SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY:
Darrin T Stevens
Martin Psaila
Carmen R Mifsud
SI-MO BIODIVERSITY TEAM
DRAFT VERSION: 10th AUGUST 2001
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
CONTENTS
Contents
List of Abbreviations Used
Executive Summary
1
2
3
1.
INTRODUCTION
4
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Preamble
Meaning of Sustainable Indicators
Importance of Sustainable Indicators for Biological Diversity
Use of Biodiversity Indicators in Malta
2.
METHODOLOGIES DEVELOPED BY OECD, UN AND EU
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.4
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
United Nations
The Mediterranean Action Plan, including the Blue Plan
Convention on Biological Diversity
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
The European Union
Remarks
8
8
8
9
9
10
11
3.
LIST OF INDICATORS PROPOSED BY VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS
12
4.
SUSTAINABLE INDICATORS FOR THE MALTESE ISLANDS
53
4.1
4.2
Remarks
List of Indicators
53
54
5.
CONCLUSION
65
6.
REFERENCES
67
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4
4
5
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LIST OPF ABBREVIATIONS USED
Agriculture
Bern Convention
Biod
Bonn Convention
Bot. Gard.
BP
BPU
CBD
CITES
CPD
CSD
Customs
DPSIR
DSR
EEA
EMU
EPD
EPI
EU
FAO
Fisheries
Health
ICOD
IEI
IUCN
L-Councils
MAP
MCSD
MIA
MFA
Museums
NGOs
NSO
OECD
PA
PSR
Police
Ramsar
Roads
SDI
SPABIM
TEN
UN
UNDP
UNEP
UOM
Works
Department of Agriculture
Convention on the Conservation
of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
Biodiversity or biological diversity
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Argotti & University Herbarium and Botanic Gardens
Blue Plan
Biodiversity Protection Unit/Environment Protection Department
Convention on Biological Diversity
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
Civil Protection Department
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
Customs Department
Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response Model
Driving Force-State-Response Model
European Environment Agency
Environment Management Unit/Planning Authority
Environment Protection Department
Environmental Pressure Indicators
European Union
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation
Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture
Health Division
International Ocean Dynamics Institute/Foundation for International
Studies
International Environment Institute/Foundation for International
Studies
World Conservation Union
(formerly International Union for the Conservation of Nature)
Local Councils
Mediterranean Action Plan
Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development
Malta International Airport
Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Museums Department
Non-Governmental Organisations
National Statistics Office
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Planning Authority
Pressure-State-Response Model
Commissioner of Police
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
especially as Waterfowl Habitat
Roads Department
European Union Indicators on Sustainable Development
Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas
and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean
Trans-European Transport Network
United Nations
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
University of Malta
Works Division
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The aim of this study was to analyse and assess the sustainability indicators concerning
biological diversity, and to identify a list of indicators that would be suitable for Malta.
Whilst assessing different proposed indicators, it being apparent that the application of a
number of indicators depends very much on the definitions adopted by the institution in
question. A number of other global and European indicators were not directly applicable
to the Maltese Islands, since they referred to rivers, mountains/volcanoes or forestry,
features or activities absent from the Maltese Islands. However, other indicators of more
relevance to our situation were often included marginally or not mentioned at all.
Based on the Convention on Biological Diversity definition of ‘biological diversity’, which
incorporates genetic, species and ecosystem diversity, a set of indicators that would be
suitable for Malta were proposed, some of which were already utilised or proposed in
other studies.
The immediate use of such indicators however depends on various other issues, in that
most of the data available is not classed according to internationally-recognised criteria.
Moreover, a considerable proportion of data is still being compiled or aligned to
international criteria. This also implies that baseline data, important for the analysis of
trends, is still being collected. Hence, it is difficult to employ indicators dependent on the
‘time factor’ for the identification of trends. This is mostly because ‘environment’ is a
relatively new topic.
Hence, in order to utilise these and other related indicators, Malta needs to commence
data collection and alignment, where this is not yet being carried out, according to
international standardised procedures; nonetheless, owing to its status as a small island
state, many of the criteria employed by the OECD, United Nations, and the European
Union are not suitable for the Maltese Islands, either because of the very small size of
the Maltese archipelago, or else because of differences in the economic infrastructure.
In this respect, local versions should be developed, as much as possible close to the
original versions, in order to allow comparability.
Another aspect concerns the considerable overlap that the indicators on biological
diversity have with related aspects of land, coast and sea use, water and air
quality/pollution, various economic activities (especially tourism, agriculture, fisheries
and quarrying), etc. In this respect, an integrated approach should be adopted in
formulating a list of sustainable indicators for the Maltese Islands.
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SECTION ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
PREAMBLE
The definition of biological diversity incorporated in this report is the same adopted by
the United Nations in its framework Convention on Biological Diversity [=CBD] (UNEP,
1992), a definition later also adopted by the Mediterranean Action Plan, through its
Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the
Mediterranean [= SPABIM] (UNEP, 1997a), and the European Union in its Council
Decision 93/626/EEC concerning the conclusion of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (European Community, 1993) and Council Decision 99/800/EC on the
conclusion of the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity
in the Mediterranean and on acceptance of the Annexes to that Protocol [Barcelona
Convention] (European Community, 1999).
In this context the term "biological diversity" is defined as “the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems” (CBD, Article 2).
In other words, the term is commonly used to describe the number and variety of living
organisms on the planet and is often defined in terms of genes, species, and
ecosystems, but also includes ‘the ecological complexes of which they are part’. The
human species, which also is an integral part of this biological diversity, also depend on
biological diversity for its own survival (UNEP, 1999); thus, the term can be considered a
synonym for "life on Earth".
This implies that all indicators related to biological diversity (or biodiversity, in an
abbreviated format), overlap with related aspects of land, coast and sea use, water and
air quality/pollution, various economic activities based upon different forms of biological
diversity (especially agriculture and fisheries), etc. In this respect, an integrated
approach should be adopted in formulating a list of sustainable indicators for the Maltese
Islands.
The approach taken by the authors in this study was to list the main indicators capable
of answering questions with respect to the status and sustainable use of local biological
diversity. A number of indicators applicable to the Maltese Islands and listed in Section 4
of this study have not been included below because the data provided was either
unfeasible or dealt with by other indicators. Nevertheless, a number of overlapping
indicators have been included below, mainly a number of indicators offer a more
representative picture of the environmental conditions when aggregated (e.g. issues
related to the number of protected areas, their percentage cover in the country, public
expenditure in this sector, and related enforcement activities).
1.2.
MEANING OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
Various definitions of what an indicator is can be found in the literature. These include
“a variable hypothetically linked to the variable studied which itself cannot be directly
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observed” (Chevalier et al. 1992); a “measure that summarizes information relevant to a
particular phenomenon, or a reasonable proxy for such a measure” (Mc Queen & Noak
1988; Gallopin, 1997).
Of particular relevance to this work is the definition adopted by the OECD for
environmental indicators: “A parameter, or a value derived from parameters, which
points
to,
provides
information
about,
describes
the
state
of
a
phenomenon/environment/area, with a significance extending beyond that directly
associated with a parameter value” (OECD, 1998) and the accompanying definition of
parameter as “a property that is measured or observed” (OECD, 1998).
Thus an indicator can be seen as a sign or a tool for measuring progress toward
sustainable development. Without entering in the debate concerning the appropriate
definition of the latter, a generally accepted explanation for the term ‘sustainable
development’ is the “economic development that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs” (Bossel, 1999). Yet this definition stresses solely the economic aspects, and
therefore, for the purpose of this work, a broader definition was adopted: “the kind of
human activity that nourishes and perpetuates the historical fulfilment of the whole
community of life on earth” (Bossel, 1999). Indicators thus serve as signs for assessing
whether the whole community of life on earth is functioning in a way that will allow it to
perpetuate itself in a desirable way.
1.3.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (SPECIES AND ECOSYSTEMS)
Since there is now a wide realisation that the success of the human species is likely to
be jeopardized if we do not manage to ensure rational management of the natural
resources which are necessary to our survival and are the source of our well-being, it
follows that the development of sustainability indicators for biodiversity and ecosystems
is an important area of concern in this regard. The conservation of biodiversity is thus
important both to preserve the variety of ecosystems as a whole as well as to preserve
the species within them.
The acceptance of importance of biodiversity in this regard is also evident from the
number of international nature conservation conventions and other treaties, such as the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (=
CITES); the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
(= Bern Convention); the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (= Bonn Convention); the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and
Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (= SPABIM, within the Mediterranean Action
Plan) and the Convention on Biological Diversity. All these confer a number of values to
biodiversity. An example is the preamble to the CBD: “the Contracting Parties, conscious
of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social,
economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological
diversity and its components....” (UNEP, 1992).
All these conventions, considering the importance of biodiversity, also require some form
of control on the use or exploitation (including trade) of natural resources. In this respect,
CBD also defines “sustainable use”: “the use of components of biological diversity in a
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way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity,
thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future
generations” (UNEP, 1992). In fact, sustainable use of biodiversity is the cornerstone of
the CBD and the related SPABIM1, in that, they require each contracting party to identify
components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use [i.e.
indicators, CBD Article 7.a; SPABIM Article 3.3]; and to monitor these components,
“paying particular attention to those requiring urgent conservation measures and those
which offer the greatest potential for sustainable use” 2 [CBD, Article 7.b; SPABIM Article
3.5]. These convention move further in also requiring each Contracting Party to establish
a national policy for the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of the
elements making up that diversity, integrating into it “as far as possible and as appropriate,
the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or crosssectoral plans, programmes and policies” [CBD, Articles 6a-b; but also SPABIM Article
3.4] (UNEP, 1992).
The development of sustainability indicators for biodiversity are therefore an
indispensable tool to the policy maker both to prioritise the issues which must be
addressed as well as to measure progress towards policy goals.
1.4.
USE OF BIODIVERSITY INDICATORS IN MALTA
Owing to the importance allocated to indicators for biological diversity, a number of
indicators have already been utilised, although the name ‘sustainability indicators’ or
‘indicators of sustainable development’ have not been utilised in this respect.
Hence threatened species and species richness, and in some cases protected areas,
have been used as an ‘indication’ of the ‘state of the environment’ in the Maltese Islands,
as can be seen from, in chronological order: Baldacchino (1988), Schembri (1991),
Anon. (1995), Stevens et al. (1995) and Schembri et al. (1999). Some ‘indicators’, such
as the list of extinct or presumed extinct flora, were already employed by Caruana Gatto
(1913)!
Nonetheless, most data was often not standardised, until 1989, when a national list of
threatened species compiled by various authors, and based on international IUCN
criteria was published by what is today known as the Environment Protection
Department (Schembri & Sultana, 1989).
The most thorough list of ‘indicators’ were however probably those utilised in the
formulation of the 1998 State of the Environment Report commissioned by the
Environment Protection Department (Axiak et al., 1999). The section dealing with ‘living
resources’ [i.e. biological diversity] (Schembri et al., 1999) included most of the data
available by that period on nature protection, exploitation of resources, agriculture,
aquaculture and fisheries, together with suggestions for improving data compilation.
1
2
SPABIM, being amongst the latest of the international nature conservation treaties, involves the
implementation of many of the provisions included within the Convention on Biological Diversity, although
its provisions relate to mostly to the Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity.
All quotes, unless specified, are from the Convention on Biological Diversity.
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As far as sustainability indicators per se, a preliminary pioneering list was the
compilation of a list of indicators made by the Planning Authority in 1997 (Planning
Authority, 1997); such list included a small number of indicators dealing with threatened
species and protected areas.
Recently, a set of indicators are being developed as a part of the Coastal Area
Management Programme. However, whilst a valuable exercise, the indicators relate
mostly to the coastal zone (Ellul, 2001).
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SECTION TWO
METHODOLOGIES DEVELOPED BY OECD; UN AND THE EU
In order to understand the meaning of sustainability indicators one cannot look at them
as a collection of significant signs but as part of a theoretical framework. Various
organisations developed their own theoretical frameworks or methodologies.
2.1.
ORGANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD)
One such framework that has been widely used is the Pressure-State-Response
Model (PSR) developed by the OECD for its core set of environmental indicators
(OECD, 1998). To start with, the PSR model classifies indicators into indicators of
environmental pressures, indicators of environmental conditions and indicators of
societal responses.
Briefly, this model describes human activities as exerting pressures on the environment.
Indicators of environmental pressures measure both indirect pressures such as the
activity itself, e.g. transport, industry and trends of environmental significance, as well as
direct pressures, such as pollutant and waste generation and resource use.
These pressures on the environment affect its quality, and the quality and quantity of
natural resources i.e. its state. Such indicators of environmental conditions cover
conditions and trends in air, water, land and soil wildlife and natural resources. They are
designed to give an overview of the state if the environment and its development over
time.
Thirdly there is the response of society to the changes in the state of the environment.
Indicators of societal responses show the extent to which society responds to
environmental concerns through environmental, general economic and sectoral policies
and through changes in awareness and behaviour.
Proponents of this model maintain that it has the advantage of highlighting the links
between pressures, the state and responses and in so doing helps decision makers and
the public to see environmental and other issues as interconnected. Nonetheless, this
should not be used as an oversimplification of the complex relationships in ecosystems
and in environment-economy and environment-social interactions (OECD, 1998).
2.2.
UNITED NATIONS (UN)
Within the UN, different approaches are taken dependent on the body in question.
2.2.1.
Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), including the Blue Plan
The PSR model is also widely used by MAP. In its publication concerning “130 indicators
for sustainable development in the Mediterranean region” (UNEP, 2000a), it is stated
that “the methodology used in the devising of indicators for sustainable development at
global level is mainly based on extending the Pressure-State-Response (PSR) model –
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developed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) at
the end of the 1980s for environmental indicators – to the 3 components of sustainable
development. In fact the indicators are classified in 3 main categories, depending on
what they illustrate: i) the pressures on-, ii) the state of-, or iii) the responses to issues
described in several chapters of Agenda 21.
The 130 indicators listed in the above-mentioned publication include only 40 of the
indicators listed in the work of the UN-CSD which is referred to below. This implies a
desire by the Mediterranean countries to create a set of indicators specific to the
Mediterranean basin. The 130 indicators chosen are evenly distributed in the 3 main
categories of the PSR model as follows: Pressure indicators (45), State indicators (45)
and response indicators (40). (UNEP, 2000a,b).
