o:pganised
PHX'lc '"
:for the' r;;tafr to imp:eove their' a bill ty and competencQo
30
4·.,
. 'l'he
tOJ. .
pres8tl:t>e and other' lnterests in the Khumbu region
POSEH;l con:.:dde:C'f.:1.ble Cliffi cuI ties in adminis t:r'a tion and ma:n.age.·ment of' Sagar'matha National Parle..
It would Beem desirabl.e
to f'ox'm !1 Management Cormnittee consisting of' l"epresentatlves
fr'om vc'1!'i.01.:u;;J gmrernment clepartments p the Panchayat members,
loeal C01'ilmtm:i ty gponps and priva te enterprIses..
This
Management Committee should be responsible for making managep:r'Gsence of' large human. popula tion, vi B i
ment decisions o:E' the Park along with the Park Administrator ..
SUMM.AHY
thlnkLng
and. cuI tUl'al changes
:J.ng 0
!J~he dircct:i.on
caref'ully contx'o11ed
':eO
f)'
mind? the speed of': recent environmental
in the Khumbu. region has be en frightenand speed of' these changes needs to be
f'or the bene:f.'l t of bot.h man and his
envir\onrnent~
The Shm. . pa people have been 1:'- ving :tn the Kbumbu
'1'1.1ej,1:' 8:L mpl<;l vvay of life
region ):'Ol:' 8~nre r'al centuT':l.e S(f
d:ld not oause serlotl.s 'impaet on the OlW'_);-'onment o
The major
envil:,onment.al' degI'ada t,iOD bogEl.n due to tbe :tn:t'lux of' Tibe tan
ref'ug(;?es $I uncontrolled toul~lsm development and o the I' 'socia 1
and cuI tUl~f).l changes in the Sherl?t~. comnlllni ty ()
Dcclignat.ill,g the Khumbl.l l"'egion 88 a Na tional Park would
he an efi'e(~tive solution to the 'enviroruriental problems 'only
if' the 118 eds and asp:tra tiona oi' the Park inhab i tent s are
:rulf'il1ed~
Al thour)1 the d:lsplacement of the people out of the
Park brings ease of' administration and management of th~~
Parkj< it seems hlghly undesirable due to the social and
0clonomj.c cost involved"
Instead; 1~he way of' ].
,of the
lOQaJ. :people should be ;tntegrated into the NatiOlk'11 Pal. . k
system wi th emphasis on cuI tursl conserve M.on ..
The evolut:lon 01' ot1.1 ture should be allowed to continue naturally and
the :t~ights and p.I'i vl1eges of the local inhabitants should be
prot.ected"
'1'h6 Park should be divided :tnto dif'f'erent zones to
meet the needs· of. the people and to pl"lovide for the requirements of' the National PHX'k statuB\>
In the presence of' pl"oper management ond planning,
toul"ism would do little damage to the environment& rrOurisID
is also an important economic f'actox' 1'0:'[, Nepal and it would
l)l~ov:tde economic just:1.fication 1.'oX' conservation of' tbe
envil"onm0.nt.,
Toul~i8m ("honld t.hus be encouT'aged wi th proper
regulatIon and con'trol to minimize its impac'c on the f)Ocial
and natnl"'al env:h'omaent of' the Pax'k o
70
gnv:\.):\o~().ment81
Park
~:e8our'ceG
of the h:trk"
cdnc8tlon anCi 1.n terpr'eta t:lon of' the
should be an :i.nlpo;et.Fmt nsp':.3 ct of' management
It would be desirable to :Lnvolve public In
deals :Lon~nwJdnp; pI'oce::-;ses"
'rho ]J8.l'k
~fl.anag8r'
f'one ti on should
be to provld(,; HI tex'nat:LvCl ehoiee8 and the :fi nal clec:LBion
should be left to the r'epresen"ta'tivef.: of the people e
131 ELI OGRAI'BY
(rU8~lOCk GX'8S81E1l1d~~
_ . . "'. . . . .
....
__
=.<'"~
Ba,yantoul' NGI
and
MOU):'l,t,H:I,n
=:j'r~;:;.',,.,"""-,"""!,=;;:1=I"'~.,':'"n!.·....WI ~""~~\\c'"y."~;,,
:ipp:i.ng H:tmalayaf;} thr'cat.en millions'"
& f
1
Pr'eSf..l
"""'_.c~<:C-<~..<'t'r.-.=""IJ!;7"~"$,.,~~
79"
Bell§' Me> 1
(l,bro;'l 0 l] II
Borgl' f/" 1 9Tl: tNat:tonf;).l
Na ti ve Pf,WI)l£lS~'
crc)pland - a global );lroblem~ Journal
on
Vole 3h( 2), 11 0-1 r4:-~-
~~,~~~-.~~~,~~~~~~~,~~~~;--,~~,;~,~~~~,~~~~
1977~ tToUJ:,j.sm and c011l.~ervat1or{: conflict$! Coexistonco or. oymb:1ooi s? t
, Vol
1 (4), .3,~6 ..
