System Architecture
IAP Lecture 5
Ed Crawley
Jan 26, 2007
Rev 2.0
1
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Today’s Topics
z
Reflection on Operations, Interfaces, etc.
z
Worked example - TCP
z
Alternative representations of Process-Object
architecture
z
Upstream influences - Beneficiaries, Needs
and Goals
z
Worked example - ServeCo
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Reflections on Operations,
Interfaces, etc?
z
What are the elements the contribute to:
– Other value processes?
– Supporting processes?
– Interfacing processes?
z
Suggest a level 1 modularization? Why?
z
What are important operational sequence?
z
What is an important interface?
3
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Concepts and Architectures in Information
Systems
z
z
z
z
z
In information and software enabled systems, concepts
and their development into architectures are captured in
different ways at various levels
Low level are algorithms and their implementation, e.g.
bubblesort
Application domain software are patterns, e.g. bridge
Higher level application domain software is more
classical allocation of functionality to modules and
procedures, and definition of interfaces
In network software, concepts and architectures are
captured in protocols, such as Transport Command
Protocol (TCP), and at a higher level, the entire
architecture of the OSI seven layer model
4
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Solution Neutral Function and Specific
Concept - Network
z
z
Data exchanging
is the solution
neutral function
There are very
many ways to do
this, an open
layered network
protocol being
just one
Data
Data
“packets”
Location
Location
Exchanging
Flexibly,
reliably
Transferring
Attribute of
operating
Network
protocol
Layered
7
5
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Layers of Form, and Associated Function (?)
OSI Model
Layer
Data
Application
[Host Layers]
Network
Network Process
Process to
toApplication
Application
Presentation
Data Representation and
Encryption
Session
Interhost Communication
Transport
[Media Layers]
End-to-End Connections and
Reliability
Data
Data
Data
Segments
Network
Path Determination and IP
(Logical Addressing)
Data Link
MAC and LLC
(Physical Addressing)
Packets
Frames
Physical
Media, Signal
and Binary Transmission
Bits
Figure by MIT OCW.
6
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
http://www.3mfuture.com/network_security/arp-guard-arp-spoofing.htm
Layer Function
z
For each layer, identify the operand, data related
process and control related process
Operand
Data process
Control process
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data
Physical
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Assigning a Function to a Layer
z
z
z
z
z
z
To which layer are we going to assign the function of
“reliable” transmission:
The physical layer, to make sure bits are exchanged?
The network or transport layer, to make sure that
segments/packets are exchanged?
The application layer, to make sure data sets were
exchanged?
All?
None?
8
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Whole Product, Use Context and Implied Interfaces
Application
SCTP
FTP, Telnet, SMTP, POP3,
X-Window, HTTP
IMAP4
GDP
COPS
SOCKS
CMOT, SNMP
TACACS+, TACACS
SLP
WCCP
TFTP
NTP
HTTP-s
SSH
RADIUS
ISAKMP
RLOGIN, RSHELL, PRINT
REXEC, RWHO
RTSP
Presentation
Session
DNS
LDAP
SS7
DSMCC (MPEG)
Transport
X.25
TALI
Mobile IP
UDP
TCP
Network
DHCP
PIM
ICMP
RSVP
VRRP
BOOTP
BGP, RIP, EGP,
OSPF, DVMRP
IMGP
IP
TDP, MPLS
Data Link
PPTP, L2TP,
ATMP
ARP, RARP
SLIP
Trailers
Physical
Figure by MIT OCW.
9
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
http://www.protocols.com/pbook/tcpip1.htm
Reliable Service
Application
FTP
Client
FTP
Client
Transport
TCP
TCP
Network
IP
IP
Data Link
Physical Layer
Ethernet
Driver
Ethernet
Driver
Best Effort Service
Figure by MIT OCW.
10
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Why Layers?
z
Layered architectures have great advantages
–
–
–
–
z
Flexibility in application
Flexibility of dynamic connections from one layer to another
Ability to provide alternatives in assignment
Isolation of changes in one layer from others
Layered architectures have disadvantages as well
– Inefficiency due to overhead of adding information at each layer
– Interface inefficiency
– Inefficiency due to the fact that sometimes one needs to
reallocate function across layers or combine
In general, there is always a tension between
flexibility and optimality in architecture
11
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
TCP Primary Operating Sequence
Sender
z
z
Sender
sends a
segment,
with a
number
Receiver
receives
and
acknowledg
es that
segment
Receiver
Send segment 1
Receive segment 1
Send ACK 1
Receive ACK 1
Send segment 2
Receive segment 2
Send ACK 2
Receive ACK 2
12
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Fuller Operating Sequence?
z
Stand alone ops.
z
z
Contingency ops.
z
z
Emergency ops.
z
z
Stand alone?
Contingency?
Emergency?
Commissioning?
Decommissioning?
Maintaining?
Is real clock time
important?
Waiting in storage
Retrieving,
connecting,
powering-up,
initializing
Loading,
positioning
Archiving,
unloading
Terminating,
disconnecting,
depowering, storing
Inspecting, repairing,
calibrating, updating,
maintaining
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Host A
Time
Send FIN seq=x
Host B
In the Network
Receive FIN
Send ACK x+1
Receive ACK
Send FIN seq=y, ACK x+1
Receive FIN + ACK
Send ACK y+1
Receive ACK
Figure by MIT OCW.