2.2.2.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The CBD requires, as already stated, each contracting party to identify components of
biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use. In this respect,
various decisions have been adopted requesting countries to include targets and
indicators in their national reports (e.g. refer to UNEP, 1997b).
As a consequence, a core set of indicators derived from various international and
national initiatives have been included in a notification addressed to national focal
points3 (UNEP, 2001). Although no methodology or definitions of the various indicators
have been included, Annex I to the document include questions subdivided into state,
pressure and response, implying that the method to be adopted will probably be based
on the widely-used PSR Model.
2.2.3.
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)
The Driving Force-State-Response Model (DSR) framework was adopted and used by
the CSD in its work programme on indicators of sustainable development (Mortensen,
1997). This framework distinguishes four categories of sustainable development,
namely social, economic, environmental and institutional. The environmental category is
further sub-divided into the following sub-categories: water, land, other natural
resources, atmosphere and waste.
The DSR framework used by the CSD has been mainly adapted from the PSR
framework used by the OECD for environmental indicators (Section 2.1). The main
difference is that the term pressure has been replaced by the term driving force in order
to provide for the economic, social and institutional aspects of sustainable development.
The term “driving force” refers to human activities, processes and patterns that have and
impact on sustainable development. This impact can be both positive and negative
unlike the pressure category used by the OECD. In fact, some driving forces can have a
positive impact on the developmental aspects of sustainable development and a
negative impact on the environmental aspects.
3
The national focal point for the Convention on Biological Diversity is: Mr Darrin T Stevens of the,
Environment Protection Department, one of the authors of this report.
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In this model state indicators indicate the state of sustainable development at a given
point in time whilst response indicators indicate policy options and other responses to
changes in the state of sustainable development.
Unlike the PSR framework, the DSR framework does not assume any causal links
between different categories of indicators. As a result no simplistic assumptions have
been made on causal links that may or may not exist. Such an approach is prudent
when one considers the complexity of the phenomena being analysed. The lack of
causality implies that it is difficult to identify inter-linkages between different indicators
and this must be accepted as a limit in the ability of the framework to provide a tool for
analysing the complex relations between various aspects of sustainable development.
2.3.
EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
Another model which is similar to the PSR model is the Driving force-Pressure-StateImpact-Response Model (DPSIR) used the EU. The DPSIR model “….has been
adopted as the most appropriate way to structure environmental information by most
member states of the European Union…”(European Community, 2000).

Driving forces represent basic sectoral trends in energy generation, transport,
industry, agriculture, tourism, etc.

Pressure refers to human activities directly affecting the environment such as carbon
dioxide.

State refers to observable changes in the environment such as global warming.

Impact represents the effects of a changed environment such as floods.

Response refers to the response of society to solve environmental problems by for
example energy taxes.
In the context of the DPSIR model, Eurostat focuses on response, driving forces and
pressure indicators, whilst state and impact indicators are mainly the domain of the
European Environment Agency (EEA).
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2.4.
REMARKS
The DSR model explicitly states that there is no such implied causality. The PSR model
includes notions of causality – the pressure changes the state of the environment, and
society responds. Yet, as the OECD itself warns, this should not lead to
oversimplification of complex phenomena. Nevertheless such frameworks risk inferring
casual sequences and this may lead to invalid inferences. Therefore to avoid such errors
one must always keep in mind that such models are ‘human’ and are to be best used as
a useful taxonomic tool for ordering and classifying indicators, without underlying
functional causality. The search for causal relationships should be seen as a very
important but separate exercise.
This report will focus on the PSR Model for a number of reasons: it is probably the
easiest and most widely-employed model, and is the one adopted by the SI-MO Team.
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SECTION THREE
LIST OF INDICATORS MADE BY VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTION
This report covers mostly the indicators adopted and/or proposed by the United Nations
[with particular reference to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development, the Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development within the
Mediterranean Action Plan, and the Convention on Biological Diversity] (UNEP, 2000a,b,
2001), the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD, 1988),
and the European Union (European Commission, 1997, 2000).
The indicators concerning ‘species and habitat protection’, irrespective of applicability,
are included below. Nevertheless, based on consultations made with the SI-MO project
co-ordinator, other relevant indicators falling within the definition of ‘biological diversity’
as referred in this report, have also been included, also because quite a substantial
proportion are incorporated in the notification sent to parties by the United Nations’
Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP, 2001). Such indicators include aspects
related to agriculture, fisheries, forestry, land use, coastal zone management, and inland
waters.
As much as possible, the definition and aim of the indicators in question were included in
the definition and remarks columns of Table 3.1. A number of remarks were made,
where applicable, with respect to comparability, computability and feasibility of a number
of indicators. Some remarks are valid for a number of indicators, and end up as
repetitive.
In table 3.1, possible sources of data were identified; inclusion of the names
departments or institutions does not imply that the data is readily available, since in a
good number of cases, data is either inexistent or not according to international criteria.
Next Page:
Table 3.1 concerning the list of indicators related to biological diversity included within UNEP
(2000a,b; 2001); OECD (1988); European Commission (1997, 2000).
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Mediterranean Action Plan
Blue Plan – Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development
Indicator
Reference
Sustainability
Indicator
Key
Aspects
PB/MCSD
SI 95: 139
Wetland Area
Habitats
Wetlands
PB/MCSD
SI 96: 140
Number of Turtles
caught per year
Species
PB/MCSD
SI 97: 141
Share of Fishing
Fleet using Barge
Species
PB/MCSD
SI 98: 142
Threatened Species
Species
Methodology
Sources
of Data
The total area (in square kilometres) of
wetlands in the Maltese Islands [including
national sites listed as Ramsar sites]
The number of Caretta caretta and
Chelonia mydas caught per year.
EPD
Percentage ratio of engine power of
trawlers out of the total engine power for the
motor fishing fleet
A percentage figure which include the
proportion of threatened species with
respect to the total number of native ones.
Fisheries
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EPD
/Fisheries
EPD
/UOM
Other
Remarks
Due to the aridity of the Maltese Islands, data might not
be directly comparable with other states with richer
rainfall or riverine waters.
Since the capture of sea turtles is illegal in the Maltese
Islands by virtue of the Environment Protection Act, any
data on this issue is limited to the reported cases only.
Most of the captures involve individuals of C. caretta
injured via some form of fishing activities.
-
Although data can be readily compared with other
countries, it should be borne in mind that other factors
such as small size, insularity and population density
should be quoted, and comparison should be made, at
most, with Mediterranean islands and not with larger
states.
As far as computerability is concerned, data is only
available for a number of taxonomical groups, whilst
others are not adequately studied.
Moreover, since the new threat categories adopted by
the IUCN also include area of occupancy and extent of
distribution of species as important criteria, these are
difficult to apply in the Maltese context, since even the
most common taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in
distribution due to the small size of the nation.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
PB/MCSD
SI 99: 143-4
Total Expenditure
on Protected Areas
Management
Habitats
Species
PB/MCSD
SI 93: 136-7
Land Use Change
Land Use
PB/MCSD
SI 24: 48
Exploitation Index of
Forest Resources
Habitats
Forestry
PB/MCSD
SI 25: 49
Forest Area
Habitats
PB/MCSD
SI 26: 50-1
Forest Protection
Rate
Habitats
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
The total sum in US Dollars spent by the
public and private sector on protected areas
with respect to the protection and
rehabilitation of species, landscapes and
habitats and the related monitoring and
administrative procedures. Expenses for
technical, hygiene or internal security
reasons are excluded from the calculation.
An indicator, cited in square kilometres and
percentage, providing data on changes
over time in the distribution of different land
use categories as defined by EurostatOECD or CORINE Land Cover
nomenclature.
Also known as the Wood Harvest Index
(WHI). The percentage ratio of round wood
annual production versus the total annual
increment of the productive forest; the
definitions of round wood production and
total wood increment are according to
international standards set by FAO.
The number of hectares covered by natural
and/or planted forests and other woodlands
, and its evolution over time.
EPD
/EMU
/NGOs
Data is difficult to assess due to fragmentation of
expenses in governmental departments or the lack of
efficient accounting and/or auditing systems in some
NGOs.
Moreover, the internationally accepted IUCN categories
of protected areas are not applied uniformly in the
Maltese Islands.
NSO
/EMU
Data on certain aspects is not complete, and is not
categorised according to international criteria. The
proposed international criteria may require local
amendments to include Mediterranean communities.
-
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
The area covered by protected forests in
percentage of the total forest area, based
either on the definitions of forests and other
woodlands made by FAO or those utilised
by the WCMC.
EPD
/EMU
The definition for ‘other woodlands’ set by FAO includes
shrub formations and maquis and would therefore be
directly applicable. Nonetheless, data over time is
limited, and only estimates can be made for 20th
century, pre-1990, data, mainly on the basis of aerial
photographs and literature.
The applicability of this indicator depends much on the
international definitions employed. Quite a substantial
number of ‘forest’ protected areas declared through the
Environment Protection Act are not mapped, rendering
the calculation of this indicator unfeasible and
impossible.
PAGE 14 OF 70
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
PB/MCSD
SI 27: 52
Artificialised versus
Total Coastline
Ratio
Habitats
The percentage ratio between the
artificialised coastline length and the total
length of the coastline.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/ICOD
PB/MCSD
SI 32: 58
Coastline Erosion
Habitats
EPD
PB/MCSD
SI 33: 59
Protected Coastal
Area
Habitats
This indicator is defined by the proportion of
the coastline subject to erosion processes,
regardless of whether naturally caused,
expressed as a percentage of the total
coastline.
The area covered in hectare by protected
areas, which are coastal as a whole (like
marine coastal areas, sand dunes or islets)
or which incorporate coastal ecosystems
within their bounds (as in the case of some
widien).
PB/MCSD
SI 38: 67
Quality of
Biophysical
Environment
Habitats
This indicator is defined by two subindicators, namely the percentage ratio of
the area occupied by marine
phanerogamous meadows within the infracoastal area, and the proportion occupied
by Posidonia oceanica out of the total area
of water plant communities.
EMU
/EPD
PAGE 15 OF 70
EPD
/EMU
The data depends on the definition of ‘coastline’ and the
methodology and techniques followed. Whilst remote
sensing might be the best option, it is hardly realistic in
economic terms, and detailed cartography and/or aerial
photography would be better approaches.
Comparability is difficult in that it depends on the
method of analysis utilised by the different countries
(traditional cartography, aerial photographs, GIS, etc.).
Data is heavily fragmented, and only parts of the island
of Malta have been analysed so far.
The data depends on the definition of what is ‘coastal’
(by some definitions, the entire nation of Malta may be
considered coastal). A number of protected areas within
the coastal zone and declared through the Environment
Protection Act are not mapped, rendering the
calculation of this indicator more difficult and impossible
to compare.
Phanerogamous plants as Posidonia oceanica,
Cymodocea nodosa, Halophila stipulacea and Zostera
spp. are widely utilised as indicators of the quality of the
environment. Posidonia is in itself considered more
important in view of its importance as a habitat and
breeding grounds for a number of species.
The data for Malta is at present being collected through
a joint Environment Protection Department-Planning
Authority project.
Comparability is difficult since only a few Mediterranean
countries have assessed the coverage of meadows
throughout their infra-coastal area (0-50m), and
comparison is possible only with respect to some
islands or coastline portions.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
PB/MCSD
SI 39: 68
Protection of
Specific
Ecosystems
Habitats
PB/MCSD
SI 59: 91
Number and
Average Power of
Fishing Boats
Fishing production
per broad species
group
Species
Fisheries
PB/MCSD
SI 61: 93
Production of
Aquaculture
Species
Fisheries
PB/MCSD
SI 62: 94-5
Public expenditure
on Fish Stocks
Monitoring
Species
Fisheries
PB/MCSD
SI 60: 92
Species
Fisheries
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
This indicator is defined by two subindicators, indicating the area of protected
zones which involves marine environments,
and the number of protected marine
‘sensitive’ areas.
The number and the average power (in
horsepower/boat) per annum of fishing
boats registered in the Maltese Islands.
The quantities, in tons per annum, of
pelagic (open sea) and demersal (seabottom) fish caught, categorised in the
broad categories provided by FAO.
The quantity, in tons, of sea-fish produced
per annum by fish-farming companies, with
data broken down into the broad categories
set by FAO.
Includes the annual amount of public funds
made to assess and monitor fish stocks;
with the expenditure including measures for
the assessment and monitoring of the state
of fish stocks, including public inventory
campaigns, financial contributions to
international stock assessment
programmes, investments in durable
assets, current spending and public
subsidies. Receipts from by-products and
fees/charges made on the private sector
(excluding specific taxes aimed at financing
fish stock monitoring) should be excluded in
the calculation.
PAGE 16 OF 70
EPD
/EMU
/Fisheries
Various reports prepared by the Environment Protection
Department and Planning Authority address the issue
of marine protected areas, but no compilation of
‘sensitive’ zones, as defined by MAP, exists.
Fisheries
This is important in connection with biodiversity in that it
provides and idea of fish fleet utilised to exploit
biodiversity and its resources.
Such data provides comparable data with respect to
annual captures, enabling itemisation of data.
Fisheries
Fisheries
Fish-farming, especially when in-shore and within the
50m zone, is considered as a damaging activity to the
natural environment.
Fisheries
Data may be difficult to assess since funds/funding
votes may not be broken down as required by the
indicator methodology.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development
UN/FAO
SI: 238-243
Maximum
Sustained Yield for
Fisheries
Species
Fisheries
Exploitation
Algae Index
Habitats
Species
Pollution
UN/FAO
SI: 245-7
Land Use Change
Habitats
Land Use
UN/FAO
SI: 248-250
Changes in Land
Conditions
UN/FAO+UNE
SCO
SI: 244
The percentage ratio between maximum
sustained yield (MSY) abundance and
actual average abundance or the deviation
in stock of marine species from the MSY
level.
An index based upon three elements: the
type of algae (phytoplankton) present, the
composition of the algal species and the
amount of algae present in the water
column.
An indicator, cited in square kilometres and
percentage, providing data on changes in
land use over time.
Fisheries
The magnitude and aerial extent of the
selected land condition changes, over a
fixed period of time. Improvement and
deterioration are to be reported separately.
