Women ’sB ragg ingR igh ts : Ove rcom ing Modes tyNo rmstoFac i l i ta te Women ’sSe l f P romo t ion Au tho r : Jess iSm i th& MeghanHun toon Th isisthepee rrev iewedve rs iono fthefo l low inga r t ic le :Sm i th ,Jess iL . ,and MeghanHun toon . "Women ’sB ragg ingR igh ts Ove rcom ing Modes tyNo rmstoFac i l i ta te Women ’sSe l f -P romo t ion . " Psycho logyo f Women Qua r te r ly38no .4(2013 ) :447 -459 ,wh ichhasbeenpub l ishedinf ina lfo rm a tDO I :10 .1177 /0361684313515840.Th isa r t ic le maybeusedfo rnon -comme rc ia lpu rposesin acco rdance W i th W i leyTe rmsandCond i t ionsfo rse l f -a rch iv ing. Psycho logyo f Women Qua r te r ly Sm i th ,Jess iL . ,and MeghanHun toon ."Women ’sB ragg ingR igh ts Ove rcom ing Modes tyNo rmsto Fac i l i ta te Women ’sSe l f -P romo t ion . "Psycho logyo f Women Qua r te r ly38no .4(2013 ) :447 -459 . DO I :10 .1177 /0361684313515840. Made ava i lab le th rough Mon tana S ta te Un ive rs i ty ’s Scho la rWo rks scho la rwo rks .mon tana .edu Women ’s B ragg ing R igh ts : Ove rcom ing Modes ty No rms toFac i l i ta te Women ’s Se l f P romo t ion J e s s iL .Sm i t ha n dM e g h a nH u n t o o n :D e p a r tm e n to fP s y c h o l o g y ,M o n t a n aS t a t eU n i v e r s i t y ,B o z em a n ,M T Abs t rac t W i th in Ame r i can gende rno rmsistheexpec ta t iontha twomen shou ldbemodes t . We a rguetha tv io la t ingth is ‘ ‘mode s t yno rm ’ ’ by boas t ing abou t one ’s accomp l ishmen ts causes women toexpe r ience uncom fo r tab le s i tua t iona la rousa ltha tleadstolowe rmo t iva t ion fo randpe r fo rmanceonase l f -p romo t iontask .We hypo thes ized tha tsu ch nega t ive e f fec ts cou ld be o f fse t when an ex te rna l sou rce fo rthe i rs i tua t iona la rousa l was made a va i lab le . To tes thypo theses , 78 women s tuden tsf roma U .S . No r thwes te rn un ive rs i ty w ro te a scho la rsh ip app l i ca t ione s saytop romo tetheme r i ts o fe i the rthese l f(modes tyno rmv io -la ted )o rano the rpe rsonasale t te r o f re fe ren ce(modes tyno rm no tv io la ted ) .Ha l f we re random lyass igned to hea rin fo rma t ionabou ta( fake ) sub l im ina lno i se gene ra to r intheroomtha tm igh t cause‘ ‘d iscom fo r t ’ ’(m isa t t r ibu t ionava i lab le ) andha l fwe re to ldno th ingabou tthegene ra to r(no rma lcond i t ion :m isa t t r ibu t ion no tava i lab le ) .Pa r t ic ipan tsra tedthetaskand44 new na i ve pa r t ic ipan ts judgedhow much scho la rsh ip money toawa rd each essay . Resu l ts con f i rmed p red i c t ion s : unde r no rma lcond i t ions ,v io la t ingthemodes ty no rmledtodec reasedmo t iva t ion andpe r fo rmance . Howe ve r , tho sewho v io la ted themod -es ty no rm w i th a m isa t t r ibu t ion sou rce repo r tedinc reasedin te res t , adop ted fewe rpe r fo rmance -avo idance goa ls , pe rce ivedthe i rownwo rk tobeo fh ighe rqua l i ty ,andp roduced h ighe rqua l i t ywo rk . Resu l ts sugges ttha twhen as i tua t ionhe lpswomen toescapethed iscom fo r to fde fy ingthe mode s t y no rm , se l f -p romo t ion mo t iva t ion and pe r fo rmance imp rove .Fu r the r imp l i ca t ions fo r enhanc ing women ’ sa cadem icandwo rkp lace expe r iencesa red iscussed . Keywo rd s so c i a lno rm s , mo t i v a t ion ,a t t r ibu t ion ,p e r fo rm an c e , mod e s t y ,imp r e s s ion m an a g em en t e th e ram ag a z in e S ev e r a ly e a r sago ,w ew e r epu t t ingtog e f e a tu r in gth e a ch