TCP Connection Termination
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
TCP Header
RFC 793 – Transmission Control Protocol
Bit
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
0
1
2
Source Port Number
(16 bits)
4
3
Destination Port Number
(16 bits)
5
6
7
20
20 Bytes
Bytes
Sequence Number
(32 bits)
8
9
10
11
Acknowledgement Number
(32 bits)
12
14
17
18
TCP Checksum
(16 bits)
20
15
Window Size
(16 bits)
FIN
RST
SYN
ACK
16
PSH
Reserved
(6 bits)
URG
Window Size
(4 bits)
13
19
Urgent Pointer
(16 bits)
21
22
23
Options
(variable length, padded with 0 bytes)
Data
(if any)
Figure by MIT OCW.
15
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Representing Object-Process Architectures
z
z
z
There are various ways to represent objects and
processes in a model:
– Explicitly show objects and processes (e.g. OPM)
– Explicitly show processes and suppress objects
– Explicitly show objects and suppressed processes
– Show only objects
Each has its advantages and disadvantages
Sometimes use links of various classes to label some
additional information
16
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Outside
Air
Conducting,
Convecting
Cabinet
Circulating
Condenser Fan
Refrigerating
Refrigerator
Wheels
Floor
Structurally
interfacing
Load carrying
Wiring harness
Sensing,
Feeding back
Controller
Circulating
Evaporator Fan
Power
carrying
Inside
Air
Power chord
Conducting,
Convecting
Food
Transferring
load
Shelves
Illuminating
Light
Outlet
Door
Grasping,
moving
Mixing
Power
interfacing
Operator
Refrigerator
Opening,
closing
Product/system boundary
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
17
Alternative Model - Processes Model
z
z
z
Alternatives to OPM exist, but tend to hide or
suppress information
A process based model:
– Shows the processes, and objects which are inputs
and outputs
– Hides the objects which are instruments
– Makes it difficult to identify the processes that take
place among the instrument objects (the supporting
processes), and the operational processes
– Often used with different connector types to
indicate the type of object as output, but this is
often ambiguous
Good for identifying the processes on the value chain
18
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Classes of Process Links
Process links fall into classes:
Ma tter
Mec hanical
Biochemical
Energy
Information
Sign al
Thou ght
Mas s exc hange
Passes flow to
Force/ mo mentum
Pushes on
Ch emical
Reac ts with
Biological
Replica tes
Work
Carries el ectrici ty
Thermal e nergy
Hea ts
Data
Transfers file
Co mmand s
Triggers
Co gnitive thoug ht
Exch ange i deas
Affectiv e tho ugh t
Imp art belie fs
19
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
?
Outside
Air
Conducting,
Convecting
?
Circulating
Load carrying
Structurally
interfacing
Power
carrying
Power
interfacing
Refrigerating
Sensing,
Feeding back
?
Inside
Air
Circulating
Conducting,
Convecting
Food
Transferring
load
Illuminating
Refrigerator:
Process
?
Grasping,
moving
Force/mass
Mixing
?
Work/heat
Opening,
closing
Information
Product/system boundary
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
20
Alternative Model - Object/Suppressed Process
Model
z
z
An object based model
– Shows inputs, outputs and instrument objects
– Represents the processes by arrows that pass
among the objects
– The arrows represent the operating process
topology of the system
– Lables on the arrows indicates the process and the
states of the objects influenced
– Can capture all or almost all the information in an
OPM, but the importance of the processes, and the
ability to think in process domain are reduced
Good for knowledge capture and communicating with
those who can’t read OPM’s
21
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Translation OPM to Object/SP Model
z
z
z
z
z
With care, you can translate most or all of the
information on an OPM to an Object Model
Following charts show representative interactions on an
OPM, and how they would appear on an Object Model
There are some interactions that are difficult to capture
– Conditional instruments
There are actually a few things that have greater clarity
in an Object Model
If the model suppresses operational processes, it
becomes the sought after operational structural model
22
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Suppressed Processes
Single Operand
OPM
create
Template
B
M
creates
Example
B
Fact.
builds
Car
M
A
A is consumed M
consumes
by
M
transform
B
Part is used up by Fact.
M
consumes
A
Fact.
M
transforms
the state of
A
Paint transforms Wall
uses up
Part
the color of
M
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Suppressed Processes
Two Operands, Same Process
OPM
A
transform
Template
B
A
M
A
create
the
state of
and the
state of
transforms
Example
B
Wall
B
Car
A
consume
and
A
consumes
M
M
Truck
Fact.
M
B
and
builds
crates
M
Air
Paint
and
A
odor of
transforms
M
B
color of
B
Fuel
and
Air
burns
Motor
24
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Suppressed Processes
Two Operands, Different Processes
OPM
A
transform
Template
B
A
from
transform
transform
B
Part
from
Car
builds
M
B
A
M
A
(to)
transforms
M
A
Example
while
producing
transforms
the
state of
Fact.
B
Batt.