The methodology and units of
measurement depend on the land condition
being analysed, which might include soil
surveys, cartography, aerial photography,
census data, etc.
NSO
/EMU
/EPD
/Agriculture
PAGE 17 OF 70
UOM
NSO
/EMU
/Agriculture
A means for determining overexploitation of fishery
resources, this assessment is largely dependent on the
availability of MSY data for global fish stocks, which is
often difficult to assess, since it requires overfishing in
order to be determined.
An efficient , but sometimes unfeasible, method for
determining marine pollution and issues related to
water quality. Is an important index for the status of
biological diversity, since this varies according to the
pollution of the area.
Fundamental for land use planning. However, data on
certain aspects is not complete, but is not categorised
according to international criteria and along an
adequate time series. The proposed international
criteria may require local amendments to include
Mediterranean communities.
An agglomerate of various indicators to monitor land
degradation, with data as diverse as vegetation cover,
land at risk from erosion, soil organic matter levels, etc.
These are related to the previous indicator, and would
better be implemented separately due to the different
methodologies and units of measurement involved,
which modify the accuracy of the various land
conditions analysed.
Computability depends on the individual or set of land
conditions being analysed.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UN/FAO
SI: 258-9
National Monthly
Rainfall Index
Habitats
Species
Agriculture
The national average of monthly rainfall, in
mm rain, as collected fro different stations.
MIA
UN/FAO
SI: 260-2
Satellite Derived
Vegetation Index
Habitats
The distribution of vegetation in relation to
the level of photosynthetic activity in the
monitored vegetation, as given by the
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index ,
(NDVI) which is given by the ratio of the
radiometric value obtained from the nearinfrared and visible red channels of low
resolution satellite data respectively.
-
UN/UNDP
SI: 263-8
Land affected by
Desertification
Habitats
Land Use
EPD
UN/FAO
SI: 280-2
Use of Agricultural
Pesticides
Habitats
Agriculture
Exploitatio
n
The percentage of national area affected by
desertification (calculated through the ratio
of land affected by desertification with
respect to the national territory, in km2).
Analysis is based upon mapped data on
soil erosion, land degradation and
desertification.
The use of pesticides in tonnes of active
ingredients per km2 of agricultural land.
PAGE 18 OF 70
Agriculture
/EPD
Of relevance in larger countries to identify the areas
more at risk with respect to drought and desertification.
Drought influences the distribution of biota and
biotopes, as well as the extent of agriculture. In the
Maltese Islands it could be utilised to compare different
parts of the Maltese Islands (Gozo, Comino, and NW,
Central, SE Malta) .
Apart from the fact that specialised equipment is
required for very low vegetation cover (as in
Mediterranean garrigue), this method is very expensive
and not feasible. Biomass data (expressed in the level
of photosynthetic activity) although undoubtedly useful,
may not be so crucial, since other methodologies and
indicators, such vegetation maps and changes over
time of the communities/land use could be equally
informative in terms of response expected.
Land degradation and desertification leads to a
reduction in productivity and a change in the
biodiversity of the affected area. Very limited data is
available at the Environment Protection Department
following analysis carried out for the CAMP Project.
Otherwise data is not available for immediate
computation of this indicator.
Data is often biased, since data on sales does not
necessarily relate directly to pesticide application, rate
of application, variability of use for different crops and
different parts of the Maltese Islands, toxicity, pesticide
mobility and persistence, etc. Moreover, the range of
products and national definitions differ between
countries, reducing further the possibilities for
comparison.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UN/FAO
SI: 283-4
Use of Fertilisers
Agriculture
The use of fertilisers in agriculture in tonnes
of fertiliser per km2 of agricultural land.
Three basic components, namely nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (in the form of P2O5) and
potassium (K2O) for arable and permanent
crop.
Agriculture
/EPD
UN/FAO
SI: 298-300
Wood Harvesting
Industry (WHI)
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitatio
n
WHI is calculated as the ratio of round wood
annual production versus the total annual
increment of the productive forest; the
definitions of round wood production and
total wood increment are according to
international standards set by FAO.
-
Forest Area
Change
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitatio
n
Is analysed through the calculation of the
rate of deforestation, which is calculated
through statistical equations provided in
United Nations (1996); is based on
cartographic data with forest coverage in
hectares per annum over for a fixed period
of time.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
UN/FAO
SI: 301-4
PAGE 19 OF 70
Excessive fertilisers cause reduction in oligotrophic
species, favouring more resilient species. Moreover, it
also causes eutrophication of water bodies, soil
acidification and possible nitrate/phosphate
contamination.
As for the related pesticides indicator, data on sales is
not very reliable as it does not necessarily relate
directly to fertiliser application, rate of application,
variability of use for different crops and different parts of
the Maltese Islands. Moreover, this indicator includes
various assumptions, often leading to disputable
incomparable results, in that, it ignores that the
environmental impacts caused by leaching and
volatilisation of fertiliser nutrients depends not only on
the quantity, but also on the agro-ecosystem condition,
species involved, cropping patterns, farm management
practices, etc. Moreover, it excludes another potential
source of fertiliser damages through organic fertilisers,
such as manure and crop residues.
This indicator identifies whether forests are utilised in a
sustainable manner or not.
Since there are several data-collection methods (e.g.
Eurostat-OECD or FAO), the data is not easily
comparable and often shows slight discrepancies.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
The definition for ‘forest’ varies considerably between
countries, and depends on the methodology and
definitions adopted. Furthermore, data over time is
limited, and only estimates can be made for 20th
century, pre-1990, data, mainly on the basis of aerial
photographs and literature.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UN/FAO
SI: 305-7
Managed Forest
Area Ratio
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitatio
n
The proportion of the total forest area
covered by forest management plans which
are officially approved by the country’s
competent authority and that is actually
implemented.
EPD
/EMU
UN/FAO
SI: 308-310
Protected Forest
Area
Habitats
The area covered by protected forests in
percentage of the total forest area, based
either on the definitions of forests and other
woodlands made by FAO or those utilised
by the WCMC.
EPD
/EMU
Threatened Species
Species
The number of species at risk of extinction
in proportion to the total number of native
species, based upon IUCN criteria.
EPD
/UOM
UN/IUCN
SI: 311-4
PAGE 20 OF 70
This indicators ignores the quality of management
plans, which sometimes reflect practices of malscience
or mismanagement.
Although no forestry or other related wood production
activities occur in the Maltese Islands, some nature
reserves under the jurisdiction of the Environment
Protection Department implement plans affected
wooded areas.
The applicability of this indicator depends much on the
international definitions employed.
Quite a substantial number of ‘forest’ protected areas
declared through the Environment Protection Act are
not mapped, rendering the calculation of this indicator
unfeasible and impossible.
Various sub-indicators are proposed, mostly based on
taxonomical classifications and oriented towards the
better known groups, namely the vascular flora and
vertebrates.
Although data can be readily compared with other
countries, it should be borne in mind that other factors
such as small size, insularity and population density
should be quoted, and comparison should be made, at
most, with Mediterranean islands and not with larger
states.
As far as computerability is concerned, data is only
available for a number of taxonomical groups, whilst
others are not adequately studied.
Moreover, since the new threat categories adopted by
the IUCN also include area of occupancy and extent of
distribution of species as important criteria, these are
difficult to apply in the Maltese context, since even the
most common taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in
distribution due to the small size of the nation.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UN/IUCN
SI: 315-7
Percentage
Protected Areas
Habitats
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
The protected land or marine areas as a
percentage of total land, freshwater and
marine area, based upon IUCN criteria.
PAGE 21 OF 70
EPD
/EMU
This indicator is only partially interpretative, since it
should be coupled with enforcement indicators in order
to reflect effective protection.
Moreover, protection may be biased, and not cover all
important ecological hot-spots.
Since a good number of ‘protected areas’ declared
through the Environment Protection Act are not
mapped, the calculation of this indicator is somewhat
problematic.
Moreover, the internationally accepted IUCN
categories of protected areas are not always applied
uniformly in the Maltese Islands.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity
FORESTRY BIODIVERSITY
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Total forest area
Habitats
Total Forest area
as a percentage of
total land area
Percentage forest
cover by forest
type
Habitats
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Forest area
change by forest
type
Habitats
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Per capita wood
consumption
Ratio between
exotic species and
native species in
plantation area
Deforestation
Rate
Habitats
Self-generating
area per habitat
type
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Habitats
The number of hectares covered by natural
and/or planted forests.
The number of hectares covered by natural
and/or planted forests as a percentage of
the total land area.
The number of hectares covered by primary
or secondary forests/plantations. However,
no definition of primary or secondary forests
, forests or plantations is given.
Change over time of forest area by forest
type (primary, secondary or plantation).
Again, no definition of primary or secondary
forests , forests or plantations is given.
Wood consumption per capita.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
Since the definition for ‘forests’ varies according to the
institution using this indicator, comparisons are very
difficult.
-
No forestry or other related wood production or
plantation areas occur in the Maltese Islands.
The definition for ‘forest’ varies considerably between
countries, and depends on the methodology and
definitions adopted. Furthermore, data over time is
limited, and only estimates can be made for 20th
century, pre-1990, data, mainly on the basis of aerial
photographs and literature.
Habitats
Ratio between the number of alien species
and native species in a plantation area. No
definition of plantation is provided.
Habitats
Change in land use and the conversion
of forest land to other land uses;
calculations are based on cartographic data
with forest coverage in hectares per annum
over for a fixed period of time.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
PAGE 22 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Self-generating
area as a
percentage of
total area
Fragmentation of
forests
Percentage
protected area of
total forest area
Percentage
protected area
with clearly
defined
boundaries
Percentage forest
managed for
wood production
Percentage forest
land managed for
recreation and
tourism to total
forest area
Area and
Percentage of
forests managed
for catchment
protection
Percentage forest
protected areas
by forest type, by
age, class, and
successional
stage
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
Habitats
The extent through which ‘forests’ are
fragmented.
The area covered by protected forests in
percentage of the total forest area.
EPD
/EMU
EPD
/EMU
The applicability of this indicator depends much on the
international definitions employed.
The applicability of this indicator depends much on the
international definitions employed.
Quite a substantial number of ‘forest’ protected areas
declared through the Environment Protection Act are
not mapped, rendering the calculation of this indicator
unfeasible and impossible.
Habitats
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
Habitats
The proportion of the total forest area with
respect to the total forest area.
-
No forestry or wood production activities are currently
carried out in the Maltese Islands.
Habitats
No definition for ‘recreation’ and ‘tourism’
provided.
EPD
/Agriculture
Although probably applicable to the Maltese Islands
(especially with respect to Buskett), the applicability
and comparability of this indicator depends on the
definitions each country employs.
Habitats
-
EPD?
Presently, no ‘forests’ are managed for catchment
protection.
Habitats
The percentage of forest protected
areas by forest type, by age, class, and
successional stage.
EPD
/IEI
With respect to data concerning age of trees, very
limited data is available, mostly with respect to
remarkable trees.
PAGE 23 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Area and length
and numbers of
biological
corridors
Contribution of
forest sector to
GDP
Annual volume
and area of timber
harvested –
indigenous and
plantation
Number and size
of forest fires
Habitats
-
EPD
No definition for what should be considered as a
‘biological corridor is provided.
Habitats
The total sum contributed by forestry
practices to the country’s GDP.
-
No forestry or wood production activities are currently
carried out in the Maltese Islands.
Habitats
-
Habitats
The number and size of forest fires.
Agriculture
/CPD
/L-Councils
Reforested and
afforested areas
Area and extent of
degraded lands
reclaimed through
forest operations
Relationship
between forest
cover and
frequency of
flooding
Changes in
stands managed
for conservation
and utilisation of
genetic resources
Habitats
-
Agriculture
/EPD
/L-Councils
Comparisons are difficult, since fires are more
abundant in the Mediterranean region and the
definition of ‘forest’ is not standardised. Nonetheless,
since fires are mostly man-induced, this could also
operate as an indicator of population density, although
data on population density would be more practical
and reliable.
Data is often based on the number of trees planted
rather than the area planted.
Habitats
-
EPD
/EMU
No studies have been carried out in this respect.
Habitats
The proportion of stands managed for
conservation and utilisation of genetic
resources (gene reserves, seed
collection stands, etc.) over time.
EPD
/Agriculture
So far, no such ‘forest’ stands exist in the Maltese
Islands.
Habitats
PAGE 24 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Forest area
affected by
anthropogenic
effects
Forest area
affected by natural
disasters
Extent of mixed
stands
Habitats
Area and percentage of forest area
affected by anthropogenic effects
(logging, harvesting for subsistence).
Habitats
Area and percentage of forest area
affected by natural disasters (insect
attack, disease, fire and flooding).
The proportion of the total forest area
covered by ‘mixed stands’.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Forest conversion
affecting rare
ecosystems by
area
Habitats
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Managed forest
ratio
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitatio
n
The proportion of the total forest area
covered by forest management plans which
are officially approved by the country’s
competent authority and that is actually
implemented.
EPD
/EMU
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Wood Harvesting
Intensity (WHI)
Habitats
Forestry
WHI is calculated as the ratio of annual
harvest/production versus the total annual
increment of the productive forest.
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Estimate of
carbon stored
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Habitats
PAGE 25 OF 70
EPD
/Agriculture
No detailed lists exist, and most data is fragmented.
EPD
/EMU
/Agriculture
No precise definition of ‘mixed stands’ is given.
Originally intended for forestry, this indicator may be
applicable to the Maltese Islands with respect to
mono-plantations based upon eucalyptus and/or
acacia, or mixed stands based upon at least one of
these species.
No precise definition for ‘affecting rare ecosystems’
and ‘mixed stands’ are given. Such indicators were
originally intended for forestry, although they could be
utilised as indicators of the impact of afforestation or
deforestation on rare ecosystems
This indicators ignores the quality of management
plans, which sometimes reflect practices of
malscience or mismanagement.
Although no forestry or other related wood production
activities occur in the Maltese Islands, some nature
reserves under the jurisdiction of the Environment
Protection Department implement plans affected
wooded areas.
Since there are several data-collection methods (e.g.
Eurostat-OECD or FAO), the data is not easily
comparable and often shows slight discrepancies.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
No such studies have ever been carried out in the
Maltese Islands, although some data exist for other
Mediterranean countries.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Absolute and
relative
abundance,
density, basal
area, cover, of
various species.