i ev em en t so fwom enf a cu l tyonc ampu s .W pu tou tac a l lfo rwom entosh a r eth e i rsu c c e s s e sand e a c comp l i sh -m en t sint e a ch ingo rr e s e a r cho rf am i lyl i f e .W r e c e iv ednor ep l i e s .W ed id ,how ev e r ,r e c e iv em any r ep l i e s f romp eop l et e l l ingu sabou to th e rwom enw eshou ldf e a tu r e andth egoodwo rkth a tth e s eo th e rwom enonc ampu sw e r e am -p l e ssu do ing .Ex cha sou r si l lu s t r a t eth a tm any wom en a r ef in ew i thr e f e r en c ingth egoodwo rk so fo th e r sbu ta r e ro -mo t eth em s e lv e s .Su chpo s s ib l ed i s com fo r t r e t i c en ttop romal i f e long p ro c e s so f l ik e lys t em s ,a tl e a s tinp a r t ,f l e a rn ing g end e rno rm s(B l ak emo r e ,2003 ) ,wh e r eby g i r l sa r e epo l i t eandqu i e t , typ i c a l lyto ldto‘ ‘ a c tl ik eal ady ’ ’andb t ak eupl i t t l esp a c e ,andb e mod e s t (A l l en ,G e rv a i s ,& ;B l ak emo r e ,2003 ) .G i r l sa r ethu sso c i a l i z ed Sm i th , 2013 tob emod e s t (B ron s t e in ,2006 ;L e ap e r ,B r e ed , Ho f fm an , &P e r lm an , 2002 ) , andr e s e a r chshow sth i smod e s ty no rm l tp ro f e s s ion a lc a r e e r s(Budwo r th en ’ sadu in f lu en c e swom ann , 2010 l i ck ,1999 ) . &M ;Rudm an ,1998 ;Rudm an& G P ro f e s s ion a lc a r e e r sanda c a -d em i cpu r i s t sinth eUn i t ed eop l es e l f -p romo t ein o rd e rto S t a t e so f t enr equ i r eth a tp a ch i ev esu c c e s s .Th e r e fo r e ,con fo rm ing to mod e s tyno rm s m ayp r ev en twom enf romadv an c ingo rsu c c e ed in g ( e . g . ,n e go t i a t in gah i ghs t a r t in gs a l a r y ;Sm a l l ,s e l f -p romo t e ino rd e rtoa ch i e v esu c c e s s .Th e r e fo r e ,con fo rm in gto mod e s t yno rm sm a yp r e v en twom enf romad v an c in go r su c c e ed in g( e . g . ,n e go t i a t in gah i ghs t a r t in gs a l a r y ; Sm a l l , G e l f and ,B ab co ck ,& G e t tm an , 2007 ;W ad e , 2001 ) . Thu s ,i ti sc r i t i c a ltound e r s t and w ay s toenh an c e wom en ’ ss e l f -p romo t ionw i thou t in cu r r ingno rm -b r e ak ing b a ck l a sh .Th ea imo fth ecu r r en ts tudyw a s to emp i r i c a l lyt e s twh e th e rwom en ’ ss e l f -p romo t ion t iv a t ion cou ldb ep ro t e c t edag a in s t p e r fo rm an c eandmo su chno rm -b r e ak ingd i s com fo r tu s ingam i s a t t r ibu t ion in t e rv en t ion . W ea rgu eth a tb r e ak ingth eg end e rmod e s ty no rm en toexp e r i en c ed i s com fo r t(m an i f e s t eda s c au s e swom s i tu a t ion a la rou s a l ,anx i e ty ,o rf e a r ) .C e r t a in ly ,on ew ayto tou to fs e l f e s c ap esu chd i s com fo r ti stodownp l ayo rop p romo t inga l ltog e th e r ,th e r ebycon fo rm ingtoth emod e s ty no rm .Ind e ed ,wom en o f t en w an t topub l i c ly app e a r mod e s t (Gou ld&S lon e ,1982 ) .Tob emod e s tm e an sh av ing amod e r a t eop in iono fon e ’ ss e l fa ndl a ck ingp r e t en t iou sn e s s , a sw e l la sd eny ingr e spon s ib i l i tyfo rsu c c e s s e sand a c c ep t ingr e spon s ib i l i tyfo r f a i l u r e s(G o u l d &S lon e ,1982 ; Mo s s -R a cu s in ,Ph e l an ,& R u dm a n ,2 0 1 0 ) .F o rex amp l e , wom enlow e rth e i rc l a im so f s u c c e s s i nap u b l i c(v s .p r iv a t e )s e t t ing ,wh e r e a sm en ’ sc l a im s o fs u c c e s sa r en o ti n f lu en c edbyth es e t t ing(Gou ld &S lon e , 1 9 8 2 ) .T h i sm o d e s t yno rmi semb