Bud01JIIGki so 0,;
(;<
Caat~ip
F.; Loops, La
and pract.1 ceto
1977:
t
Biou:pb.el,'e
reser've~~:
theory
Vol o Xli III {1~o
(::lawson, M.. ,., and Kl1"3tech ll £1 <>Lt) 1969': ·Oos1; and 1.l'lVElfjt,ment consld.el'>at:ton.s ill pr'ovidillg 'public l~OCl"(;,)at;ton :Cae:t1i ttes fj'
p
2L->t9~~261
4>
Coun.tl:yside Commisston.. 1977: t New s.grtoul tuX'al am
,sca:p8 issues, objeotives and act,lollo t
land~
F ~ F .. 1969: 'Man and. nattu"'e j,ll the Natio:nal Park .. t
2nd ado Conservation l?oundation... WashingtorJ., D.. O..
Dal~ltD,g,
Dasmanl1, R<)li'..
1971:
t
Clasf;lii'icatlon and use of protected
na ttu'al anj en]. tut";;J.l a1"eas (>; I., C aU. N <-
1978: tNational Parks, Nature Conserv".ation and
IIFuture Prim! ti ve If,,' South Pacific Con..fel"ence on
National Parks ..
DfHinnam1. 9 H<.F..
Dillon,
M~J0
1979: 'Usa of ecological land class
cation
and eVSllu8. tiOD :tn land use plannillg: A New YOl"k case
study # JOlll:,nal of' Soil C),nd Wa tel" Conser'itation.
fJ anual>y-~~]le>brua-ry~ j5:,.:3r:-------~"--~----('>
:mckbo, G.. 1969: 'The Landscape of Tourism..,'
Vol .. 1 8( r~)" . 29-310
Bckholm!) E .. P..
1975t.
t
~rhe
detel"lor-ation
men.ts,,' Ll'£E~~~ Volt> 1891\'
0;['
76L~-770o
El"iclmon, D .. LQ 1977:' Public Land POlier:
decision and cit:tzen involvemellt
Q
mental
MDna~ement
~ _ _~""'~V'<'~"fioT"';:"'~_~~'JI
5.
Mountain Environ-
365-377.
An 0valua M.on of'
F;nvi l"on-
7 ')
t..
Plemtng p C@A"
1 975 ~ 'Scienttfi9 Pl.anning of' HeservGs '" 9
~~~~t:s:,~~j;=~_.~;!~2:o,".~~j~r.~~1
For:;ter p .A" and CD.:t.'I'~ ~\,
.
the r'ole
5
p
t,
.
1979:' Conservation education:
0:(' Ontar'io~s
Coxw0r'vatjon Authorltles,,'
34( 1 ) "
:I!Lll:t}))l;l1__.QX" .. ·S~~:i']:'r-~~~SLWf}~L2!::"QQnso:r~Y~~1~tQ}l Vol"
.33=3-~"
PaS ter n •.I1'.. 1 973,. ~P18rming for man and 118. tUJ:'e :tn Na tional
:Parler]" 'He(wn,c:ilint~Pe r-petua.tion and Use Ill' I.,Q~~
!llJ!.Jj",~l~1lill.!~·
n('lVl· aerio Gc>
lj'oxall~
Go 1 9-/9 ~ v Agr'icul tUl' Ell i.!Ylpt·ovement. of common land:
the )}(~leva:n.cE~ ot' co"~o:pe rei t.ive ma11agement .. ~ ,iLC2lar:1.¥2,J.
Q;[L]!l!?;Y;i£JlQn1Q,DJ~£ll~J~1~D:~:!Jl~2111.~lnt 1 l3
1 51 --1 61 9
It
l!'r8,nklin~ J .. J?", and 'li;r'Dppe~ J'"M",
2.:r2~!)J:..~lid;:1':.yj.
Lj.56=L~61"
'Natux'E).l ares.s e Y ~~~pnal
Ii'ut.ehBIIY9 Z<, 1972: ~CohseY'vat1on in world of I'ising
o
expectatioD.s
... Natj.onsl Parks tHld Conser'vation magazine"
December
19720
___
,,"'u~.~~~~.~~>_.~~~~
Gilbert~ V"C.. 1976:
)"~~r1c§ VaL,1 (2)
.