Threatened tree
species as a
percentage of the
20 most used for
commercial
purposes
No. of threatened,
keystone, flagship
species
Number of extinct,
endangered,
threatened,
vulnerable and
endemic forest
dependent
species by group (
e.g. birds,
mammals,
vertebrates,
invertebrates)
Species
No definition or method provided, although
various fieldwork techniques may be
utilised.
-
A very burdensome time-consuming agglomerate
indicator.
Species
The proportion of threatened tree
species as a percentage of the twenty
species most used for commercial
purposes or method provided.
EPD
/UOM
Species
-
EPD
/UOM
Species
The number of species in danger of
extinction or likely to be in danger, in
proportion to the total number of native
species, based upon IUCN criteria.
EPD
/UOM
Although related to forestry, a variant of this indicator
could be used to indicate the effect of direct humaninduced exploitation on local flora and fauna, by
analysing the number of threatened species by group
affected by direct human-induced exploitation as a
proportion of the total threatened species by group.
Data re. keystone and flagship species unavailable;
with respect to threatened species, the following
indicator might be a more appropriate reference.
Data exists but is not subdivided by habitat (e.g. forest
or inland waters). Data is available for a number of
groups only, although lists for less known groups are
being compiled through the Species Action Plan
Programme of the Biodiversity Protection Unit within
the Environment Protection Department.
Due to the peculiar condition of Malta (small size,
insularity and population density), comparisons should
be made, at most, with other small Mediterranean
islands and not with larger states.
The new threat categories adopted by the IUCN also
include area of occupancy and extent of distribution of
species as important criteria, these are difficult to apply
in the Maltese context, since even the most common
taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in distribution due to
the small size of the nation.
Due to the peculiar condition of Malta (small size,
insularity and population density), comparisons should
be made, at most, with other small Mediterranean
islands and not with larger states.
PAGE 26 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
List of flora and
fauna
Species
The list of the flora and fauna encountered
and/or reported from the forests in question.
EPD
/UOM
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Existence of
procedures for
identifying
endangered, rare,
and threatened
species
In-situ and ex-situ
conservation
strategies
Species
The existence of procedures for identifying
endangered, rare, and threatened
species
EPD
/UOM
Species
EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
A simple indicator aimed at assessing the capacity of
relevant countries in identifying threatened species,
rather than as a direct indicator for biological diversity.
Number of forest
dependent
species whose
populations are
declining
Population levels
of representative
species from
diverse habitats
monitored across
their range.
Number and
extent of invasive
species
Species
The existence of strategies for the insitu and ex-situ conservation of genetic
variation within commercial,
endangered, rare and threatened
species of forest flora and fauna.
-
EPD
/UOM
-
Species
-
EPD
/UOM
-
Species
-
EPD
/UOM
No national list of invasive species is available.
A standard definition of ‘invasive’ species is important.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
PAGE 27 OF 70
This indicator provides immediate data on the species
richness of the forests being investigated.
Data with respect to flora is severely fragmented and
not compiled into a single document. With respect to
the fauna, some of the local ‘forests’ are not
thoroughly investigated.
A simple indicator aimed at assessing the capacity of
relevant countries in identifying threatened species,
rather than as a direct indicator for biological diversity.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Agricultural area
by crops.
Habitats
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Agricultural area
Habitats
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Change in area of
agricultural land
(conversion to or
from agriculture)
Intensification and
extensification of
agricultural land
use
Use of Agricultural
Pesticides
Habitats
Agriculture
Exploitatio
n
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
The percentage proportion of the total
agricultural land covered by crops, the
latter including cereals, oil crops, forage
and woodlands.
The extent, in km2, of the total
agricultural land that is intensively
farmed, semi-intensively farmed or
uncultivated/abandoned.
Agriculture
/EPD
/NSO
/UOM
Agriculture
/EPD
/NSO
/UOM
Habitats
An indicator providing data on changes over
time in the distribution of agricultural land.
NSO
/EMU
/Agriculture
Habitats
No definition of ‘intensification’ or
‘extensification’ or methodology provided;
the ratio of intensive arable land versus the
total agricultural land, and its change over a
fixed period of time could be used as a
measure.
The use of pesticides in tonnes of active
ingredients per km2 of agricultural land.
Agriculture
PAGE 28 OF 70
Agriculture
/EPD
-
Actually an agglomerate of related indicators. The
amount of intensively farmed or abandoned
agricultural land are important in that they represent
different extremes impact biological diversity, which
tends to change and increase following the
abandonment of agriculture.
Data in the Maltese Islands is not categorised
according to international criteria.
This indicator identifies the impact of intensive
agriculture on biodiversity, especially agricultural
biodiversity, and is a proxy for an aggregation of all
pressures on biodiversity including the use of
pesticides and fertilisers, grazing intensity, loss of
corridor landscape elements, etc.
Data is often biased, since data on sales does not
necessarily relate directly to pesticide application, rate
of application, variability of use for different crops and
different parts of the Maltese Islands, toxicity, pesticide
mobility and persistence, etc. Moreover, the range of
products and national definitions differ between
countries, reducing further the possibilities for
comparison.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Number of
species
threatened by
agriculture by
group e.g. birds,
mammals,
vascular plants,
vertebrates,
invertebrates)
Vertebrate
species using
habitat on
agricultural land
Differences in
species diversity
and abundance of
arthropods and
earthworms in
organically and
conventionally
cultivated arable
land
Rate of change
from dominance
of nondomesticated
species to
domesticated
species
Species diversity
used for food
Species
The number of species in danger of
extinction or likely to be in danger, in
proportion to the total number of native
species, based upon IUCN criteria.
EPD
/UOM
No such lists have ever been compiled in the Maltese
Islands.
Species
The number of vertebrate species using
habitat on agricultural land by species.
UOM
/Agriculture
/EPD
No such lists have ever been compiled in the Maltese
Islands.
Species
The differences in species diversity and
abundance of arthropods and
earthworms between organically and
conventionally cultivated arable land.
UOM
/Agriculture
/EPD
No such studies have ever been carried out in the
Maltese Islands.
Species
The change over time in the extent and
dominance of non-domesticated species
versus domesticated species.
-
This depends largely on the definition of
‘domesticated’ species and the cut-off line involved
(e.g. should the carob, olive, great reed, wild date
palms, chameleons or rats be considered
domesticated species?).
Species
No definition or method of measurement
provided.
Erosion/Loss of
genetic diversity
patrimony
Species
No method of measurement provided.
Agriculture
/EPD
/UOM
-
Excluding agricultural crops, no comprehensive
Maltese lists of wildlife utilised for food have ever been
compiled.
No such studies have been carried out.
PAGE 29 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Crops/livestock
grown as a
percentage of
number of 30
years before
Species
-
NSO
/Agriculture
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Accession of
crops and
livestock in ex-situ
storage
Replacement of
landraces
Replacement of
indigenous crops
Accessions of
crops generated
in the past decade
(per cent)
Coefficient of
kinship or
parentage of
crops
Inbreedingoutbreeding rate
Rate of genetic
interchange
between
populations
Genes
The number or percentage (over total
number) of genes (in various forms, such as
seeds or ova) of crops and/or livestock
stored in ex-situ facilities.
The extent of replacement of local
landraces by imported ones.
The extent of replacement of local crops by
imported ones.
No definition or method provided.
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Genes
Genes
Genes
Genes
No definition or method of analysis
provided.
Genes
No definition or method of analysis
provided.
The percentage rate of genetic
interchange between populations,
measured by the rate of dispersal and
subsequent reproduction of migrants.
Genes
PAGE 30 OF 70
-
An important indicator to identify changes in
management practices (according to crop or livestock)
or their pressure on biological diversity (as in the case
of, amongst others, goats and grazing). Nonetheless,
this indicator fails to analyse the impact of different
management or animal husbandry practices (e.g. the
enclosure of cows to sheds).
Based on available literature and knowledge, no such
facilities have been set up in the Maltese Islands.
Very few, if any, genetic data has been gathered in the
Maltese Islands.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
INLAND WATERS BIODIVERSITY
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Surface water
quality: Nitrogen,
Dissolved oxygen,
pH, pesticides,
heavy metals,
temperature
Ground water
quality: nitrates,
salinity, toxicants
BOD on water
bodies (re:
eutrophication)
Habitat
Pollution
-
-
Agglomerate indicators, measured via different
methodologies.
Habitats
Pollution
Is measured as the annual input to the
coastal and marine environment of total
nitrogen and total phosphorus, in tonnes.
These are measured through standard
laboratory techniques.
EPD
/Health
/Agriculture
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Stream flow
Habitat
No definition or method of measurement
provided.
-
The indicator is a good measure of the sewage,
agricultural and industrial nutrient input to the marine
environment. This measure is , and is simple and
comparable (although this depends on the accuracy of
the methodology and equipment used), as well as
inexpensive.
Data intended mostly for rivers, which are absent from
the Maltese Islands.
Changes in
vegetation type
along water
courses
Habitat
The changes of vegetation types along
watercourses as analysed through
cartography (including vegetation maps).
UOM
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Glacier
fluctuations
Habitat
No definition or method provided.
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Stream sediment
storage and load
Water resource
vulnerability index
Groundwater level
PAGE 31 OF 70
Some data available as a result of local plans
commissioned by the Planning Authority and surveys
made by the Environment Protection Department.
Nevertheless, these are limited to one point in time.
Comparisons can mostly be made with literature
records, which are not always accountable or precise.
No glaciers occur in the Maltese Islands.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Wetland Area
Habitats
Wetlands
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Extent of wetland
drainage and
filling
Fish family
diversity
Benthic macroinvertebrates:
communities
Macrophytes:
species
composition and
depth distribution
Threatened
freshwater fish
Habitat
Introduced inland
fish
Exotic Species
Species
Inland Water
Endemic flora and
fauna
Species
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
The total area (in square kilometres) of
wetlands in the Maltese Islands [including
national sites listed as Ramsar sites]
The extent of wetland drainage and/or filling
over time.
EPD
EPD?
/Works
Due to the aridity of the Maltese Islands, data might
not be directly comparable with other states with richer
rainfall or riverine waters.
No definition of drainage and/or filling is provided.
Data over time is limited.
Habitat
The diversity of fish per fish family.
UOM
-
Habitat
-
UOM
/EPD
Existing data is limited to a number of groups (e.g.
molluscs and vascular plants).
Species
The percentage number of threatened
freshwater fish species as a proportion of
the total number of freshwater fish
species known.
The number of inland fish species
introduced.
The number of alien flora and fauna
species (e.g. fish, aquatic weeds).
The number of endemic flora and fauna
confined to inland water ecosystems.
-
Not applicable since no native freshwater fish occur in
the Maltese Islands (with the possible exception of the
killifish, Aphanius fasciatus, which is a brackish water
species)
Data is mostly limited to one species, which rarely
forms viable populations.
Data is available for a small number of groups only.
Species
PAGE 32 OF 70
EPD
EPD
/UOM
EPD
/UOM
-
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Changes in
distribution and
abundance of
native flora and
fauna
Extinct,
endangered,
threatened,
endangered,
vulnerable, and
endemic inland
water species by
group
Species Richness
Species
The changes in distribution and abundance
of native flora and fauna over a fixed period
of time.
Species
The number of extinct, endangered,
threatened, endangered, vulnerable,
endemic inland water species by group
(e.g. birds, aquatic mammals,
invertebrates, amphibians, vascular
plants, bottom fauna), based upon
IUCN criteria.
Species
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Indicator species
Species
The number of species per unit area, or
the number of species per habitat
observed and/or recorded.
List of indicator species.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Changes in fish
catches by
species
Species
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
National fish catches expressed as a
percentage of the world capture and as
amounts per capita and related changes.
EPD
/UOM
-
Related indicators.
Data is only available for a number of taxonomical
groups, whilst others are not adequately studied.
Moreover, since the new threat categories adopted by
the IUCN also include area of occupancy and extent
of distribution of species as important criteria, these
are difficult to apply in the Maltese context, since even
the most common taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in
distribution due to the small size of the nation.
As an indicator per se, this is not very informative;
nonetheless, the status of indicator species is
important for determining certain trends [see
moreover, under CBD General Indicators].
No inland water fishery exists in the Maltese Islands.
COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Percentage of the
coastal zone with
populations
exceeding 100
inhabitants/km2
Annual rate of
mangrove
conversion
Habitats
Percentage of the coastal zone with
populations exceeding 100
inhabitants/km2.
NSO?
-
Habitats
Rate of conversion per annum of the area
covered by mangrove ecosystems.
-
No mangroves in the Maltese Islands and the
Mediterranean.
PAGE 33 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Frozen ground
activity
Coral chemistry
and growth
pattern
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
No frozen ground in the Maltese Islands.
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Lake levels and
salinity
Shoreline position
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
Habitats
-
-
This indicator is intended for areas with large coral
reefs. In the Maltese Islands, coral reef-building
species are not frequent, and Maltese reefs are very
small; moreover, corals are not sufficiently studied
locally.
No lakes in the Maltese Islands, but this might depend
on the definition to be adopted.
No definition or method of measurement provided.
Large-scale
bottom-trawlers
Habitats
Fisheries
-
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
E.coli counts and
nutrient levels as
% of baseline
levels
Habitats
The number of large-scale bottomtrawling vessels per 1000km of coastal
area.
Method of measurement not provided,
although this is based on standard
procedures.
Health
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Amount of poison
chemicals and
dynamite used for
reef fishing.
Algae Index
Habitats
-
Fisheries
This indicator is related to other eutrophication
indicators and is a good measure of the sewage,
agricultural and industrial nutrient input to the marine
environment. This measure is simple and comparable
(although this depends on the accuracy of the
methodology and equipment used), as well as
relatively inexpensive.
-
Habitats
Species
Pollution
UOM
Threatened Fish
Species
Species
An index based upon three elements: the
type of algae (phytoplankton) present, the
composition of the algal species and the
amount of algae present in the water
column.
The percentage of threatened fish
species as a proportion of the total fish
species known.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
PAGE 34 OF 70
EPD
/UOM
/Fisheries
An efficient , but sometimes unfeasible, method for
determining marine pollution and issues related to
water quality. Is an important index for the status of
biological diversity, since this varies according to the
pollution of the area.