edd edw i th inth ecommun a l o r i e n t a t i o ne x p e c t a t ion sfo r wom en .Ind e ed , wom en a r e s o c i a l i z e dt oh i g h l yv a lu ecommun a lgo a l s ,su cha sth ego a l t oh e l po t h e r sa n dconn e c tw i tho th e r s(D i ekm an ,B rown , J o h n s t o n , &C l a r k ,2010 ) . Wom ena r eth e r e fo r eexp e c t edto b es e l f l e s s ,w h i c hi son eo fth ecompon en t so f mod e s ty (W a d e ,2 0 0 1 ) .B e c au s e wom ena r eexp e c t edtob es e l f l e s s , th eya r ea l soexp e c t edtoadvo c a t efo ro th e r sr a th e rth an fo rth em s e lv e s .T h eimp l i c a t ionth eni sth a tth e mod e s ty no rmp r e s su r e s wom entoadvo c a t efo rr ew a rd sfo ro th e r p eop l e ,bu tno tfo rth em s e lv e s .Su chcu l tu r a lno rm sm ay b e on er e a son why g end e rd i sp a r i t i e sp e r s i s tin h i r ing p r a c t i c e s ,p romo t ion s ,aw a rd s ,r a i s e s ,ando th e rimpo r t an t w o r k p l a c eo u t c om e s(Am an a t u l l a h & Mo r r i s ,20 10 ;Ru dm an , 1 9 9 8 ) . N o rm -C o n s i s t e n ta n dI n c o n s i s t e n tB e h a v i o r W h a th a p p e n sw h e nsom eon eadh e r e s to(v s .v io l a t e s )ag iv en g e n d e rn o rm ?A d h e r ingtog end e rno rm sc anb eb en e f i c i a l . W om e nw h ob e h a v einano rm con s i s t en tm ann e ra r el ik ed m o r e t h a nw om e nw hob eh av e inano rm in con s i s t en tm ann e r (C r aw f o r d ,1 9 8 8 ) .Fo rex amp l e ,awom anwhod i sp l ay ss ad n e s s( ag e n d e r a p p rop r i a t eemo t ionfo r wom en ; Cond ry & C o n d r y ,1 9 7 6 )i na nin t e rv i ews e t t ingi sv i ew ed mo r epo s i t i v e l yt h a nt h es am e wom an whod i sp l ay sang e r—w i thth e o p p o s i t eb e i n gt r u efo rm en(B r e s co l l & Uh lm ann ,2008 ) . T h i sp o s i t i v ep e r c ep t iono fno rmcon s i s t en cyt r an s l a t e sto o t h e rim p o r t a n to u t com e s .Fo rex amp l e ,wom enwhoadh e r e t og e n d e rn o rm sb yno texp r e s s ingang e ra r ea c co rd edh igh e r s t a t u sa n dh i g h e rw ag e s ,andth eya r es e ena smo r ecomp e t en t t h a nw om e nw h odoexp r e s sang e r(B r e s co l l & Uh lm ann , 2 0 0 8 ;R u dm a n &G l i ck ,2001 ) . Wh e r e a sa c t inginano rm con s i s t en tm ann e ri so f t en b en e f i c i a l(W ad e ,2001 ) ,v io l a t ingag iv enno rmi sn eg a t i v e l yr e g a r d e d .P e op l ew hob e h a v eina m an n e rin co n s i s t en t w i t hg e n d e rn o rm so f t e nsu f f e rin t e rp e r so n a lc on s e qu en c e s (B r e s c o l l ,2 0 1 1 ;B r e s c o l l & Uh lm an n ,20 08 ; Mo s s -R a cu s i n e ta l . ,2 0 1 0 ;R u dm an ,19 98 ;R udm a n &G l i c k ,19 99 ) .Fo r e x am p l e ,e v e ni nc i r c um s t an c e sw h e r eag en t i cqu a l i t i e sa r e n e c e s s a r y( e . g . ,m a n a g em en to r CEOpo s i t io n s ) , wom ena r e m o r ep e r s o n a l l yd e r o g a t edan dd i s l ik edbyo t h e r s wh enth ey d i s p l a ya g e n t i c(m a s c u l i n e )ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s(B r e s c o l l ,20 11 ) . T h i s‘ ‘ b a c k l a s h ’ ’c a nu l t im a t e l yr e su l ti n ag en t i cw om en e x p e r i e n c i n gh i r i n g ,p r om o t i on , an dw a g ed i s c r im in a t i on (R u dm a n &G l i c k ,19 99 ) . W om e nw h ob o a s t abou tth e i r own a c comp l i shm en t s v i o l a t et h eg e n d e rno rmo f mod e s ty(Rudm an ,1998 ) .Su ch ‘ ‘ s e l f p r om o t i n