A
M
while
consuming
the
state of
transforms
M
while
Light
producing
drains
Lamp
M
B
the
charge of
B
Fuel
while
consuming
(location)
Cargo
moves
Truck
25
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Suppressed Processes
Two Instruments
OPM
A
Template
transform
B
A
Example
(to)
from
B
Parts
from
Frame
transform
M1
M2
assemble
and
A
and
M1
M2
from
(to)
Robot
B
Parts
from
Frame
assemble
transform
A
transform
B
M1
enables
A
from
M2
Robot
(to)
B
Food
enables
M
Meal
prepare
and
A
and
H
M
from
(to)
Cook
B
Stock
H
operates
M
Stove
from
transforms
Or :
Line
from
transform
H
Line
Part
machine
Man
operates
Lathe
26
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Transforming Process Object Models to
Objects Only
Simple input-output
A
T1
B
M
A
A
M
(T1)
M
(T1)
More common affecting
C
T2
A
B
N
(T2)
N
(T2)
M
(T1)
N
(T2)
M
N
B
M
N
B
T1
C
C
A
M
(T1)
T2
C
N
B
N
(T2)
C
Next is nonsense
27
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
OPM Whistle Architecture
Creating
Operator
Making tone
Aligning/
Transporting
Channel
Step
Flow
Hole
Deflecting/
Accelerating
Whistle
Bump
Channel
Ramp
Bump
Ramp
Venting
Cavity
wall
Step
Vortex
Creating
Hole
Tone
(internal)
Exciting
Cavity
wall
Resonating/
amplifying
Star
Figure by MIT OCW.
Ring
Tone
(radiated)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Coupling
External
Air
Product/system
boundary
28
Creates
Object Suppressed
Internal
Processes
- Whistle
Operator
Making tone
Whistle
Bump
Transports
Channel
Step
Channel
Flow
Hole
Deflects
Bump
Ramp
Cavity
wall
Create
Ramp
Vents
and
Step
Vortex
Hole
Excite
and
Tone
(internal)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Cavity
wall
and
Amplify
Couples
Tone
(radiated)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Star
Ring
Couple
and
External
Air
Product/system
boundary
29
Process-Object Architectures
I
c
I
c
tone (ex)
a
a
tone (ex)
a
a
c
e
I
tone (in)
a
vortex
flow
air
c
e
e
e
I
a
a
a
c
I
I
mouth
lips
tongue
throat
a
I
I
tone (in)
I
I
vortex
I
I
I
flow
air
star
cavity
hole
a
step
creating
transporting
deflecting
venting
creating
exciting
amplifying
coupling
c
e
e
e
I
I
lungs
Human
Whistle
ramp
a
channel
creating
transporting
deflecting
venting
creating
exciting
amplifying
coupling
bump
operator
Plastic
Whistle
c
e
I
c
Non-symmetric, causal, with full NNV structure
A = affects, I = instrument, C = creates, E = effects
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
30
Creating Object - Suppressed Process
O
Models
P
z
Create the Process-Object matrix and
insert in true N-square with processes
and objects on both side
PO
P
P
PP
O OP
z
Move the post process objects (effect
and yield) to the lower off-diagonal block
transpose
– Leave the pre process objects (consume,
agent, instrument) in the upper offdiagonal block
P
Create the product,and convert back to
graph
PO
I
P
O
PP
POpre
O OPpost
z
O
PP
O OP
post
I
POpre
31
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Step 1 - Process Object Model
creating
transporting
deflecting
venting
creating
exciting
amplifying
coupling
operator
bump
channel
ramp
step
hole
cavity
star
air
tone (ex)
tone (in)
vortex
flow
Plastic
Whistle
air
star
cavity
hole
step
ramp
channel
bump
operator
The process object model
is created
and inserted
in a true N
square
diagram with
processes
and objects
on both sides
coupling
amplifying
exciting
creating
venting
deflecting
transporting
creating
z
a
c
e
e
e
I c
I c
e
I c
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
I
What we had
flow
vortex
tone (in)
tone (ex)
a - agent
I = instrument
c = creates
e = effects
32
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Step 2 - Move OP Elements
z
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
creating
transporting
deflecting
venting
creating
exciting
amplifying
coupling
1
a
2
I
3
I
4
I
5
I
6
7
8
operator
bump
channel
ramp
step
hole
cavity
star
air
flow
vortex
tone (in)
tone (ex)
a - agent
I = instrument
c = creates
e = effects
tone (ex)
tone (in)
vortex
flow
z
Put the post
process objects in
the lower block
(creates, effects)
Leave the preprocess objects in
the upper block
(consumes,
instrument and
agent)
Number processes
for convenience
air
star
cavity
hole
step
ramp
channel
bump
operator
z
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
Pre process objects
c e e e
c
c e
c
Post process objects
33
Step 3 - Rearrange Matrix and Form Product
operator
bump
channel
ramp
step
hole
cavity
star
air
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
flow
vortex
tone (in)
tone (ex)
c1a
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e2i
0
0
0
e3i
0
0
0
0
c5i
0
0
e4i
0
e6i
e8i
0
0
c6i,e7i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
e8i
0
c5i
0
0
0
0
c6i
0
0
0
0
c8i
0
0
0
0
a - agent
I = instrument
c = creates
e = effects
z
z
Form product OPpost *PP*POpre
This yields a causal, non-symmetric N-squared
representation, which you will come to know as a Design
System Matrix or DSM
34
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Matrix Object/Suppressed Operational Processes
Operator
Bump
Channel
Ramp
Transport
Deflects
Step
Hole
Cavity
Star
Air
Flow
Vortex
Tone in
Tone out
Operator
Bump
Channel
Ramp
Step
Hole
Cavity
Star
Air
Flow
Creates
Vortex
Vents
Creates
Creates
Tone in
Excite
Tone out
Couple
Excite/
Amplify
Excites
Couple
Couple
35
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Outside
Air
Conducting,
Convecting
Cabinet
Circulating
Condenser Fan
Refrigerating
Refrigerator
Wheels
Floor
Structurally
interfacing
Load carrying
Wiring harness
Sensing,
Feeding back
Controller
Circulating
Evaporator Fan
Power
carrying
Inside
Air
Power chord
Conducting,
Convecting
Food
Transferring
load
Shelves
Illuminating
Light
Outlet
Door
Grasping,
moving
Mixing
Power
interfacing
Operator
Refrigerator
Opening,
closing
Product/system boundary
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
36
exchanges heat with
Outside
Air
When
open
mixes
with
Wheels
Cabinet
exchanges heat with
circulates
roll on
Floor
Condenser Fan
carries load among
exchanges heat with
Inside
Air
exchanges heat with
Refrigerator
Wiring
switches
senses temp of
Controller
carries power to
exchanges
heat with
Food
circulates
carries load from
illuminates
grasps and moves
when open allows mixing
Plug/chord
Shelves
Light
carries power to
sets
ref. T
switches
Insulated door
Operator
exchanges heat with
opens and closes
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Outlet
Evaporator Fan
Refrigerator:
Suppressed
Operational
Processes
37
Alternative Model - Objects Only
z
z
z
Finally, the most simplified model is one which
removes all information on process and simply
shows the objects in a decompositional hierarchy
This is the first model people try to build
Having seen the others, it is obvious just how
little information is in this model
38
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Whole Refrigerator System
Outside
Air
Inside
Air
Refrigerator
Food
Operator
Cabinet
Wheels
Condenser Fan
Frame
Refrigerator
Wiring
Controller
Plug/chord
Condenser Fan
Shelves
Outlet
Floor
Light
This is not an
Architecture!