Data on fish not compiled, mostly because of limited
data on fish stocks.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Change in
proportion of fish
catches by
species per
specific season
Species
The change in the proportion of fish
catches.
Fisheries
Although useful to compare trends, this indicator
should be coupled with other indicators concerning
fishing effort, fishing fleet, MSY, and fish consumption
and utilisation. Fish catches may increase because of
an increase fishing effort and vice-versa, and the
biology of the species in question should be known
(e.g. general capacity of replacement of stocks).
GENERAL INDICATORS4
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Frozen ground
activity
Karst activity
Habitats
-
-
No frozen ground in the Maltese Islands.
Habitats
-
-
No definition or method provided.
Slope failure
(landslides)
Habitats
-
EPD
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Relative
wilderness index
Changes in
limiting factors for
key species e.g.
nest holes for
parrots, fruit bat
roosting trees
Habitats
-
-
Very limited data is available at the Environment
Protection Department following analysis carried out
for the CAMP Project. Otherwise data is not available
for immediate computation of this indicator.
No definition or method provided.
Habitats
No definition or method provided, but this
depends on the species being analysed.
UOM
/EPD
4
A measure directly related to the habitat requirements
of species, and is a good measure of habitat loss on
species. Nonetheless, it is difficult to compile for some,
inadequately studied species (e.g. nematodes), but
relatively easier for other more habitat-specific species
(e.g. troglobiontic fauna, particular endogenous fauna,
etc.).
These are indicators that apply to more than two thematic areas and have been listed together to avoid repeating them
PAGE 35 OF 70
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Soil quality
Habitats
An agglomerative indicator, which includes
data on soil type and parameters (organic
matter, conductivity, salinity, minerals, etc.).
The methods of measurement are
standard.
Agriculture
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Volcanic unrest
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
-
Change in total
area of a
particular habitat
type
Habitats
EPD
/EMU
/UOM
Data is the Maltese Islands is fragmentary and not
classified according to internationally accepted criteria.
Moreover, most assessments have been done at one
point in time only (thence not enabling any
comparisons over a period of time).
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Changes in
largest block of a
particular habitat
type
Habitats
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Changes in
average size of a
particular habitat
type
Change in mean
nearest distance
between blocks of
a particular habitat
type
Habitats
Percentage data of the change in the
coverage (in area) of a defined habitat type
over a fixed period of time. Data is based
upon different methodologies, including
those based on satellite images,
cartography based on CORINE Biotopes
Classification.
No definition is provided for this indicator,
but it probably relates to the changes
occurring in community structure in the
‘largest block’ (the largest area in a country
of the habitat type in question?).
The percentage change in the average
coverage of a particular habitat type over a
fixed period of time.
EPD
/EMU
/UOM
Data on ‘blocks’ probably relates to the fragmentation
of habitats, and suggests ways to measure such
fragmentation. Nevertheless, as for the previous set of
indicators, data is the Maltese Islands is fragmentary
and not classified according to internationally accepted
criteria.
Moreover, most assessments have been done at one
point in time only (thence not enabling any
comparisons over a period of time).
With respect to the last indicator of the set, no
definition is given for ‘average width of break’ or
‘habitat corridor’ by the CBD.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Habitats
The percentage change in the distance
between different ‘blocks’ of a particular
habitat type over a fixed period of time.
PAGE 36 OF 70
Data is generally comparable, although this depends
on the accuracy and similarity of the methodology
used.
Since the structure and composition of biological
diversity is determined by soil quality (but not only),
this might be an adequate indicator for biodiversity and
soil erosion/desertification, in that the test are relatively
inexpensive.
No volcanoes in the Maltese Islands.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Change in
average width of
break in an
identified habitat
corridor
Density of road
network
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
Species
Mostly based on cartographic analysis.
Change in habitat
boundaries
Degree of
connectivity of
food web
Percentage of
area dominated
by nondomesticated
species
Institutional
capacity and
framework
Habitats
No definition or method provided.
Habitats
No definition or method of measurement
provided.
-
Habitats
The areas dominated by non-domesticated
species as a percentage of total territory.
UOM
/EPD
The data depends on the definition of ‘nondomesticated species’, which is not provided by the
CBD.
Habitats
The existence of institutional capacity,
policy and regulatory framework for the
planning, management and
conservation of biological diversity.
EPD
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Size and
distribution of
protected areas
Habitats
The size and distribution of protected areas
within the national territory.
EPD
/EMU
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Total area of
protected areas
Habitats
The total area of protected land and/or
marine protected areas, based upon IUCN
criteria.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Percentage of
protected area to
total area
Habitats
The protected land or marine areas as a
percentage of total land or marine area,
based upon IUCN criteria.
The national biodiversity strategy, as required by the
CBD, is still neither developed nor implemented.
However other related policies and regulations as
included within the Structure Plan for the Maltese
Islands and the Environment Protection Act.
The size and total area of protected areas are not
significant figures unless they are compared to other
countries of similar size, the total country’s area or else
with their distribution in the country.
Comparisons between size and distribution enable the
identification of regions with a higher or lower
protected area status.
Comparisons with the total national territory are even
more valuable; nonetheless, this is only partially
interpretative, since it should be coupled with
enforcement indicators to reflect effective protection.
Moreover, protection may be biased, and not cover all
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
PAGE 37 OF 70
Roads
/NSO
/PA
-
This indicator is efficient form for the determination of
fragmentation and habitat alteration.
No definition of ‘habitat boundaries’ is provided.
Data over time not available.
Since no definition of ‘food web connectivity’ is given, it
is difficult to assess this indicator.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Percentage area
in strictly
protected status
Habitats
The number of strictly protected land or
marine areas (based upon IUCN criteria)
presented as a percentage proportion of the
total land or marine area.
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Population growth
and fluctuation
trends of special
interest species
Change in number
and/or distribution
of keystone or
indicator species
Species
Population analysis over time of species of
special interest.
UOM
/EPD
Species
The change in the number and/or
distribution of keystone and indicator
species.
EPD
/UOM
Population
structure of
sensitive
keystone, and
other special
interest species
Species
Sex ratio, age distribution and other
aspects of population structure for
sensitive species, keystone species,
and other special interest species.
EPD
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
PAGE 38 OF 70
important ecological hot-spots.
Since a good number of ‘protected areas’ declared
through the Environment Protection Act are not
mapped, the calculation of this indicator is somewhat
problematic.
The internationally accepted IUCN categories of
protected areas are not always applied uniformly in
the Maltese Islands.
Very limited data exists only with respect to certain
species or populations, and very often data is not
quantitative.
No nationalist of keystone and indicator species is
available, although the distribution of some keystone
and/or indicator species has already been studied (as
in Ammophila littoralis and Elytigia juncea) or is being
studied (e.g. Posidonia oceanica). However, the
status of keystone and/or indicator species is
important for determining certain trends [e.g. an
increase or decline in extent of species as the
Neptune sea-grass, Posidonia oceanica (Malt. Alka)
or the crown daisy, Chrysanthemum coronarium
(Malt. Lellux)].
A major limiting factor is most cases is the absence of
reliable baseline data, often limited to literature
records.
Very limited data exists on population structure of
species or specific populations, and very often data is
not quantitative or unreliable (e.g. the age of holm
oaks or olives in forest remnants and ancient groves
respectively).
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Number of
introduced
species and
genomes
Species
The number of alien flora and fauna
species and genomes found in the
national territory.
EPD
/UOM
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Change in
presence,
location, area,
numbers of
invasive plant or
animal species
Species
The change in distribution and extent of
invasive species over a fixed period of time.
EPD
/UOM
PAGE 39 OF 70
This indicator is useful to indicate threats on native
biodiversity by alien species (by group), but also as an
inference of the human-induced disturbance to which
biodiversity is subject in the country in question [alien
species tend to naturalise efficiently in more altered
habitats and ecosystems], rather than in ‘stable’ ones.
Nonetheless, it is important to relate it to the extent of
each species [refer to the next indicator] or to cite the
data as a percentage of the total number of flora and
fauna (by group) found in the country.
It is uncertain whether by ‘introduced’ one should
include non-naturalised, casual, and/or naturalised
aliens, which would render data incomparable unless
there is a standard system.
An agglomerative indicator, in that it includes data with
respect to alien species and genomes. Data with
respect to the former is fragmented and only finalised
with respect to a number of groups (especially
vertebrates). Unless there are specific records,
introduced genomes of native taxa are difficult to
ascertain without expensive equipment and
methodologies. Data may be even more problematic
due to the presence of ‘archaeophytic’ and
‘archaeozoic’ organisms introduced in the Maltese
Islands prior to 1492, which are often included with the
‘introduced’ species. Such organisms would render
data collection with respect to species, and particularly
genomes, more difficult.
No such data exists over time, and the distribution and
extent at one point in time is often based on literature
data.
This indicator is best utilised in combination with the
above indicator on alien species, since most invasive
species are aliens (but not all).
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Quantity of
specimens or
species of
economic/scientifi
c interest removed
from the
environment
Area dominated
by nondomesticated
species
Species
The number of ‘specimens’ or species
removed of economic and/or scientific
interest removed from the natural
environment.
Species
The percentage area dominated by
non-domesticated species occurring in
patches greater than 1000 sq. km.
Presence of taxa
on environmental
integrity
Species richness.
Species
-
-
The extent of wildlife coverage in the Maltese Islands
has not been accurately assessed, although nonurbanised areas may be considered as areas
dominated by non-domesticated species (although
this depends on the definition of ‘domesticated
species’).
This indicator requires amendments for the Maltese
Islands, since the overall coverage of the republic is of
only about 300km2.
No definition or method provided.
Species
EPD
/EMU
/UOM
Data is only available for a number of taxonomical
groups or localities, whilst others are not adequately
studied or data is non-existent.
Recorded species
present by group
Species
The number of species, the number of
species per unit area, or the number of
species per habitat observed and/or
recorded.
The flora and fauna reported in literature or
via fieldwork observations per group.
PAGE 40 OF 70
EPD
No definition of ‘specimens’ is provided, rendering
data analysis often incomparable.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Indigenous
species present
by group
Non-indigenous
species present
by group
Number of
endemic,
threatened,
endangered and
vulnerable
species by group
Species
threatened with
extirpation.
Species
threatened with
extinction
Endermic species
threatened with
extinction
Species risk index
Species
Diversity of native
fauna
Species
Species
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
The native flora and fauna reported in
literature or via fieldwork observations per
group.
The alien flora and fauna reported in
literature or via fieldwork observations per
group.
The endemic, threatened, endangered and
vulnerable flora and fauna reported in
literature or via fieldwork observations per
group.
Species
The number of native flora and fauna per
group threatened with extirpation.
Species
The number of native flora and fauna per
group threatened with extinction.
Species
The number of endemic flora and fauna per
group threatened with extinction.
Species
No definition or method provided.
Species
Data concerning the different groups of
fauna present in the country in question,
with other data relative to their number.
PAGE 41 OF 70
EPD
/UOM
A whole list of related indicators to be used together
and, in most cases, compared with the previous
indicator.
EPD
Although no definition of ‘diversity’ is provided, it is
assumed that this indicator refers to the item referred
to in the ‘Definition’ table.
Data is only available for a number of taxonomical
groups, whilst others are not adequately studied.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Species with
stable or
increasing
populations
Species with
decreasing
populations
Species
The number of species with stable or
increasing populations, often expressed
as a percentage of the total number of
native species per group.
The number of species with decreasing
populations, often expressed as a
percentage of the total number of native
species per group.
-
EPD
/UOM
Baseline data missing in most cases, implying that
most data is often based on experience and literature
data, this being often subjective and/or limited,
Moreover, it is often unfeasible to collect such data for
many species.
These indicators could be more valid if limited to
particular species [refer to indicators on keystone or
indicator species].
Temporal change
in number of
species
Change in
composition of
species overtime
Species Group:
total number
versus threatened
species
Species
The change in species composition over
time, as based on fieldwork techniques,
scientific sampling and literature.
The percentage proportion of threatened
species with respect to the total number of
species by group.
EPD
As already stated, data over time is problematic.
EPD
/UOM
Species
The ratio between species with small
populations and other with larger
population size.
EPD
UOM
As stated, comparison should be made, at most, with
Mediterranean islands and not with larger states.
Data is only available for a number of taxonomical
groups, whilst others are not adequately studied.
Instead of the total number of species per group, a
more realistic data cover the number of threatened
species vs. the total number of native ones.
Related ratios giving on indication of the extent and
fragmentation of populations of species (by group).
Species with small
populations vs.
larger population
size
Spatial differences
in the number of
rare vs. common
species
Spatial differences
in the restricted
vs. wide range
species
Species
-
Species
-
Species
Species
Species
PAGE 42 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Representativene
ss of intra-specific
variability of
endangered and
economically
important species
Species
-
EPD
UOM
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Threatened
species in
protected areas
Endemic species
in protected areas
Species
The number of threatened species found in
protected areas.
EPD
Species
The number of endemic species found in
protected areas.
Threatened
species in ex-situ
collections
Threatened
species with
viable ex-situ
populations
Species used by
local residents
Species
The number or percentage (over total
number) of species found or stored in exsitu facilities.
The number or percentage (over total
number) of species with viable ex-situ
facilities.
EPD
Bot. Gard.
No definition or method provided
EPD
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
UNEP/CBD
Not 15 May 01
Species
Species
PAGE 43 OF 70
Although no definition is provided, this gives a
probable indication of the extent of genetic variability
maintained by endangered and economically
important species. Nonetheless, intra-specific
variability is not always visible, whilst in other cases,
miniscule differences are taxonomically hypervalidated in popular or well-known taxa (as in snails
and orchids).
These indicators show the number of species which
are found in ‘safe havens’ where, at least in theory,
their survival is ascertained.
This indicator is only partially interpretative, since it
should be coupled with enforcement indicators to
reflect effective protection.
These indicators show the degree of species whose
genetic diversity might be preserved/conserved via exsitu facilities.
No definition of ‘used’ is provided.
Data is very limited in this respect, since no control
exists on the exploitation/use of a vast number of
exploited species (e.g. Narcissus tazetta flowers and
bulbs, Discoglossus pictus tadpoles and adults,
medicinal plants, live and dead snails, butterfly
caterpillars, etc.). Some limited, but often subjective,
data exists with respect to the avifauna.