g ’ ’i sd e f i n e da sd i vu lg i ngon e ’ sow na c com p l i s hm e n t sa n dc r e d en t i a l s .Inan in t e r v i ews e t t i ng ,wh e r esu ch s e l f p r om o t i o nm i g h tb ev i ew eda se s s e n t i a l t osu c c e s s ,w om en m i gh tf i ndth em s e l v e sinado ub l eb i nd :I fth eys e l f -p r om o t e , th eya r ev i o l a t in gg e nd e rno rm san dm i gh tex p e r i en c eb a ck l a sh ;i fth eydono ts e l f -p romo t e ,t h e ym ig h tno tco nv eyt h e i r qu a l i f i c a t i on s(Bow l e s &B ab co ck ,20 12 ) .T hu s ,ev enth ou gh th es e t t i ngr e qu i r e ss e l f p r om o t io n , wom en ’ sv i o l a t i ono fth e g e nd e rno rm m ayl e a dton e g a t i v eco n s eq u e n c e s . Fu r th e rmo r e , wom en m ayb e mo r el ik e lyto‘ ‘po l i c e ’ ’ o th e r wom en ’ sg end e rno rmv io l a t ion .A sad emon s t r a t ion o fth i sp a t t e rn ,Rudm an(1998 )h adwom enand m eneng ag e inanin t e rv i ewt a skw i thtwoo th e rp eop l e .On eo fth eapp l i c an t sw a sas e l f -p romo t ingwom anandth es e condw a se i th e r as e l f -p romo t ing m ano ras e l f e f f a c ing m an .P a r t i c ip an t s w e r eto ldth eywou ldb echoo s ingon eo fth etwoapp l i c an t s a sth e i rp a r tn e rinacomp e t i t iv eg am ew i thth epo t en t i a lto w inac a shp r i z e .R e su l t sshow edth a ton lywom enfoundth e s e l f -p romo t ing wom anl e s scomp e t en t ,l e s sso c i a l lya t t r a c t iv e ,andl e s sh i r ab l eth anth es e l f -p romo t ing m an . Wh a ti s mo r e , wom end i sp ropo r t ion a t e lycho s eth es e l f -p romo t ing m ana sth e i rp a r tn e rov e rth es e l f -p romo t ing wom an ;how ev e r ,m encho s eequ a l lyb e tw e en m enand wom en .Impo r t an t ly ,th er e su l t s show edth a t wh en a s e l f -p romo t ing wom anw a supag a in s tas t rong m a l eapp l i c an t ,sh ew a sl e s s l ik e ly tog e t th e job ,e sp e c i a l ly i fwom enw e r em ak ing th eh i r ingd e c i s ion(Rudm an ,1998 ) . No ton lydoon look e r sd i sp a r ag ewom enwhov io l a t eg en d e rno rm s ,bu twom enth em s e lv e so f t engotog r e a tl eng th sto avo idth epo t en t i a lb a ck l a sha s so c i a t edw i thno rmv io l a t ion s , ev enwh eni tgo e sag a in s tth e i rs e l f in t e r e s t(B r e s co l l ,2011 ) . Fo rin s t an c e ,wom enwhoa r e mod e s tandcommun a lshou ld no tb eou tfo rs e l f -g a in ,andr e s e a r chshow sth a t wom endo no tn ego t i a t ea se f f e c t iv e lya sm en—no tb e c au s eth eya r e inh e r en t ly un sk i l l eda tn ego t i a t ion s , bu tb e c au s e wom en downp l ayth e i rn ego t i a t ionsk i l l stoavo idth eb a ck l a sha s so c i a t ed w i thg end e rno rmv io l a t ion(Am an a tu l l ah & Mo r r i s , 2010 ) .Inth e i rr e s e a r ch ,wom enwhos e l f -p romo t edbyn ego t i a t ingonb eh a l fo fth em s e lv e s( thu sv io l a t ingth e mod e s ty g end e rno rm )con c ed ed mu ch mo r eth antho s e who w e r e n ego t i a t ingonb eh a l fo fo th e r s(wh i chi scon s i s t en tw i tha commun a lin t e rd ep end en tg end e rno rm ) .R e su l t ssugg e s tth a t wom ena r eno tun ab l eton ego t i a t e ,bu tin s t e ad wom en m ay no tn ego t i a t eonth e i rownb eh a l fino rd e rtoavo idth econ s e qu en c e sa s so c i a t edw i thno rmv io l a t ion . Wh en wom ena r ep romo t ingth ea c comp l i shm en t so fa p e e r ,th i so th e r -o r i en t a t iondo e sno tv io l a t