Insulated door
Product boundary
Refrigerator Decompositional
39
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Summary - Representations of Architecture
z
z
z
z
Architecture can be represented by matrix/list or
graphical representations - in principle the two are
interchangeable and contain the same information
Objects and processes can be shown explicitly
One of the other can be suppressed, carefully, for clarity
and simplicity
This is much easier for “goes in to, goes out of”
architectures than for the more general case
40
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity
z
z
Ambiguity defined
Resolving ambiguity
41
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity
Fuzziness:
Uncertainty:
an event or state is subject to
multiple interpretations
blue
purple
hue
Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy set theory
an event is doubtful or
uncertain as to its outcome
H
T
O
outcome
Combinatorial analysis
Statistics
42
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Compounding Ambiguity
z
Unknown information:
– don’t have all of the information
– Information is underdetermined
– You may know, or not know of the
existence of the unknown information
(unknown unknowns)
z
Conflicting information:
z
X, ,Z
X,Z
z
Xp,Xi , Y , Z
z
P,Y,Z
z
– have two or more conflicting pieces of
information
– Information is over-determined
z
False information:
– You think you have all the information
– Some of it is wrong
– Information appears determined
43
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Examples of Ambiguity
z
z
z
z
z
Please make me a smooth cover for this phone
Will it be a boy or a girl?
Make sure you meet your quarterly goals
Produce a low cost, high quality product
Every fourth year is a leap year
44
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity in Design Challenge 2?
45
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity in Coin Flip
z
How does an NFL game begin?
z
Flip the coin and report heads or tails
z
Both type of ambiguity are present here!!!!
46
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Approaches to Resolving Ambiguity
z
z
z
z
z
z
Definitions and language in common [SA]
Frameworks for organizing thinking [products - SA,
processes - SE, organization - SPM, OP]
Standardized processes [SE, SPM]
Exercises to “sharpen” upstream influences [SA,
Marketing]
Defining system boundaries [SA]
Planning for robustness [SE, Robust Eng.]
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Summary - Ambiguity
z
z
z
Ambiguity stems from multiple interpretations and
uncertainty, compounded by incomplete, conflicting or
incorrect information
The beginning of the PDP - the interface with the
upstream process - is a time of great ambiguity
The role of the architect is to resolve this ambiguity so
as to create the environment in which the PDP can
quickly and successfully meet its goals.
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Three Themes in Architecture
z
z
z
Ambiguity:
– Susceptible to multiple interpretation
– Doubtful or uncertain
Creativity:
– The ability or power to: cause to exist, bring into
being, originate
Complexity:
– Consisting of interconnected or interwoven parts
Source: American Heritage Dictionary
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity - The uncertainty
associated with numerous
choices, unclear objectives
or indefinite functional
compliance = imprecise
information
Creativity - The innovative
combination of different
pieces of information or
creation of new information
required to to form a new
system
Creativity
Complexity
Complexity - The amount
of information required to
fully describe a system
and its interfaces
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity
Product Development - The
transformation of a vector of
ambiguous and imprecise
information (upstream) into a vector
of precise information describing the
product (the information object
50
known as “the design”)
A system architect’s job is to
use to manage and balance
each of these aspects
•Sys. Arch.
•Eng. Elective
•Design Elective
Creativity
Complexity
Ambiguity
•Optimization
•Finance
•Sys. and Project Mgmt.
•Org. Processes
•Ops. Mgmt
•Sys. Eng.
•ERBA
•Sys. Arch.
•Marketing
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Architecture Centric View of the PDP
Upstream
Downstream
Function
Form
Concept
Architecture
Think of yourself as here today
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Upstream Ambiguity in Architecting
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
What is our objective?
How far do our scope and responsibility range?
How much risk is (corporate, Washington, the board)
willing to take?
Will marketing buy it?
What does the customer want/need?
Will our requirements change with time?
Is that technology infusible?
What are applicable regulations? Are they likely to
change?