W
~~.~o~_._~~~~
Biosphel."e Reserves and National Parks~
€)
1 977: tAn American E'xample'",
11£~J:~..§lJ~~'J1?
Nov em be r ~ 1 5-1 '7 ..
Gi:tiOlil,l T"
Har·t l1 WG~To 1966: t A sY'stems approach to Parol{ plal1n:iilg~
Sw:1. tzen.lland"
Ha:i.menc1or·f $r
196J.+ o
Go V., Furer"
John Mur'pay, Lotldon ...
Hagen, T
[J.nf others"
Ili
1 963:
Io>C .. U"N .. ,
.~~.S~~ZJ2.§jL...Qt. NQJ2~l~
]L·LTItY..£.t..Q~~:t~_£2~~yl. QJ1,
..12 0 }2~1U!.t;hp·l2....§l1tL§2LI.~1<2~~Q~!:J.gJ2-2t~~h!Ll1} v ~2:L£e 13i.Q.D ..
Oxford Urd.versity 1-):>8S8, TJOndol1(.>
,
Hard:Ln" G" 1 968: t The traged.~r of the commons'"
Vol 1 62" 1 2h3-1 2)+8"
(>
Hardie, N.. Do 'State of Building Industry' - Nepal' (8 report)o
Hodder, RoA"C .. t'.rhe 14'lora and timber
(0. report) ..
rEH30Ul'ces
of Khumbu'
Haust.on9 Do)3.. 1 972: tr~cosys t.em of N8. tional Pal·lC~fls.:te~~~,
Vol .. 172.. 648-651
G
r.&nn y H"M.. 1 976: 'Intx'oduction to l~lI:lEitex' Plann:1.ng!JZ§l:!~
Vol., t·(1)~ 5~·8<>
.
Me.ther'l' 19T3:
Reafforestation in proposed rAt Il!verest
Na tl(mal Par·k."
M()Caf~ke
IJ
Il<> W.. M.. t
Lessons :Cor
(a 1'l0port) . .
OU1"
J'aX'kfJ i'x'om overseast
McHarg ll I .. 1.,o 1 967: t An ecological met.hod f'o:r' landscape
archltecturc,,'
Mirwl{ler~
S'" 1979: t The challenge of :rOT'6st management,'
1~I£!~;i£!n~l:Js~£?nst22:1§~1:~~2~~J S ep tern ber
1 979~
Mishra, HeRe<, 1973... t COllsel'vation in Khumbu' - a preliminv~
ary I'01)or't", KI":;tthrllanduc
Moncrlef'sl Ia.W" 'The Cultux'al Bas:1.s for Om" :mnvix'orunelltal
GI'ls 1st.. .J:~£ti£l}2£ Vole 1 70 ~ 508Naylor, R" 1 970", I Columbo Plan assl gnment in Nepal's
NevI Zealand Forest Service e
.
Nepe.l~ ( F~11t:;tycl:f112~eg"l~..l}l!,~.£~ Volf> 12 G
9:52--958)
N1chollsp :b\,G..
@
1975:
t International co-operation and
South l?'acif'ic 00n1:'01:'6nOe on National
1 26-1 31
involvE;ment~
Po l....k B "
IS
Bf~J.!~LQ.911S~!:~::~.:tl.2};!_~~' Annual 1 9T7 ..
otconnor, K.,F", 'Mountain Hecreation and National .lark
Management 9.,
Insti tut.e..
ons, D.. J·"
'Dussock Grasslands Mountain Lands
(unpublished) '"
1977: 'The role of" fire in Park managerrene..
~Hrk~ Volo2(1) ..
1976:' CO(~t benef':l.t analysis" Nn.tiona.l Ru;'ks
and the l€X'su:lt of' geeJgi--aphically segregated object-
'Price, C,.
ives·'", _Q:.Q1l,,:Cllii:l.;L.f~~!~;.wr~~l.J;l?p.a£ie,m~ 5"
87-97 ..
Rockham, At. 1979: trl'he significance of' open space" The
landscapet" tTournal of' New Zealand Institute of L8nc1sea De Al:'ch i te~~·t~rlretr:2=4·:-= ~.~--~~---,.,--~-"""'-~_
*'
~'4~"
__
Hato11f':C1) J)"A<>
19716: trrho1J.ghts ·towar'd phtloDOphy oJ' natu:('o
9" h5-5,39
co nf:j e r.'vat:lol1<!)