eth e mod e s tyg en d e rno rm .A sev id en c e , Mo s s -R a cu s inand Rudm an(2010 ) h adp a r t i c ip an t se i th e rp romo t eth em s e lv e s(mod e s tyno rm v io l a t ion )o rp romo t ea p e e r(mod e s ty no rmcon s i s t en t ) . Wh enwom enp romo t edth ea c comp l i shm en t so fano th e rp e r son ,th eyshow edin c r e a s edp romo t ionsu c c e s s ;incon t r a s t , wh ena sk edtop romo t eth em s e lv e s , wom en w e r el e s ssu c c e s s fu landf e l ti l la te a s e .Thu s ,s im i l a rtoth ep a t t e rnw es aw w i t hn e go t i a t io nr e s e a r ch ,i tdo e sno tap p e a rth a t wom ena r e in c a p a b l eo fp r om o t i nga c comp l i s hm en t s ;r a th e r ,w om ens e em toho ldb a ck wh eni tcom e st osp e c i f i c a l l yp r om o t in gth e i r ow na c comp l i s hm en t s .A dd i t i on a l ly ,m e nin Mo s s -R a c u s in a n dR u dm a n ’ ss t ud yr e po r t edh i gh e rl e v e l so fsu c c e s sa f t e r s e l f p r om o t i n gth an wom en ,su gg e s t i ngth a tth eb a r r i e r st o s e l f p r om o t i o nth a ta r ep r e s en tf o r wom endono tex t e ndt o m e n . Wom en ’ s mo t iv a t ionfo rs e l f -p romo t ings e em sto b e bound edbysp e c i f i ccon t ex tu a lf e a tu r e s ,in c lud ings i tu a t ion a lno rm sth a tsugg e s ta c c ep t an c eo fth eb eh av io rv e r su s no rm sth a tt r igg e rb a ck l a shf e a r s(Rudm an , Mo s s -R a cu s in , G l i ck , &Ph e l an ,2012 ) .Ind e ed ,p eop l ea r etyp i c a l lyun in t e r e s t edinanddono tv a lu ea c t iv i t i e sth a ta r ep e r c e iv edto v io l a t eg end e rno rm s(A l l en &Sm i th ,2011 ;Bo i ch e ,P l a z a , Ch a l ab a ev ,Gu i l l e t ,&S a r r a z in ,2014 ;D i ekm ane ta l . ,2010 ; Ho rg an &Sm i th ,2006 ) .Fo rex amp l e ,h e t e ro s exu a lm en who p a r t i c ip a t ed in a m ed i c a lt a sk s e tup a s no rm in con s i s t en t( i . e . ,at a sktyp i c a lo fnu r s e s )r epo r t edlow e r in t e r e s tinth et a skcomp a r edto m en whoeng ag edinth e sam eta s kth a tw a sp r e s en t eda sno rm con s i s t en t( i . e . ,at a sk typ i c a lo fdo c to r s ;A l l en &Sm i th ,2011 ) .C e r t a in ly ,s t e r eo typ e sandso c i a lno rm scon t r ibu t etoap e r son ’ sr edu c ed mo t iv a t ion ,andsu chr edu c ed mo t iv a t ionintu rnr e in fo r c e s tho s ev e ryso c i a l no rm s— tog e th e rc r e a t ingar e c ip ro c a l f e e d b a c kl o o p(E ag ly , Wo od , &D i ekm a n ,20 00 ; Ru dm a n e ta l . ,2 0 1 2 ;Sm i th ,20 04 ;T hom a n ,Sm i th ,B rown ,C h a s e ,& L e e ,2 0 1 3 ) . On ew ayth a ts t e r eo typ e sandno rm sh a rmap e r son ’ s p e r fo rm an c eand mo t iv a t ioni sth roughth eadop t ion o f p e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e go al s(B rod i sh & D ev in e , 2009 ; Sm i th ,2004 ;Sm i th ,S an son e , & Wh i t e ,2007 ) .Con t empo r a rya ch i ev em en t go a ls cho l a r sh ip(E l l io t& M cG r ego r , 2001 ;F inn ey ,P i ep e r , &B ar ron , 2004 ; H a r a ck i ew i c z , B a r ron ,T au e r ,C a r t e r , & El l io t , 2000 ) show sp e r fo r vo idan c ego a l so r i en tth ep e r sontow a rdavo id ing m an c e -a p e r fo rm an c ef a i lu r er e l a t iv etoo th e r s ;a l t e rn a t iv e ly ,p e r fo rm an c e app roa chgo a l so r i en tap e r sontow a rdp e r fo rm ing w e l lr e l a t iv etoo th e r s . Th e s ego a l sa r ed i f f e r en t i a l ly a c t iv a t edbys a l i en tcon t ex tu a