Removing/Reducing/Resolving ambiguity is a main role of the
architect at the interface with the upstream process
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Ambiguity in the Upstream Influences
z
z
z
No one explicitly “designs” the upstream influences,
rather they just occur, often with incomplete,
overlapping, or conflicting outcomes
The architect must engage these upstream influences
and drive the ambiguity out to create a vision and plan
for a successful product
This requires knowledge of
– What the upstream influences are, who has “control”
of them, and how they are engaged
– What the object is - a consistent, complete,
attainable, clear and concise set of goals for the
product
– How to get from A to B
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Dominant Upstream Influence on
Architecture
Regulation
Corporate,
Marketing
Strategy
Need
Competitive
Environment
Goals
Function
Beneficiary/
Customers
Architecture
Form
Concept
Downstream
Strategies,
Competence
Technology
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Principle Upstream Influences
z
z
z
z
z
z
The customers and their needs
The corporation, which has corporate strategy and functional
strategies (marketing, etc.) which define what the company does,
how it competes, what its values are, what the return to investors
will be, etc.
The market, with its forces and competitors
Regulations and similar pseudo-regulatory influences such as case
law, impending regulations, and standards
Technology, which is or will be available and infusable in your
system
The competence, team, facilities, processes which will be employed
downstream (planning, designing, implementing, operating and
evolving), but must be considered at a strategic level as an
upstream influence
These things all fundamentally influence architecture
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
56
Product/Systems and Their SuperSystems
ay
d
to
57
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Need - Defined
Beneficiary
z
z
z
Need is a product attribute
Need is defined as:
Need
– a necessity
– an overall desire or want
– a wish for something which is lacking
Can also include opportunities to fill unexpressed or
unrecognized needs
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Needs - Described
z
Exist in the mind of the beneficiary
Primarily outside of the producing enterprise
Expressed often in fuzzy or general (i.e. ambiguous)
terms
Are interpreted (in part) by the architect
Who has relevant needs?
z
Start by focusing on the needs of the direct beneficiary!
z
z
z
z
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Value Questions (1)
z
z
z
What is the mission
of our enterprise,
and the outcomes
Who is the
beneficiary?
What is their
need(s)?
Beneficiary
Need
Need
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Value Identification - Refrigerator
z
z
z
We are a for-profit enterprise
in the home appliance
business
Who is the beneficiary?
What is the need?
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Multiple Needs - Refrigerator
z
z
z
Focus first on the primary beneficial
stakeholder - the food worker
The food worker has multiple needs
Enumerate needs:
Food worker
Food
rots
Easy access
– Spoilage
– Access
– Data on refrigerator contents
What’s in
box?
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Needs - Who has Them?
z
z
z
z
z
z
The important needs are those of the beneficiary
In simple and consumer systems, the beneficiary is also
often the customer - the person or entity who is on the
receiving end of the transfer associated with the product
– Notable exceptions: presents, buying for the
household/family
In more complex products, the customer is often not the
beneficiary
If the beneficiary is not the customer, the customer
plays a role in interpreting the needs of the beneficiary
User or operator (the person who operates the product)
also has needs that will appear through operator
In simple and consumer system, the user is also often
the customer
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Use Context
z
z
z
A good way to understand needs is to examine the use
context - that set of objects and processes that make up
the current (or planned) environment in which the
product/system will operate
Examining usage context will often help identify value
Examining usage will sometimes reveal latent needs needs which the beneficiary may not realize they have or
be able to verbalize
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Representing Beneficiary Needs
z
z
z
Beneficiary is an object who
is a person (shaded generic
skin color to remind us its of
human nature)
Need is a characteristic of
the beneficiary (with a light
blue shading, and clouds to
the right, to remind us of the
vaporous and fleeting nature
of a need)
To identify needs, identify
beneficiaries, and then their
needs (from use case)
Beneficiary
Need
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Multiple Beneficiaries - Refrigerator
Food worker
z
z
Food worker is not the
only one who benefits
from a refrigerator
Identify the important
beneficiaries
– Who benefits?
Regulator
Food spoils
Atmospheric
pollution
etc
Child
protection
Family
communicator
Bill payer
Low capex
Food acquisition
needs
Low opex
What’s going
on?
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Summary - Needs
z
z
z
z
z
z
Needs exist in the heart and mind of the beneficiary
They exist outside the enterprise
They are fuzzy, ambiguous and ill stated
They must be identified and understood
A beneficiary often has more than one need to be met by
a product system
There is often more than one beneficiary
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Goals - Defined
• Goal is a product attribute
• Goal is defined as
– what it planned to be accomplished
– what the designer hopes to achieve or obtain
• Will include goals derived from beneficiary Needs i.e.
the primary external functional goals
• Will also include goals from corporate strategy,
regulations, the competitive marketplace, regulation,
etc.
• Define how the product will benefit the beneficiary
(customer), the enterprise and society
• Expressed in (hopefully) precise terms of System
Development
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Goals - Described
z
z
z
z
z
Are defined (in part) by the architect
Goals exist within the enterprise, and are under the
control of the enterprise
Goals are often traded against Form and Function in
design
– Therefore should be considered an independent
attribute
Embodied in a statement of goals (specifications?,
requirements?, constraints?)
Goals drive metrics to be used in the product/system
success criteria
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Value Identification Goals on Externally Delivered Function
z
z
z
Examine the operand
associated with value
Identify the attribute of the
operand whose change is
associated with value
Define the transformation
of the attribute associated
with value, in solution
neutral form and its
attributes
Beneficiary
Operand
Need
Beneficial
Attribute
Solution neutral
transforming
Attribute of
transforming
Need
Intent
This will lead you to a value focused solution
neutral statement of intent on function
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Other
Attribute
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Value Questions (2) - Value Identification
z
z
z
z
z
z
Who is the beneficiary?