Bmi th, F" G" '1977
Nn tionnl Par'k lTID.na,<J;ernont nnl:tl~:t0f;r.,
.
1'1a t ional Pa 1:'kE.t'Airt.kl:Oi!'Ily ;=V{e:3:~3urit'AwFt:i::fiTIa";;~G-'€I
SchUmf;lChfJ:t·~
1971J.:
§JJ1£I!,l,l,..l.£!=R££!l!J,J'?lf!:'t.>
Sphere Bool;:s Iltd,
T..JondOrl"
1977~ iEldueate or- Regul!;).te? rnt(:}l~I):r.·etation.
:tn National
Mculag0mt~ntj" t ';;;';;';'.=,=~'=;;;;;~i';:;"'~~'~=""';;;;;;';:';;''';::,
.Eecreatlon 27·~290
Sm:Lth y B",C",
"''''~==..~.~~.,.-:<,,--~~~
S.peechJ.:y~ H,,'l'G '1976: 'Pr·olxH.ml i'or :eorest
esga.}:'mat.ha 'N~~t:lonal Papke Kathmandu
management in
<I) ,
Swan" L.,W<> 'The ecology of' the high H:imalayas.,'
'raffler, A..
1971:
Eutl:l£iLJlSQ.~J£.o·
Pan Books Ltd, I,onden.,
Wade fi Bo 1 976: 'Publ1c lnvol vernen t in Park· management'
.
(a reIJOvt) '"
Whi'tej) G'<\ll!'o 1975: t}?loml damage pr-evention poli
Na tu:ee and He~1out'Ct;)a Vol~ XI (1 . ) e
.
~~·......:l1'~=,7_""'_~~""~
Zen till, BE>
1 977:
1(!~J;:.Jff}~ ~ V 0]. .;i
tnetH!>m:lning Na t:ional Park boundal-1es"
(4).. 7 -1 0 4>
t
AI1?1l:ND IX
Map' 0:('
ga~:'ma t.ha N~d;:l.onal
l?ark
SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK
Gyachung Kang 'X
ZONATION MAP
(This map is not intended as a definitive zonation)
N
+
SCALE 1:70000
. . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .....
· .· .................. . .
· . . ........... .. .
. ...
·
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . . , . .. ....... .. .. . . . . · .. , . . . , ....... ..
. .......... .
. . . · ......,......
. . . . . · . ...........
, .....
. . . . . . . , .. ................. .. .
.
,sAGA RMATHA.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · , . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . · . . . . . . . . . .
· .. ...·.. .. ...... ..
. . , ..
· , . .· ............ .. .
.......... ..
., .......
. . . . . . . · . ...........
· ·· ...
. ., ...................... . . . , . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .
. ., ...
. .,...
. . '.
. .
, ....... . . . . . . . . . . .
....
. . . . , . . . . . . . . · , ......................
.
.
.
.
. .·.............. . . , · . . . , . . . . .
. . . . . ............................. .
.
. . . . . . . . . · ..... , , .. . . . . . . . . . . ,
. . . , . . . .·. .
..
. ....... .. .. .. .
. .
· .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .. .
· . . . . . . . . . . . , .. .
· ..
. . . . . . .. ., .................. . .
.. , . ......... .. .. .
. . .. .
· . ... .. . . , , .........
. . . . ,. ...
. . . , , ...
.
. , ...
. . . · . .....,...... .
.
.
.
. . , . , . .................. . .
· ........ .
. .
........ .
. . · ......
. . . . . . . . .
, ...
.
. . . .. ......... .. .. . . .
· . ..............
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
. ......... .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . · .......... .. .. .
. .. . ,
. .... :. . . . .
. . ........ .. .. .
, ..
.
·............... . .
· ...
.. . . .. . . . . ..
· . . . ., .............. . .
· ............... , . .
.
.
......... .
. . . . . . . . . .
'
•
• • • • • • •
I'
• • • • • •
"
~
'
'.'
,
'
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
"
~"'~
. '.' ............ , .............. ·W.·.·.· ..... .
· .,. .
. ." .
... .....
.l~?'.R • '.••••.. . .••••..
)
)(
.., ........................... "
l..t"
,
••••••••••••••
. .
t
. . . . . . . . . . . . .'
......., 1<:vh(l<1bt'sa
. . . . ' • • • . • . . . • . . . . . . . , •.
,r,',·,·.·.·.·
Legend
Human Settlement Zone
m
o
Agricultural Zone
Pastoral Zone
[[ill] Natural Landscape Zone
Wilderness Zone
o
River
Mountain Peak
r=irl Entrv
Pnint