lcu e s(U rd an ,1999 ) . Thu s , on equ e s t ion w ea skinth ep r e s en ta r t i c l ei s wh e th e reng a g ingins e l f -p romo t ionund e rg end e rno rm con s i s t en tv e r su sin con s i s t en tcond i t ion sin f lu en c e s wom en ’ sadop t ion o fp e r fo rm an c e go a l s . Mo r eov e r , wom en ’ slow e rs e l f p romo t ionp e r fo rm an c eand mo tiv a t ioncou ldpo t en t i a l ly co r r e l a t ew i thp e r fo rm an c e av o id an c ego a ladop t iong iv en th a tth e s eavo id an c ego a l sa r ea s so c i a t ed w i thaho s to f m a l ad ap t iv e ou t com e s ,in c lud ing und e rp e r fo rm an c e and d e c r e a s edin t e r e s t(H a r a ck i ew i c ze ta l . ,2000 ) . I f t h es e l f p r om o t io nco n t ex t i sm ad emo r epo s i t iv e ,w om en m a ya d o p tf ew e rp e r f o rm an c e a vo id an c ego a l san din s t e a d a d o p t m o r e p e r f o rm a n c e ap p r o a ch go a l s . P e r f o rm a n c e a p p r o a c hg o a l sa r ech a r a c t e r i z e dbya m i x t u r eo fbo t hpo s i t i v e l ya n dn e g a t iv e l yv a l en c e dan t e c e d e n t s ,in c l ud in gaf e a r o ff a i l u r e ,h i g hcom p e t e n c ev a lu a t i on ,an dcomp e t i t i v e n e s s (E l l i o t& M cG r e go r ,20 01 ) .E du c a t i on a ls t ud i e ssh owaco n s i s t e n tl i n kb e tw e e np e r f o rm an c e a pp ro a c hgo a l san din c r e a s e d a c a d em i cp e r f o rm an c e ,an dsom e t im e s ,in c r e a s e da c ad em i c i n t e r e s t(H a r a c k i ew i c ze ta l . ,20 00 ) . AS i t u a t i o n a lA r o u s a lA c c o u n to fM o d e s t yN o rm V i o l a t i o n On epo t en t i a lw aytom ak es e l f -p romo t ingmo r epo s i t iv efo r wom eni sbyr edu c ings i tu a t ion a la rou s a l .P eop l eo f t en exp e r i en c es i tu a t ion a la rou s a l wh enth eya c tin con s i s t en t ly (Z ann a & Coop e r ,1974 ) .Ind e ed ,p eop l ea r e mo t iv a t edto b eh av eina w ayto m ax im i z econ s i s t en cyandto m in im i z e in con s i s t en cyincogn i t ion s ,f e e l ing s ,anda c t ion s(Sh aw & Sko ln i ck ,1973 ) .Inth i scon t ex t ,con s i s t en cyimp l i e sth a tth e cogn i t ion s ,f e e l ing s ,anda c t ion so fanind iv idu a l‘ ‘m a t ch . ’ ’ Fo rex amp l e ,i fa wom anknow sth a tno rm sd i c t a t eth a t wom enshou ldno tb r agabou tth e i ra c comp l i shm en t sy e tsh e f ind sh e r s e l finas i tu a t ionwh e r esh emu s ts e l f -p romo t e ,th i s ‘ ‘m i sm a t ch ed ’ ’exp e r i en c ec ant r igg e rs i tu a t ion a la rou s a l . Su cha rou s a li so f t enexp e r i en ceda sd i s com fo r t ,anx i e ty , f e a r ,o rn e rvou sn e s s ,a sw e l la sphy s io log i c a lsymp tom s su ch a sin c r e a s ed p e r sp i r a t ion o rh e a r tr a t e(Z ann a& Coop e r ,1974 ) .S i tu a t ion a la rou s a lc anb em i s a t t r ibu t ed , how ev e r ,r edu c ingth ein f lu en c eo fth ed i s com fo r t .Z ann a andCoop e r(1974 )foundth a twh enp rov id edw i thana l t e r n a t eex t e rn a lsou r c eo fa rou s a l( i . e . ,ap i l lth a to s t en s ib ly c au s eda rou s a l ) ,p a r t i c ip an t sindu c edtoexp e r i en c eh igh cogn i t iv ed i s son an c ew e r el e s sl ik e lytof e e lth eyn e ed ed toa c tcon s i s t en t lyandw e r el e s sl ik e lytoch ang eth e i rop i n ion sto m a t chth e i rb eh av io r .B e c au s ep a r t i c ip an t sw e r e ab l eto m i s a t t r ibu t eth ea rou s a la s so c i a t ed w i thcogn