What is the need?
What is the value related
operand?
What is the value related
attribute?
What is a solution neutral
statement of the value related
transformation?
What are other important
attributes of operand and
transformation?
Value
Identification
Beneficiary
Operand
Need
Beneficial
Attribute
Solution neutral
transforming
Attribute of
transforming
Identifying/
Incorporating
Need
Functional
Intent
Intent
Solution neutral statement becomes the intent on function
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Other
Attribute
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Value Identification - Refrigerator
z
z
z
z
z
Who is the beneficiary?
What is the need?
What is the value related
operand?
What is the value related
attribute?
What is a solution neutral
statement of the value
related transformation?
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Value Identification - Refrigerator
Value
Identification
z
z
z
z
z
Beneficiary = kitchen
worker
Need “my food rots too
fast”
Operand = food
Value attribute =
spoilage rate
Transformation =
slowing
Kitchen
worker
Food
“food rots
too fast”
Spoilage
rate
Slowing
How much?
Identifying/
Incorporating
Need
Food spoilage
rate slowing
Intent
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Intent
z
z
z
z
An Intent is
– What the purpose is
– What someone hopes to achieve or obtain
Is always defined by someone
The definition of intent is more limited and precise than
goal - it is a fragment of the total goal statement
Useful to create a special symbol for this information
object (with a darker blue, indicating firming up of an
understanding of need, and with an arrow to remind you
of where you are going)
Intent
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Template for Statements of Functional Goals
z
z
z
z
z
Characterize the Operand
State the beneficial attribute in
the operand that will change
State other attributes of the
operand that are important
State the transformation
Stat the attributes of the
transformation that are important
Operand
Beneficial
Attribute
Other
Attribute
Solution neutral
transforming
Attribute of
transforming
Functional
Intent
Intent
Solution neutral statement becomes the template for functional goals
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Solution Neutral to Specific Function
z
z
z
Next identify the
specific operand
(if not the same
as the generic
operand), and its
specific
beneficial
attribute
Then choose a
the process part
of the concept
which specializes
the solution
neutral process
Define attributes
of the process
Beneficiary
Need
Operand
Beneficial
Attribute
Solution neutral
transforming
Need
Specific
Operand
Beneficial
Attribute
Attribute of
transforming
Specific system
Operating
Functional
intent
Attribute of
operating
Intent
Function
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Specific Function to Specific Form
Beneficiary
z
z
Next choose
the generic
and specific
form part of
the concept
to execute
the specific
process
Define the
attributes of
the form
Need
Operand
Beneficial
Attribute
Solution neutral
transforming
Need
Specific
Operand
Beneficial
Attribute
Attribute of
transforming
Specific system
Operating
Functional
intent
Attribute of
operating
Intent
Function
Generic
Concept form
Specific
System form
Attribute of
form
Form
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Complete Value Template - Refrigerator
Kitchen
worker
Food
Use context
“food rots
too fast”
Spoilage
rate
Whole product
system
Slowing
By 90%
Chilling
Food spoilage
rate slowing
Chiller
Efficiently
At 40˚
Refrigerator
Need
Intent
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
Function
16 ft3
Form
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Value - A Formal Definition
Value is delivered when the external process(es) acts on
the operand in such a way that the needs of the
beneficiary are satisfied at a desirable cost.
??
Beneficiary
Operand
Need
Beneficial
Attribute
Value Delivery
Note that in
operations,
intent
‘vanishes’
unless
recorded
Specific system
Operating
Specific
System form
The relation between the beneficiary and the operand in undefined (the
beneficiary could be the operand, own the operand, love/hate the operand, etc.)
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Levels of Intent - Corkscrew
Wine
Bottle
System
Wine
drinker
“want to
enjoy wine”
Wine
Bottle
Cork
Accessing
Opening
Removing
Translating
Breaking
Breaching
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
Breaching
Highest level
intent
Higher level
intent
Functional
intent
Sometimes have to reason through
several layers of intent
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Destroying
80
Levels of Intent - Telescope
Scientist
“learn about
stars”
Star
Star
Star
light
Studying
Imaging
Focusing
??
??
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
Higher level
intent
Functional
intent
Sometimes have to reason through
several layers of intent
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
81
Intent as Operand plus Process?
z
So what are the value related operand and processes
associated with
– A movie?
– A book?
– Styling of a laptop?
– Driving a BMW SUV rather than a Ford of the same
quality and performance (i.e. brand name)?
– Strategic planning?
– Owning a piece of fine art?
– Collecting coins?
– A dress or suit?
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Object
Types of Goals
Goals are a mixture of several types:
z
Intent on Function
Process
Intent
Object
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Intent on instrument Object
Intent on the design process
Intent on the implementation process
Intent on the operation process
Intent on the strategic process
Intent on the market process
Intent on the regulatory process
Intent on the technology process
See the pattern???