A variant of this indicator could be used to indicate the
effect of direct human-induced exploitation on local
flora and fauna, by analysing the number of
threatened species by group affected by direct
human-induced exploitation as a proportion of the total
threatened species by group.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
European Union
Indicators of Sustainable Development
EU SDI
ENV 10: 80-1
Land Use
Changes
Habitats
Land Use
EU SDI
ENV 12: 84-5
Use of Fertilisers
in Agriculture
Agriculture
An indicator, cited in square kilometres and
percentage, providing data on changes
over time in the distribution of different land
use categories as defined by
Eurostat/OECD and CORINE Land Cover
Classification.
The use of fertilisers in agriculture in tonnes
of fertiliser per km2 of agricultural land.
Three basic components, namely nitrogen,
phosphorus (in the form of P2O5) and
potassium (K2O) for arable and permanent
crop, and are assessed according to an
approach set by UNECE (1992).
PAGE 44 OF 70
NSO
/EMU
/Agriculture
Data on certain aspects is not complete, but is not
categorised according to international criteria and
along an adequate time series. The proposed
international criteria may require local amendments to
include Mediterranean communities.
Agriculture
Excessive fertilisers cause reduction in oligotrophic
species, favouring more resilient species. Moreover, it
also causes eutrophication of water bodies, soil
acidification and possible nitrate/phosphate
contamination.
This indicator includes various assumptions, often
leading to disputable results, because it ignores that
the environmental impacts caused by leaching and
volatilisation of fertiliser nutrients do not depend only
on the quantity of fertilised employed, but also on the
agro-ecosystem condition, species involved, cropping
patterns, farm management practices, etc.
Data on sales is not very reliable as it does not
necessarily relate directly to fertiliser application, rate
of application, variability of use for different crops and
different parts of the Maltese Islands.
Moreover, this indicator excludes another potential
source of fertiliser damages through organic fertilisers,
such as manure and crop residues.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
EU SDI
ENV 13: 86-7
Use of Agricultural
Pesticides
Habitats
Agriculture
Exploitation
The use of pesticides in tonnes of active
ingredients per km2 of agricultural land.
Agriculture
/EPD
EU SDI
ENV 17: 94-5
Forest Area
Change
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitation
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
EU SDI
ENV 18: 96-7
Wood Harvesting
Intensity (WHI)
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitation
Is analysed through the calculation of the
rate of deforestation, which is calculated
through an equation provided in European
Community (1997); is based on
cartographic data with forest coverage in
hectares per annum or for a fixed period of
years.
WHI is calculated as the ratio of annual
harvest/production versus the total annual
increment of the productive forest.
EU SDI
ENV 19: 98-9
Managed Forest
Area Ratio
Habitats
Forestry
Exploitation
The proportion of the total forest area
covered by forest management plans which
are officially approved by the country’s
competent authority and that is actually
implemented.
EPD
/EMU
PAGE 45 OF 70
-
Data is often biased, since data on sales does not
necessarily relate directly to pesticide application, rate
of application, variability of use for different crops and
different parts of the Maltese Islands, toxicity, pesticide
mobility and persistence, etc. Moreover, the range of
products and national definitions differ between
countries, reducing further the possibilities for
comparison.
The definition for ‘forest’ varies considerably between
countries, and depends on the methodology and
definitions adopted. Furthermore, data over time is
limited, and only estimates can be made for 20th
century, pre-1990, data, mainly on the basis of aerial
photographs and literature.
Since there are several data-collection methods (e.g.
Eurostat-OECD or FAO), the data is not easily
comparable and often shows slight discrepancies.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
Although no forestry or other related wood production
activities occur in the Maltese Islands, some nature
reserves under the jurisdiction of the Environment
Protection Department implement plans affecting
wooded and/or afforested areas.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
EU SDI
ENV 20: 100-1
Threatened
Species as a
percentage of
total native
species
Species
A percentage figure which includes the
proportion of threatened species with
respect to the total number of native ones,
based upon IUCN criteria.
EPD
/UOM
EU SDI
ENV 24: 102-3
Protected Area as
a percentage of
total area
Habitats
The protected land or marine areas as a
percentage of total land or marine area,
based upon slightly modified IUCN criteria.
EPD
/EMU
PAGE 46 OF 70
Although data can be readily compared with other
countries, it should be borne in mind that other factors
such as small size, insularity and population density
should be quoted, and comparison should be made,
at most, with Mediterranean islands and not with
larger states.
As far as computerability is concerned, data is only
available for a number of taxonomical groups, whilst
others are not adequately studied.
Moreover, since the new threat categories adopted by
the IUCN also include area of occupancy and extent
of distribution of species as important criteria, these
are difficult to apply in the Maltese context, since even
the most common taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in
distribution due to the small size of the nation.
This indicator is only partially interpretative, since it
should be coupled with enforcement indicators to
reflect effective protection.
Moreover, protection may be biased, and not cover all
important ecological hot-spots.
Since a good number of ‘protected areas’ declared
through the Environment Protection Act are not
mapped, the calculation of this indicator is somewhat
problematic.
Moreover, the internationally accepted IUCN
categories of protected areas are not always applied
uniformly in the Maltese Islands.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
European Union
Environmental Pressure Indicators5
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
5
EU EPI
LB-1: 48-9
Protected Area
Loss, Damage
and
Fragmentation
Habitats
Land Use
EU EPI
LB-2: 50-1
Wetland Loss
through Damage
Habitats
Wetlands
EU EPI
LB-3: 52-3
Agricultural
intensity (area
used for intensive
arable agriculture)
Habitats
Agriculture
This indicator is a percentage indicator of
designated protected areas of all categories
located within 10km or less of a TransEuropean Transport Network (TEN)
infrastructure, and that are at risk,
affected/’impacted’ by, or in proximity
of/’near’ TEN.
Percentage data of the change in wetland
coverage over a fixed period of time. Data is
based upon different methodologies,
including those based on satellite images,
cartography based on CORINE Land cover.
PA
/Roads
Data has not been collected in this sense, but can
probably be easily computed and analysed via GIS.
EPD
/EMU
The percentage ratio of the area used for
intensive arable agriculture versus the total
area of the country.
Agriculture
Data is the Maltese Islands is fragmentary and not
classified according to internationally accepted
Ramsar criteria.
Moreover, no European wetland inventory exists, and
data available is either based on different
methodologies, or for wetland assessments at one
point in time only (thence not enabling any
comparisons over a period of time).
This indicator identifies the impact of intensive
agriculture on biodiversity, especially agricultural
biodiversity, and is a proxy for an aggregation of all
pressures on biodiversity including the use of
pesticides and fertilisers, grazing intensity, loss of
corridor landscape elements, etc.
Some indicators, although not included below, are also relevant to biodiversity, particularly issues related to urbanisation, resource depletion, waste and pollution, climate
change, etc. It is important to note that excessive water consumption, or inappropriate energy use, or burning of fossil fuels, alter many of the natural biogeochemical cycles
on which biological diversity depends, thence altering the latter, and indirectly acting as an indirectly measurable environmental pressure.
PAGE 47 OF 70
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
EU EPI
LB-4: 54-5
Fragmentation of
Forests and
Landscapes by
roads/intersection
s
Habitats
Land Use
An aggregated indicator based on the
number of forests and landscapes in
hectares that are fragmented by
communication routes, urbanisation and
other development. The calculation of
fragmentation limited to the number of ‘land
units’ larger than 1000km2 per member
state that are fragmented via the existing
and planned TEN.
EU EPI
LB-5: 56-7
Clearance of
natural and seminatural forested
areas
Habitats
Exploitatio
n
The percentage of existing natural and
semi-natural forested areas that are
cleared per annum, with the clearance
being defined as clear-cutting,
defoliation (as through air pollution or
acid rain) and fire.
EU EPI
LB-6: 58-9
Change in
traditional landuse practice
Habitats
Land Use
Is defined as the percentage of total
agricultural land defined in the CORINE
Land Cover project as agriculturally
heterogeneous, the latter including annual
crops associated with permanent crops,
complex cultivation patterns, land principally
occupied by agriculture with significant
areas of natural vegetation, and agroforestry areas.
PAGE 48 OF 70
PA
/Roads
Agriculture?
The methodology requires amendments for Malta,
since we lack the TEN, and fragments/’land units’
would definitely be smaller than 1000 km2 (the
average size of the whole Maltese Islands is slightly
more than 300 km2). This would render data
incomparable with other EU countries.
One should also keep in mind that the impact of
fragmentation varies according to the size of fragment,
the biological integrity of the remaining fragments, the
species or communities present within the fragment,
and the extent in the occurrence of ecological
corridors.
Comparisons are difficult, since fires are more
abundant in the Mediterranean region, leading to
temporarily-biased (negative) results; however, these
are usually temporary due to the ability of firedependent pyrophytic Mediterranean trees to spread
after fire. Moreover, defoliation may also not be
permanent (i.e. a clearance), but simply a form of
forest damage. Finally, the definition of ‘forest’ is not
standardised.
This indicator relates to pressure on wildlife and
crop/livestock diversity, in that biodiversity is
maintained in a best via traditional management and
practices rather than via intensive methods. However,
no CORINE Land Cover project has not been carried
out in the Maltese Islands in order to enable adequate
and comparable categorisation of data.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
M ARINE ENVIRONMENT AND COASTAL ZONES
EU EPI
ME-1: 64-5
Eutrophication
Habitats
Pollution
Is measured as the annual input to the
coastal and marine environment of total
nitrogen and total phosphorus, in tonnes.
These are measured through standard
laboratory techniques.
EPD
/Health
/Agriculture
EU EPI
ME-2: 66-7
Fishing Pressure
Habitats
Species
Fisheries
Is calculated as the removal rate (the
numeric proportion of the stock removed by
fishing per annum) in relation to the ability of
stocks to replenish themselves by
reproductive activity. This data is based on
scientifically evaluated data by international
institutions, and the fishing mortality rate is
directly related to the total fishing effort.
Fisheries
EU EPI
ME-3: 68-9
Development
along shore
Habitats
Land Use
The percentage increase in ‘structural hard
surface’ along the coastal zone, based on
definitions included within the CORINE
Land Cover project of the European
Environment Agency (EEA).
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/ICOD
PAGE 49 OF 70
The indicator is a good measure of the sewage,
agricultural and industrial nutrient input to the marine
environment. This measure is , and is simple and
comparable (although this depends on the accuracy of
the methodology and equipment used), as well as
inexpensive.
The quantity and quality of data varies according to
different countries and species (e.g. very limited data
exists on some species also caught by unregistered
amateur and professional spear-fishermen, like
groupers and octopuses). Moreover, some species
are grouped together (according to FAO criteria) often
rendering inadequate for specific determinations. The
calculations of mortality rate may also be defective, in
that the effect of climate change, pollution,
eutrophication, habitat destruction, competition by
non-native species, ozone depletion, etc. on fish and
shellfish are not well-known.
The data depends on the definition of ‘coastal zone’
and the methodology and techniques followed. Whilst
remote sensing might be the best option, it is hardly
realistic in economic terms, and detailed cartography
and/or aerial photography would be better
approaches.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
RESOURCE DEPLETION
EU EPI
RD-3: 100-1
Increase in
territory
permanently
occupied by
urbanisation
Habitats
Land Use
The total annual increase in land which is
permanently occupied by urbanisation,
infrastructure, waste tips and quarries
expressed in square kilometres.
PA
/NSO
/EPD
EU EPI
RD-6: 106-7
Timber Balance
(TB)
Habitats
Forestry
TB is the percentage ratio of fellings to the
net annual increment (NAI), both of which
measured in volume (in m3). The NAI refers
to the gross increment in diameter from a
fixed minimum diameter over a given
period, minus the natural losses.
-
PAGE 50 OF 70
Irreversible occupation of land by urbanisation results
in loss of or change in biological diversity, through
habitat loss or alteration.
Nevertheless, the main problem in the Maltese Islands
is the difficulty to distinguish urban areas from rural
areas, due to their close interaction and overlap.
Industrial areas are sometimes included with or
separated from the ‘urban areas’, although this
depends on the definition used.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
FOREST RESOURCES
OECD
Forest: 53-6
Intensity of use of
forest resources
OECD
Forest: 53-6
FOREST AND
WOODED LAND
Annual productive capacity (APC) to actual
harvest ratio. APC is calculated either as a
the annual allowable cut or as an estimate
of annual growth for existing stock,
depending on forest characteristics and
availability of information.
Changes in annual growth, annual harvest
and growing stock are given as
complimentary information.
The percentage ratio between the area
covered by forest and wooded land as a
proportion of the total land area.
-
Since there are several data-collection methods (e.g.
Eurostat-OECD or FAO), the data is not easily
comparable and slight discrepancies might arise.
No forestry or other related wood production activities
occur in the Maltese Islands.
EMU
/EPD
/UOM
/Agriculture
Data depends on the definition of ‘wooded land’.
Maltese data over time is limited, and only estimates
can be made for 20th century, pre-1990, data, mainly
on the basis of aerial photographs and literature.
Data should, at least in theory, show the intensity of
fish capture. Nevertheless, for it to be valuable, it
should be coupled with other indicators concerning
fishing effort, fishing fleet, MSY, and fish consumption
and utilisation. The latter, although not directly related
to the conservation of biodiversity, would indicate the
extent of wastage, if any, of biological resources.
Not a country-based oriented indicator, to be adopted
only at regional and global levels (depending on
availability of data).
FISH RESOURCES
OECD
Fish: 57-61
NATIONAL FISH
CATCHES
National fish catches expressed as a
percentage of the world capture and as
amounts per capita and related changes.
Fisheries
OECD
Fish: 57-61
GLOBAL AND
REGIONAL FISH
CATCHES
Global and regional fish catches.
Fisheries
PAGE 51 OF 70
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
BIODIVERSITY
OECD
Biod: 63-7
Number of
threatened or
extinct species
Species
The number of species in danger of
extinction or likely to be in danger, in
proportion to the total number of native
species, based upon IUCN criteria.
EPD
/UOM
OECD
Biod: 63-7
Protected areas
Habitats
The protected land or marine areas as a
percentage of total land, freshwater and
marine area, based upon land areas under
management categories I-VI of the IUCN
classification.