i t iv e d i s son an c etoth ep i l l ,th eyd idno th av etoad ju s tth e i rop i n ion s ino rd e r toa l l ev i a t e th ea rou s a lc au s ed( in th i sc a s e )by cogn i t iv ed i s son an c e .Th e i rr e s u l t ssugg e s tth a twh ens i tu a t ion a la rou s a li s m i s a t t r ibu t edto an a l t e rn a t e ex t e rn a l sou r c e ,th en e edtoa c tcon s i s t en t lyi sa l l ev i a t ed(Coop e r , 1998 ;s e ea l so Coop e r ,Z ann a , &T av e s ,1978 ;Z ann a& Coop e r ,1974 ) . M i s a t t r ibu t ings i tu a t ion a la rou s a l i sapo t en t i a lw ay , th en , fo rsom eon etoov e r com eth en e edtoa c tcon s i s t en t ly .L e s s i sknownabou twh e th e rsu ch m i s a t t r ibu t ion so fa rou s a lc an wo rktoov e r com ed e ep lyemb edd edanx i e tyandf e a rr e su l t ingf romcu l tu r a lg end e rno rm sandexp e c t a t ion s .Twos tud i e s on s t e r eo typ e th r e a t an d m i s a t t r ibu t ion do o f f e r p rom i s ingev id en c e ;inbo ths tud i e s ,r e su l t sshow edi tw a s po s s ib l efo rwom entoov e r com eth eanx i e tya s so c i a t edw i th t ak ingas t e r eo typ e th r e a t en in gt e s t( inwh i ch th eno rmi sfo r wom entof a i lth eex am )andimp rov eth e i rp e r fo rm an c e wh en an a l t e rn a t iv e sou r c e fo ra rou s a l w a sp rov id ed (B en -Z e ev ,F e in , &In z l i ch t ,2005 ;John s ,S chm ad e r ,& M a r t en s ,20 05 ) .T yp i c a l ly , wh en wom ena r einas t e r eo t yp e r e l ev an ts i tu a t ion( su cha s wh ent ak inga m a tht e s t )ev en sub t l ecu e ssu cha sm a rk ingth e i rg end e ron th e t e s t ,o rb e ing ou tnumb e r edby m en ,c ant r igg e rs t e r eo typ eth r e a tandl e ad tolow e rp e r fo rm an c e( In z l i ch t &B en -Z e ev ,2000 ;Sm i th e ta l . ,2007 ;Sm i th & Wh i t e ,2002 ) .Y e t ,wh enwom enw e r e g iv enanex t e rn a lsou r c eto m i s a t t r ibu t eth e i ra rou s a l( th ey w e r et augh tth a tth est e r eo typ ei t s e l fi sth esou r c eo fanx i e ty o rshownasub l im in a l no i s eg en e r a to rth a tsuppo s ed ly em i t t edana rou s a l c au s ingno i s e ) ,wom enp e r fo rm edb e t t e r onth em a tht e s tcomp a r edto wom en who w e r eno tg iv en anex t e rn a lsou r c e(B en -Z e eve ta l . ,2005 ;John se ta l . , 2005 ) . Thu s ,i tapp e a r sth a tm is a t t r ibu t inga rou s a lm igh t s e rv ea son ep a thw aytor edu c eth ed i s com fo r ta s so c i a t ed w i thv io l a t ing th eg end e rmod e s tyno rmand thu sf r e ewom en toeng ag einh igh l ev e ls e l f -p romo t ion . S t u d yO v e r v i ew G iv enth a tth ed e s i r etob eh av econ s i s t en t ly w i thth e mod e s tyno rma c t sa sab a r r i e rtos e l f -p romo t ionin wom en (Mo s s -R a cu s ine ta l . , 2010 ; Rudm an , 1998 ; Rudm an & G l i ck ,1999 ) ,ou rp ro j e c ta im edtot e s twh e th e rwom enwho v io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rmbu ta r eg iv enanoppo r tun i tyto m i s a t t r ibu t eanya rou s a l wou ldshowanimp rov em en tin th e i rs e l f -p romo t ion .W ecomp a r edth e s er e su l t stoacond i t ionin wh i ch wom encomp l e t edas im i l a rt a sk bu td id no tb r e akth e mod e s tyno rm—n am e lybyp romo t ingth e a c comp l i shm en t so fsom eon ee l s e .W ea s s e s s edbo th mo t i v a t ion( in t e r e s t ,p e r fo rm an c eapp ro a chgo a ladop t ion ,and p e r fo rm an c e avo id an c ego a ladop t ion )andp romo t ionp e r fo rm an c e( a