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Intent
Intent
83
Goals on Function, Form, …
z
Goals can be on externally delivered Function; include
adverb or adverbial phrase (try for solution neutral)
–
–
–
–
–
z
seat 400 people
keep time to 1/100 second accuracy
move 400 people 600 miles in 3 hours
image quality of a copier
inspirational or aesthetic value
Goals can be on Form, either at interface or interior
– use GE parts
– Interface to IEEE 488 standard
– don’t use plutonium
z
Goals can be an overall product/system, its inputs and
outputs, with complex connection to form & function
– Buy from a certain supplier
– create new paradigm for this class of products
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Summary - Goals
• Goal is defined as
– what it planned to be accomplished
– what the designer hopes to achieve or obtain
• Expressed in the precise terms of Product Development
• Will include goals derived from beneficiary Needs (goals
from beneficiaries) i.e. the functional goals
• Will also include goals from corporate strategy,
regulations, competitive analysis, etc.
• Embodied in a statement of goals (requirements ?)
• Is defined (in part) by the architect
• Exist within, and under the control of the enterprise, and
are traded against other attributes
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Assignment for September
For the different upstream influences which flow to goals
(in your enterprise) identify:
z
Who is the beneficiary?
z
How are needs codified and interpreted? By whom?
z
How are intents incorporated into system goals? By
Whom?
z
Where is the enterprise boundary?
You will learn more about upstream influences in System
Engineering and Marketing.
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Reverse Engineering from Form to Function
and Goal
z
z
z
Form is visible, measurable, etc., and can usually be
reproduced by good craftsmen (Stradivarius ??)
Functions can usually (or sometimes) be inferred by
experts from form by knowledge of underlying physics,
logic, common practice and context (operands and
other supporting objects)
Quantitative goals can rarely be inferred from form
without extensive modeling, and may never be
inferable (e.g. gross margin)
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Summary: Upstream Influences
z
z
z
z
z
Needs exist in the mind of the beneficiary, and are
fuzzy and ambiguous and are interpreted (in part) by
the architect
Goals are established by interpreting needs, and
should be clear and precise. An important goal is the
functional intent associated with primary externally
delivered value, expressed as a solution neutral
function. The architect participates in setting goals
After concept selection, function is defined in the
design solution specific domain, ensures goals can be
met, and is defined by the architect
Form exists in the physical/informational domain,
delivers function, and is defined by the architect
Goals, Function and Form are often traded-off in
conceptual design
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Holistic Framework for Product and
Operations
global
why
global
what
global
how
global
where
the
the
the
the
system
system
system elements
are
is built accomplishes acts
global
when
global
global
who how much
things
occur
does
them
does
it cost
form
cost
timing operator
opportunity performance process structure dynamics user
expense
need
goals
function
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Summary - Product Attributes
Product
Function
Customer
Corporate
Societal
Needs
Product
Goal
Operating
Costs
Product
Timing
Product
Form
Product
Operator
Architecture
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Product Attributes
Beneficiary
Operand
Need
Beneficial
Attribute
Supporting
Systems
Value Delivery
Operating
Delivering
primary
process
Operator
Operating
cost
Interpreting &
Incorporating
Intent
Product/
System
Note: Dynamics is implicit in
Process
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Framework - Needs to Value to Concept
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Who are the beneficiaries? What are their needs?
What is the value related operand and its states?
What is a solution neutral statement of the value
related transformation - the externally delivered
value related function? (solution neutral
function)
What are the solution specific functions which
will achieve this transformation? (the function
part of concept)
What are the solution specific abstractions of
form that can execute this process?(the form
part of concept)
What are potential multi-functional aspects of the
concept process?
How does value trace to the beneficiaries?
Needs
Value - Goals
Concept
Architecture
Operations
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Framework - Concept In Context
z
z
z
z
z
z
What is the product system?
What are the supporting
systems?
What is the whole product
system?
What is the use context?
What are the boundaries?
What are the interfaces? What are
the operands that are passed or
shared? Interface process?
Interface instrument objects?
Needs
Value - Goals
Concept
Architecture
Operations
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Framework - Concept to Architecture
z
z
z
z
z
z
What are the principal internal
functions? Operands along the way?
How is the form decomposed into
elements? (decomposition of form)
What is the structure of the
elements? How are the internal
functions mapped to elements of
form?
How do these combine to produce
the emergent externally delivered
value related function?
What other value related external
functions are delivered?
Are there supporting processes and
objects?
Needs
Value - Goals
Concept
Architecture
Operations
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Framework - Architecture to Operations
z
z
z
z
What is the sequence in the process
of delivering primary function?
Are their contingency, emergency or
stand alone processes?
Are there commissioning,
decommissioning and maintaining
processes?
Is clock time important to
understand in the operations?
Needs
Value - Goals
Concept
Architecture
Operations
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ServeCo
z
z
z
z
ServeCo is a 50 is person engineering design services
provider
Typically in the civil/mechanical engineering domain
Typically taking on 3-5 simultaneous projects, lasting
about a year
Privately owned by key employees and a few private
investors
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Value Questions (1)
z
z
z
What is the mission
of our enterprise,
and the outcomes
Who is the
beneficiary?
What is their
need(s)?
Beneficiary
Need
Need
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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97
Multiple Beneficiaries - ServeCo
Client
z
z
z
z
These are probably key
beneficiaries and needs
There is is a template for
many engineering
enterprises
There are other
stakeholders competitors, regulators,
suppliers, etc.
Focus this example only
on the client as a
beneficiary
Shareholder
Designs
Competitive
return
Quality
Liquidity
Fast
Project
Partners
Employees
Workshare
Rewarding
employment
Good comm.
Career
growth
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
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Value Questions (2) - Value Identification
z
z
z
z
z
z
Who is the beneficiary?
What is the need?
What is the value related
operand?
What is the value related
attribute?
What is a solution neutral
statement of the value related
transformation?