EPD
/EMU
PAGE 52 OF 70
Since the total number of native species is not known,
data is best compiled for known taxonomical groups,
as certain vertebrates and the vascular flora.
Although data can be readily compared with other
countries, it should be borne in mind that other factors
such as small size, insularity and population density
should be quoted, and comparison should be made,
at most, with Mediterranean islands and not with
larger states.
As far as computerability is concerned, data is only
available for a number of taxonomical groups, whilst
others are not adequately studied.
Moreover, since the new threat categories adopted by
the IUCN also include area of occupancy and extent
of distribution of species as important criteria, these
are difficult to apply in the Maltese context, since even
the most common taxa are ‘Europe-wise’ restricted in
distribution due to the small size of the nation.
This indicator is only partially interpretative, since it
should be coupled with enforcement indicators in
order to reflect effective protection.
Moreover, protection may be biased, and not cover all
important ecological hot-spots.
Since a good number of ‘protected areas’ declared
through the Environment Protection Act are not
mapped, the calculation of this indicator is somewhat
problematic.
Moreover, the internationally accepted IUCN
categories of protected areas are not always applied
uniformly in the Maltese Islands.
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
SECTION FOUR
SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS FOR THE MALTESE ISLANDS
4.1.
REMARKS
1. A number of indicators concerning ‘species and habitat protection’ are included as
from next page (Table 4.1). Most data refers mainly to state and response indicators
involving threatened species and habitats or biotopes, and their protection. Other
indicators concerning enforcement (e.g. number of court cases), administrative
framework (existence of a national biodiversity strategy), financial support (public
expenditure on nature conservation), human resources (number of staff working on
the environment) and legal infrastructure (extent of ratification and transposition of
international treaties) are also included.
2. Although for ‘forests’ and ‘forestry’ do not apply directly to the Maltese Islands, in
view of the fact that forests are all but extinct in the Maltese Islands, and no forestry
industry exist. Nevertheless, the definition of ‘forests’ varies considerably between
different institutions, and most state (e.g. percentage forest cover), pressure (e.g.
fragmentation of forests) and response (e.g. number of protected and/or managed
forests) indicators could apply if the FAO definition is adopted.
3. As far as ‘inland water biodiversity’, only a limited numbers of indicators may be used
(e.g. the area covered by wetlands and the percentage of protected wetlands – these
are incorporated in the indicators concerning Specific Habitat Types.
4. Data on water quality, agriculture, fisheries, ‘forestry’ and land use should be compared
and analysed in connection with other reports carried out by other experts in the SI-MO
team.
5. Sustainability indicators dealing
with ‘horizontal’ issues were not included.
Nonetheless, a small number of relevant indicators were included amongst the
‘Other indicators’ included in Table 4.1.
6. One particular indicator, omitted below, reflects efficiently the pressure under which
natural processes are acting and the impact of the human species on biological
diversity conservation, protection and sustainable use – the size and population
density of Malta as a country.
PAGE 53 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
TABLE 4.1
LIST OF INDICATORS FOR THE MALTESE ISLANDS
PS
R
Indicator
C
Remarks
Improvements
Sources
of Data
SPECIES PROTECTION
S
State of Knowledge of
Biodiversity
a
Data already incorporated
in Schembri et al. (1999).
S
Species Richness in
the country per group
a
S
Threatened Species
as a percentage of
total native species
d
Existing data already
incorporated in Schembri et
al. (1999). Data is only
partial or incomplete for
some groups.
Total number of native
species difficult to compile.
S
Number and
Percentage of
Threatened Species
per Group
Number and
Percentage of Extinct
and Possibly Extinct
Species per Group
a-d
S
S
Total number of
Endemic Species
a
S
Number of endemic
species threatened
with extinction, and
percentage proportion
with respect to total
number of endemic
species
Number of extinct or
possibly extinct
endemic species, and
percentage proportion
with respect to total
number of endemic
species
a
S
a
Computability varies
according to the group in
question. Data adapted
from Schembri & Sultana
(1989), and based on the
‘old’ IUCN criteria are
included in Schembri et al.
(1999).
Data on endemic species is
biased in that these species
are mostly known for wellstudied and/or economically
important groups only.
Data adapted from
Schembri & Sultana (1989),
and based on the ‘old’
IUCN criteria are included in
Schembri et al. (1999).
-
Some reputedly endemic
taxa are possibly extinct,
and could be included,
although this depends on
the reliability of literature
records.
PAGE 54 OF 70
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
EPD
UOM
A national database on
biodiversity, as originally
planned by the Malta Council
for Science and Technology,
would help compilation and
storage of data.
Data should be standardised
according to the ‘new’ IUCN
criteria (IUCN, 1994);
nonetheless some
amendments as indicated in
the text are required.
Regional criteria (under
development) could also be
utilised.
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
EPD
UOM
-
EPD
UOM
-
EPD
UOM
EPD
UOM
EPD
UOM
EPD
UOM
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
S
S
S
S
Number of threatened
species of
international
importance
Number of species of
international
importance
threatened with
extinction
Number of Extinct or
Possibly Extinct
species of
international
importance
Ratio of species with
a restricted distribution
in the Maltese Islands
and species with a
wider range species
a
Dubious records may pose
some problem of
interpretation, and should
be included separately
within a category of doubtful
records, unless adequate
information to disprove such
a categorisation is provided.
-
EPD
UOM
b-c
Data concerning threatened
species is already
incorporated in Schembri &
Sultana (1989). Other
species are not catered for,
and require more, often
expensive, work.
Comparisons can be made
with the data included in
Schembri & Sultana (1989)
and Schembri et al. (1999).
However, due to the redefinition by the IUCN of the
criteria for its threat
categories, it is not possible
to simply translate the old
threat ratings to the new
ones; each species needs
to be re-evaluated from
scratch.
-
Existing data requires
amendments.
Criteria should be set up for
the standardisation of the
term ‘restricted distribution in
the Maltese Islands’.
EPD
UOM
A new revised Red Data
Book for the Maltese Islands
based on the new (modified
international or regional)
IUCN criteria should be
prepared as soon as
possible, and regularly
updated every 5 years.
EPD
UOM
-
EPD
A proper definition of
‘conservation strategies’
should be adopted, such as
those officially adopted and
implemented in the Maltese
Islands.
-
S
Trend in threatened
and extinct species
d
R
Proportion of
Protected Threatened
Species
Proportion of
Protected Endemic
Species
Proportion of
Protected Species of
International
Importance
Number of In-situ and
ex-situ conservation
strategies
a
b
Depends on collaboration
between various different
governmental and nongovernmental entities.
Threatened species in
ex-situ collections
c
Depends on collaboration
between various different
governmental and nongovernmental entities.
R
R
R
R
PAGE 55 OF 70
EPD
EMU
UOM
NGOs
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
R
Threatened species
with viable ex-situ
populations
S
Status of Keystone or
Indicator Species (e.g.
butterflies, dragonflies,
sea-grass meadows,
crown daisy)
Change in number
and/or distribution of
keystone or indicator
species
Distribution of
Indicator Species
b-c
Number and extent of
invasive species
Number and extent of
alien species
c
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S/P
P
c
b-c
Number of Alien
Species per Habitat
Type
Proportion of Alien vs.
Native Species per
Habitat Type
Number of introduced
genomes
c-d
Number of Breeding
Birds
Number of extinct,
possibly extinct,
threatened and
occasional breeding
birds not allowed to
breed
Species used by local
residents
a
a-c
c-d
Depends on collaboration
between various different
governmental and nongovernmental entities. In
some cases, it is uncertain
whether some populations
are indigenous (in-situ) or
introduced (ex-situ) in the
area under study.
No national or international
lists of Mediterranean
keystone species available.
Data depends on the
species or group analysed.
Some data has been
already been compiled on a
small number of species,
whilst others are in
compilation.
These indicators are to be
analysed in connection with
other indicators on the
extent of different habitat
types.
No national list of invasive
species available.
Data concerning alien flora
being compiled, but data for
other groups has not been
compiled so far.
Further studies are
required.
The number of species per
habitat type can only be
determined for specific
groups.
Data is limited, although this
can be analysed through
the number of importation
certificates or licenses
approved.
Most data is incorporated in
Sultana (1989, 1999, 2001).
A definition of ‘viable’ would
help, this being suggested as
the status in which the
species survival would be
long-term and at a
favourable conservation
status.
Bot Gard
Private
Individuals
Collaboration and integration
between different entities
involved in compiling such
studies, in order to obtain, as
far as possible and practical,
standard data collection
methods in order to develop
comparable results.
EPD
EMU
UOM
Standard definitions of
‘invasive’ and ‘alien’ species
is important. The latter
definition should preferably
concentrate on ‘casual’ and
‘naturalised’ aliens.
‘Archaeophytic’ or
‘archaeozoic’ species should
also be included.
EPD
UOM
EMU
A license or certificate
system should be introduced
for plants.
Customs
EPD
Agriculture
Depends largely on
collaboration and detailed
references.
A proper standard,
preferably international,
definition of ‘use’
[consumptive and/or nonconsumptive; domesticated
(like crops, livestock, farmed
PAGE 56 OF 70
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
EPD
EPD?
UOM?
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
R
P
P
P
Law infringement and
enforcement cases in
connection with
protected species
Extent of exploitation
of birds and wild
rabbit: number of
hunting and trapping
licenses issues
Extent of exploitation
of birds and wild
rabbit: bag statistics
The number of
threatened species by
group affected by
direct human-induced
exploitation as a
proportion of the total
threatened species by
group.
Number of dead or
injured turtles reported
per year
fish) and/or nondomesticated (wildlife)] is
important.
-
EPD
Agriculture
Fisheries
Museums
a
Cases are mostly based on
the protection of birds and
trees.
a
Data does not cover all
licensed hunters, since the
carnet de chasse forms
forwarded to the
Environment Protection
Department is not
representative of the total
number of hunting licenses.
Data is severely fragmented
between different experts
and governmental
departments.
A better, more efficient and
reliable system of data
collection should be set up,
in line with the requirements
of Legal Notice 146 of 1993
as amended.
EPD
Police
Data should be centralised
and appropriate definitions
for ‘human-induced
exploitation’ set.
EPD
UOM
Data is mostly based on the
number of cases reported
to the Environment
Protection Department,
Department of Fisheries
and Aquaculture and nongovernmental organisations
only. In most cases, the
causes of injury or death
are ascertained by the
Director of Fisheries or the
Department of Veterinary
Services, enabling better
understanding of results.
Whilst the legal set up for
notification is in place, a
contingency plan for
adequate, less bureaucratic,
reporting is required.
b-c
a
EPD
Fisheries
HABITAT PROTECTION & USE (INCL. COASTAL ZONE, FORESTRY & LAND USE)
S
Area covered by
Specific Habitat
Types (e.g. ‘forest’,
garrigue, wetlands,
sand dunes, cliffs,
etc.)
S
Percentage of
Threatened Biotopes
of International
Importance
a-b
b
Not all of the Maltese
Islands are mapped.
List of Maltese biotopes
and biotopes of
international importance not
finalised.
PAGE 57 OF 70
Since mapping data is not
within international criteria,
data alignment procedures
are required (which are
underway) so as to
standardise data with
CORINE classification
schemes.
Alignment of existing data
with the standard European
criteria [like CORINE
Biotopes Classification
and/or the Palaearctic
Habitat Classification
(PHYSIS)].
EMU
EPD
EPD
EMU
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
R
Percentage Protected
Areas over National
Territory
b
R
Percentage area in
strictly protected
status
Distribution per
regions of Protected
Areas
a
A number of ‘nature
reserves’ set by the
Environment Protection
Department remain
unmapped.
-
a
-
Percentage of
Protected Areas per
total number of
Specific Habitat Type
Managed Protected
Area Ratio as a
percentage of all
protected areas and
per specific habitat
type
Number of Managed
Protected Areas
a-b
Not all of the Maltese
Islands are mapped.
a-b
Only actually implemented
management plans that are
officially approved by the
country’s competent
authority can be
considered.
-
P
Protected Area Loss
or Damage
c-d
P
Positive applications
for Outside
Development Zones
Active Quarries as a
percentage of the
national territory and
per region
Disused Quarries as
a percentage of the
national territory and
per region
Size of Quarries
a
R
R
R
R
P
P
P
a
a
Since no adequate
reference point or baseline
data exist, past extent can
only be determined via old
aerial photographs and
literature; but data remains
only indicative.
Indicates extent of pressure
on the ‘countryside’.
Indicates the pressure on
local limestone
communities, especially
garrigue and coastal areas.
PAGE 58 OF 70
Unmapped protected areas,
or areas with unclear
boundaries should be
mapped and clearly
delineated.
IUCN Categories are to be
adopted by all national
authorities.
Based on the local plans
commissioned by the
Planning Authority, the
regions should be redefined,
with the Grand Harbour
incorporated within the
Central Zone, and
Marsaxlokk within the South
Zone.
Alignment of existing data
with the standard European
criteria [like CORINE
Biotopes Classification
and/or the Palaearctic
Habitat Classification
(PHYSIS)].
Since most protected areas
remained unmanaged, only
actually implemented
management plans that are
officially approved by the
country’s competent authority
are to be considered.
Protected areas should be
regularly monitored and data
collection on a standard
format/datasheet.
EMU
EPD
EMU
EPD
EMU
EPD
EPD
EMU
Agriculture
EPD
EMU
Agriculture
EPD
EMU
UOM
-
EMU
-
EMU
EPD
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
P
P
P
P
Number of Quarries in
ecologically-sensitive
sites or sites of
international
importance
Extent and coverage
of Disturbed Ground
(Area, Percentage in
proportion of total size
& regions)
Area and extent of
degraded lands
reclaimed through
environment
restoration
Fragmentation of
Habitats and
Landscapes by
roads/intersections
b
a-b
a-b
b-c
EMU
-
EPD
EMU
No adequate reference
point or baseline data
exists. However, the extent
and concentration of the
road network, easily
obtained through GIS,
could indicate such
fragmentation.
As far as the authors of this
report are aware, data has
never been collected in this
respect.
A distinction is required
between urban and rural
areas.
EMU
An adequate definition for
‘biological corridors’ is
required, bearing in mind the
fragmentation experience by
many Maltese ecosystems.
EPD?
EMU?