What are other important
attributes of operand and
transformation?
Value
Identification
Client
Design
Quality design
fast
Complete
Obtaining
Six months
Identifying/
Incorporating
Need
Providing
design
Intent
Solution neutral statement becomes the intent on function
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Quality,
to code
99
Concepts - ServeCo
Client
Design
Quality design
fast
Complete
Quality,
to code
Selected Concept
Obtaining
z
From the perspective of
the beneficiary,
procuring from a small
local design service
provider is only one of
several options
Providing
Six months
Design service
provider
Small local
firm
Developing
internally
Regional firm
???
????
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
Etc.
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Preserving Food Concept - ServeCo
Investors
Partners
Design
Design
Providing
Small Firm
Product/system
boundary
Obtaining
Regulators
Suppliers
Operand and
solution neutral
transformation
Operand -value
related external
object that
changes state
Externally delivered
value related
process
Value related
instrument
object
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Context - ServeCo
Project
Site context
?
Regulators
Whole Service System
Site
Partners
ServeCo
Contractor
Regulators
Subcontractor
Investors
?
Product/system boundary
z
z
What is the whole product system?
What is the usage context in which it fits?
NB: a complete job would include the architecture
of the usage context not just the objects
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Multi-function Concepts
for ServCo
Design
Design
Providing
Providing
Requirements
Understanding
Alternatives
analyzing
Design
documenting
Decomposes to
Specializes to
Has attribute of
Providing a design implies understanding
requirements, analyzing alternatives and documenting
the design that emerges
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Form of a Medium System - ServeCo
ServeCo is an engineering design service firm
It is staffed by about 50 people in 20 roles
ServeCo
1
President &
CEO
1
1
VP
Client Service
1
3
Project
Manager
1
1
Senior
Eng A
1
1
Senior
Eng B
4
Client
Officer
VP
Finance and
Administration
VP Eng
Senior
Eng C
8
6
Eng A
Staff
Eng B
Staff
IS
Manager
Quality
Manager
7
Eng C
Staff
2
Quality
Eng
1
1
1
Finance
Manager
3
IT Staff
Admin/Hr
Director
4
4
Finance
Staff
Admin/HR
Facilities
Staff
NB: these aggregations are ad hoc and not “correct”
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prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Project Executing Process - Primary
Function
Project Starting
Client
Officer
Project Executing
Alternatives
Analyzing
Construction
Drawing
Geotechnical
Work
Checking
Surveys
Reviewing
Computations
Project Recording
Construction
Drawings
Equipment
Managing
Communicating
Quality
Engineer
Project
Manager
Sen. Eng. &
Eng. Staff
Finance
Staff
Subcontractor
Managing
Knowledge
Systems
Cash
Managing
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Project Closing
105
Project
Problematic
Solved
ServCo System Operating
Business
Developing
Get Ready
Contract
Project
Plan
Project
Starting
Get Set
Project Delivery
Project
Artifacts
Report or
Design
Project
Executing
Project
Closing
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Go
Get Unset
106
Business Development Process Zoom
Project
Problematic
Relationship
Building
Client
Request for
Proposal
Client
Officer
Knowledge
Systems
Data
Gathering
Win
Evaluating
Negotiating
And Pricing
Proposal
Contract
Contract
Signing
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
VP Client
Service
107
Project Delivery Process Zoom
Project Starting
Work Breakdown
Structure Defining
Planning and
Scope Reviewing
Project file and
records locating
Quality Management
Milestone Defining
Health & Safety
Reviewing
Marketing Info.
Inputting
PE Stamping &
Sealing Defining
Project Planning
Project Management
Plan
Software
Validating &
Licensing
Project Executing
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Project Closing
Client
Officer
Quality
Engineer
Project
Manager
Sen. Eng. &
Eng. Staff
Finance
Staff
Knowledge
Systems
108
Project Closing Process Zoom
Project Starting
Client
Officer
Project Executing
Quality
Engineer
Project Closing
Records Archiving
Project
Manager
Market Information
Gathering
Lessons Learning
Knowledge
Systems
Follow up
Visits
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
109
Project
Problematic
ServCo OPM
Solved
Business
Developing
Contract
Project
Plan
Client
Officer
Project
Starting
Project Delivery
Project
Artifacts
VP Client
Service
Project
Executing
Quality
Engineer
Project
Closing
Business
Managing
Quality
Assuring
Health & Safety
Assuring
Project
Manager
Sen. Eng. &
Eng. Staff
Finance
Staff
Report or
Design
VP Eng.
CTO
Knowledge
Systems
1st Tier
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
Corporate
Governing
Quality
Manager
CAO
Admin
Staff
CIO
Finance
Managing
Admin/HR
Director
HR
Staff
Human
Resource
Managing
Purple processes
affect all employees
Corporate
Communication
Managing
Info System
Supporting
Employee
Educating
President
& CEO
3rd Tier
Facilities
Managing
Property
Manager
Legal
Counseling
Contracted
Counsel
IT
Staff
Finance
Manager
2nd Tier
External
110
Other Operating Issues?
z
z
z
z
Stand alone ops?
Contingencies?
Emergencies?
Is real clock time important?
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
ServeCo Value Delivery
Operand
Project
Problematic
Value
Solved
Client
Quality design
fast
Project Delivery
Project
Starting
Business
Developing
Project
Executing
Project
Closing
Project
Goals and
Concept
ServeCo
prepared by Rachael Martino 2007
Massachusetts Institute of Technology © Ed Crawley 2007
112