The term ‘coastal area’
should be appropriately
defined to avoid confusion.
Unmapped protected areas,
or areas with unclear
boundaries should be
mapped and clearly
delineated.
IUCN Categories are to be
adopted by all national
authorities.
-
EMU
EPD
P
Area and length and
numbers of biological
corridors
R
Protected Coastal
Area
a-b
A number of coastal ‘nature
reserves’ set by the
Environment Protection
Department remain
unmapped.
P
b-c
Depends on data available
from Local Plans and aerial
photographs.
P
Artificialised versus
Total Coastline Ratio
Length of Touristic
Facilities versus Total
Coastline Ratio
Coastline Erosion
c
Data concerning erosion
and desertification is being
compiled by the
Environment Protection
Department through the
CAMP Project, but is limited
to parts of the NW region of
Malta.
-
EPD
S
Forest Area Change
d
No adequate reference
The definition of ‘forests’
EPD
P
c
Based on the local plans
commissioned by the
Planning Authority. Not all
of the Maltese Islands are
mapped.
Environmental ‘restoration’
programmes are very
limited in the Maltese
Islands.
PAGE 59 OF 70
PA
MTA
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
point or baseline data
exists. Past area of ‘forests’
often dependent on
literature and personal
communications, which are
not quantitative and not
always reliable.
R
Forest Protection
Rate
a-b
A number of ‘forest’ ‘nature
reserves’ set by the
Environment Protection
Department remain
unmapped.
P
Deforestation Rate
(clearance of natural
and semi-natural
forested areas)
Number and size of
forest fires
c-d
Data or baseline data
unavailable.
c-d
Only partial data available,
mostly based on reports
received by the Civil
Protection Department or
the Department of
Agriculture.
-
P
R
Reforested and
afforested areas
S/P
Extent of
eucalyptus/acacia
forest coverage
b-c
A sub-indicator related to
the extent of alien species
coverage per habitat type,
showing the extent of
eucalyptus and acacia
coverage in the Maltese
Islands. Based on the local
plans commissioned by the
Planning Authority.
S
Land Use Change
(changes over time in
the distribution of
different land use
categories)
National Monthly
Rainfall Index
b-c
Existing data can be readily
compiled. Nonetheless, it
requires alignment with
international criteria for
comparability.
-
S
b
a
PAGE 60 OF 70
should be re-dimensioned to
include forest remnants,
semi-natural woodlands and
maquis communities.
Protected areas should be
regularly monitored and data
collection on a standard
format/datasheet.
Unmapped protected areas,
or areas with unclear
boundaries should be
mapped and clearly
delineated.
IUCN Categories are to be
adopted by all national
authorities.
Surveys of the Maltese
Islands could aid in the
identification of forest loss in
the Maltese Islands.
Data should be adequately
collected by one entity in an
agreed format.
UOM
EMU
EPD
EPD
CPD
Agriculture
L-Councils
A definition of afforestation or
reforestation in rural areas
should be made, in order to
avoid data pollution with
planting of street trees.
Data is often based on the
number of trees planted
rather than the area planted.
Depends on the detail with
which acacia, eucalyptus and
mixed stands of acacia-pine
plantations were mapped.
Not all the Maltese Islands
have been mapped so far.
Agriculture
EPD
L-Councils
The system of land use
classification needs to be reassessed and standardised
according to internationallyrecognised nomenclature.
-
NSO
/EMU
EMU
MIA
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
P
Land affected by
Desertification
c
S
Soil Quality
c
S/P
Change in traditional
land-use practice
(percentage of total
agricultural land as
agriculturally
heterogeneous)
Increase in territory
permanently occupied
by urbanisation
?
P
a
Data concerning erosion
and desertification is being
compiled by the
Environment Protection
Department through the
CAMP Project, but is limited
to parts of the NW region of
Malta.
An agglomerate indicator
with data on soil types,
nutrients, depth, etc.
However, soil data is outdated and requires revision.
Work on erosion and
desertification should
continue and cover other
regions of the Maltese
Islands.
-
-
Adequate funding and
support is required.
EPD
Agriculture
EPD
PA
NSO
FISHERIES & AGRICULTURE
S/P
National Fish Catches
(including trends)
P
P
Fishing Effort
Catch per unit Effort
a
a
P
Fishing Fleet
(Number and
Average Power of
Fishing Boats)
Fishing production per
broad species group
a
P
a
-
a
Existing data already
incorporated in Schembri et
al. (1999). Data is only
partial or incomplete for
some groups.
-
Data is limited to those fish
landed at the fish market,
and therefore excludes fish
catches in Gozo, harpoon
fish catches, and other
restaurant or personal useoriented catches (e.g.
groupers, octopuses, seaurchins, etc.)
PAGE 61 OF 70
The type of statistical
information concerning
fisheries that is presently
collected needs to be
reviewed and updated,
especially in the light of
modern international
practice.
Fisheries statistics need to be
complied and published on a
regular basis.
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
Fisheries
Fisheries
Fisheries
-
Fisheries
-
Fisheries
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
P
S
P
P
Production of
Aquaculture
Public expenditure on
Fish Stocks
Monitoring
Share of Fishing Fleet
using Barge
Maximum Sustained
Yield for Fisheries
a
b-c
a-b
?
P
Eutrophication
b
P
Trends in registered
agricultural land
a
P
Agricultural intensity
(area used for
intensive arable
agriculture)
Area and extent of
degraded lands
reclaimed through
agriculture
?
P
P
P
P
S/P
S
S
Use of Fertilisers in
Agriculture
Use of Agricultural
Pesticides
Agricultural
Production
Types of Animals
bred
Number of Registered
Agricultural Fields
over time
Number of
-
-
Fisheries
Data may be difficult to
assess since funds/funding
votes may not be broken
down as required by the
indicator methodology.
-
-
Fisheries
-
Fisheries
This indicator is dependent
on the availability of MSY
data for global fish stocks,
which is often difficult to
assess. Moreover, fish
stock MSY varies per
population, area or species
involved, rendering the data
unreliable.
-
Data analysis depends on
the availability of modern
stock assessments of the
local fisheries resource.
Fisheries
-
EPD
Health
Agriculture
Existing data already
incorporated in Schembri et
al. (1999).
-
Existing data should be
updated with recent
developments since 1998.
The system of land
classification in use by the
Department of Agriculture
needs to be re-assessed and
changed, particularly the
designation ‘wasteland’.
Existing inventories (including
cartographic inventories and
GIS databases) of local
agricultural resources should
be reviewed, updated and
extended to cover the whole
of the Maltese Islands.
-
Agriculture
-
Agriculture
c-d
Some data exists at the
Department of Agriculture,
but it is often unreliable
since the ‘wasteland’ from
which land has been
reclaimed might have been
productive garrigue.
a-b
a
Data on tonnes of fertiliser
or pesticide used is based
on sales; such data is not
very reliable as it does not
necessarily relate directly to
their use and rate of
application, variability of use
for different crops and
different parts of the
Maltese Islands.
-
a
-
-
Agriculture
a
-
-
Agriculture
Based on the local plans
-
EMU
a
a-b
PAGE 62 OF 70
Agriculture
EPD
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
Abandoned
Agricultural Fields
R
R
R
R
S
S
Number of Reports by
farmers on Soil Loss
Number of Reports by
farmers on rubble
walls maintenance
Public Expenditure
on Compensation for
soil loss or damages
Public Expenditure
on Repair and
Maintenance of
Rubble Walls
Number of wildlife
species threatened by
agriculture (by group)
Number of species
favoured by
agriculture (by group)
a
commissioned by the
Planning Authority. Not all
of the Maltese Islands are
mapped.
-
Agriculture
Existing reporting services
should be standardised, and
coupled with the area or
amount of soil/walls affected.
a
Data may be difficult to
assess since funds/funding
votes may not be broken
down as required by the
indicator methodology.
-
c
No such lists have ever
been compiled in the
Maltese Islands.
-
Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture
Works
EPD
OTHER GENERAL ENFORCEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION INDICATORS
R
Institutional capacity
and framework
R
Court Cases on
Protected Biodiversity
ALE Reports on
Biological Diversity
Staff Employed on
Environmental
Protection and
Management
Public Expenditure
Environmental
Protection and
Management
Total Expenditure on
Protected Areas
Management
R
R
R
R
a
a-b
a
b-c
The national biodiversity
strategy, as required by the
CBD, is still neither
developed nor
implemented. However
other related policies and
regulations as included
within the Structure Plan for
the Maltese Islands and the
Environment Protection
Act.
Compilation of court cases
and ALE reports on
protected biodiversity are
dispersed.
-
-
EPD
EMU
-
EPD
EMU
Police
-
EPD
EMU
Data may be difficult to
assess since funds/funding
votes may not be broken
down as required by the
indicator methodology.
-
EPD
EMU
NGOs
PAGE 63 OF 70
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
R
Ratification extent to
international
Biodiversity-related
conventions and other
treaties
Transposition into
local legislation of
international
Biodiversity-related
conventions and other
treaties
a
Other direct indicators on
implementation of
international law are difficult
to measure directly, but can
be inferred from the various
indicators mentioned
above.
PAGE 64 OF 70
-
EPD
MFA
Draft Version: 9th August 2001
Darrin T Stevens; Martin Psaila & Carmen R Mifsud
SECTION FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, whilst selected aspects concerning species and ecosystems are well-known, the
overall state of knowledge of local biodiversity with respect to international criteria is not
at all adequate, although data collection has improved in recent years. The compilation
of regular ‘state of the environment’ reports have proven useful in this respect; the
Environment Protection Department, which has last commissioned the study in 1998,
has just announced the commissioned of its next five-year update, to be published in
2002.
In many cases, data is still being compiled, mostly by the Biodiversity Protection Unit of
the Environment Protection Department, the Environment Management Unit of the
Planning Authority, and the various departments within the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries, often with the hep of the University of Malta. Examples in this respect include
the compilations of updated lists of threatened species (BPU/EPD); a detailed checklist
of alien flora (BPU/EPD); the identification of areas of international importance for
inclusion in the Emerald Network and Natura 2000 (BPU/EPD); data alignment of
existing vegetation maps with international standards (EMU/PA); etc.
The fact that most data is still being collected, leads to the issue of missing baseline
data. Thence, it is difficult to employ indicators dependent on the ‘time factor’ for the
identification of trends. Current data mostly relies on literature records and aerial
photography. Literature records are often based on observations made about 100-150
years ago, some of which cannot be proven due to lack of concrete evidence. This leads
to subjective results, or results with a number of unanswered questions, as can be seen
by the preliminary analyses made by Lanfranco (1999) on the change over time in the
number of Maltese watercourse flora, that on indigenous trees by Stevens &
Baldacchino (2000), and that on sand dune flora by Stevens (2001). Aerial photography,
although valuable in a general manner, does not provide sufficient data with respect to
species involved, or different biotopes and habitat types.
Overall, with the above in mind, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Baseline data should be collected; it is imperative to have dynamic baselines, where
possible, in order to accommodate new information and situations.
2. Although most of the sustainability indicators developed to monitor and report on the
conservation and use of biodiversity are inter-related, and should be read in toto,
Malta needs to commence data collection according to international standardised
procedures, including CORINE procedures and IUCN criteria. However, as
repeatedly stated throughout the text, it should also be borne in mind that many of
the criteria employed by the OECD, United Nations (including the CBD and MAP),
and the European Union are not suitable for the Maltese Islands, either because of
the very small size of the Maltese archipelago, or else because of differences in the
economic infrastructure (e.g. absence of TEN). In this respect local versions should
be developed, as much as possible close to the original versions, in order to allow
comparability.
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3. Data with respect to threatened species needs to be re-evaluated, in view of the re-
definition, made by IUCN, of the international threat category criteria (IUCN, 1994).
Since it is not possible to simply translate the old threat ratings to the new ones,
each species has to be re-evaluated (from scratch). Unless re-evaluated (from
scratch), it difficult to have data comparable with other countries. However, as
already pointed out in Section 3, the new IUCN threat categories depend on the area
of occupancy of the species in question. Hence, bearing in mind that the Maltese
Islands overall area is of slightly more than 300 km2, and that if a species occupies
an area of less than 500 km2, it should class as either endangered or critically
endangered (IUCN, 1994), it implies that in the case of the Maltese Islands, even the
most common, alien, invasive, species, like the Cape Sorrel, Oxalis pes-caprae,
would qualify as endangered owing to the size of the country and the reduced
ecological areas! In this respect, regional criteria are being developed by the IUCN.
4. Existing inventories of local biotopes and habitat types (including cartographic ones
and GIS databases) should be reviewed and updated, extended to cover the whole
of the Maltese Islands and their territorial waters, and aligned to international land
use and biotope classifications, with possible local amendments,
5. The legislation governing protected areas should be reviewed in order to bring
existing protected areas and their protection status in line with internationally
recognised criteria and protection categories.
6. Statistical information concerning fisheries and agriculture should be reviewed and
updated regularly, with amendments being made to bring the statistics in line with
international criteria.
7. A survey on soil quality in the Maltese Islands, based on modern standard
techniques, is required, since the last report dates 1960 (Lang, 1960).
8. Work on land desertification and erosion by the Environment Protection Department
should cover other regions of the Maltese Islands.
9. Some reports concerning exploited species, dead or injured sea turtle or reports on
soil loss or rubble wall maintenance are subjective and/or based on un-standardised
formats. Moreover, the data may not be necessarily reliable. In this respect, an
example is provided by Carnet de Chasse data on birds hunted and/or trapped, since
the forms forwarded to the Environment Protection Department are in some cases
inappropriately filled or not representative of the total number of hunting licenses.
10. Finally, it should be noted that an integrated approach should be adopted in
formulating and analysing any list of sustainable indicators related to biological
diversity.
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SECTION SIX
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Baldacchino, A.E. (ed.) (1988): State of the Environment Report 1985. Malta: Society for the
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Council of Europe (1995): Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural
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Caruana Gatto, A. (1913): Di alcune piante indigene scomparse o non ritrovate più a Malta.
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Chevalier, S., Choiniere, R., Bernier, L. et al (1992) User Guide to 40 Community Health
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Lanfranco, E. (1999): Endangered species of Maltese flora. In: Vujicic, R.; Lanfranco, E. & Vella,
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First Version: 15th May 2001; This Version: 9th August 2001
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