c tu a lands e l f -p e r c e iv ed ) . W ea l soin c lud ed twopo t en t i a lcon t ro lv a r i ab l e s :l eng tho fth ep romo t ion e s s ayint e rm so f wo rd coun t and p a r t i cp an t s ’r a t ing s abou tth ep e r c e iv edv a lu eo fth ep romo t iont a sk . Th i sr e a son ingl edu stop ropo s etwohypo th e s e s .F i r s t , w ehypo th e s i z edth a tw e wou ldr ep l i c a t eth ee f f e c to fth e mod e s tyno rm w i th inth eno rm al(no m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l econd i t ion )su chth a ts e l f -p romo t ing wom en whov io l a t edth e mod e s ty no rm wou ld b el e s s mo t iv a t ed and wou ldp e r fo rmwo r s eth anwom enwhop romo t edonb eh a l f o fano th e r(Hypo th e s i s1 ) .S e cond ,w ehypo th e s i z edth a tth e n eg a t iv eimp a c to fv io l a t ingth e mod e s tyno rm wou ldb e a t t enu a t edby m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab i l i ty wh e r ebyth e mo t i v a t ionandp e r fo rm an c eg apb e tw e ens e l f -p romo t ingand o th e r -p romo t ing wom en wou ldc lo s e wh ens e l f -p romo t ing wom en w e r ep rov id ed w i tha m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c efo rany s i tu a t ion a la rou s a l(Hypo th e s i s2 ) . B r e a k i n gd ow nou rs e condhypo th e s i s ,w ep r ed i c t edth a t w h e np r o v i d e dw i t hou rm i s a t t r ibu t ion av a i l ab l eexp e r im en t a lc o n d i t i o n ,w om enwhov io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rmwou ld showequ a lo rimp rov ed mo t iv a t ionandp e r fo rm an c ecom p a r edto wom en whod idno tv io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rm , thu sc lo s ingth e mod e s tyno rmg apfoundund e rno rm a l cond i t ion s(Hypo th e s i s2 a ) .Fu r th e rmo r e ,w ep r ed i c t edth a t m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab i l i ty wou ldenh an c e mo t iv a t ionan d p e r f o rm a n c ef o rw om e nwh ov i o l a t edt h em od e s tyno rmcom p a r e dt ow om e nw hov i o l a t edth em od e s tyno rmbu tw e r eno t p r o v i d e dw i t ha na l t e r n a t e ex t e rn a lm i s a t t r i bu t i onso u r c e (H y p o t h e s i s2 b ) .F i n a l l y ,w ean t i c ip a t ed th a t t h em i s a t t r ib u t io n s o u r c ew o u l dh a v enoe f f e c tonw om enp r om o t in gonb e h a l fo f a n o t h e rp e r s o n (P r e d i c t i on2 c ) . Insum ,w eex p e c t ed t h a tw om en i n t h en o rmv i o l a t i o nco nd i t i onw i t ho u tam i s a t t r i bu t i onso u r c e w o u l dd i f f e rf r omt h er em a i n i ngt h r e ec e l l so fou r2(m od e s t y no rmv i o l a t edv s .no tv i o l a t ed ) 2(m i s a t t r ib u t io nav a i l ab l e v s .no tav a i l ab l e )d e s i gn . Me thod P a r t i c i p a n t sa n dS t u d yD e s i g n P a r t i c ip an t sw e r e78 wom en(Mage¼ 19 .78y e a r s ,s t and a rd d e v i a t io n¼3 . 24 ,r an g e¼18 –4 2 ;90 .6 %Wh i t e ;2 . 1%A f r i c a n s i a n ;1% L a t i no ;2 . 1% N a t iv e Am e r i c a n ; Am e r i c a n ;1% A 3 . 2 %un r e po r t e d )i n t ro du c t o r yp s y c ho l og ys t ud en t swh op a r t i c i p a t e dfo rp a r t i a lco u r s ec r ed i t .P a r t i c i p a n t sw e r er an dom ly a s s i gn edtoon eo ff ou rco nd i t i on si na2(m od e s tyno rmv i o l a t e dv s .no tv i o l a t ed ) 2(m i s a t t r ib u t io nav a i l a b l ev s .no t av a i l ab l e )b e tw e en -p a r t i c i p a n t sd e s i gn .T h e r ew e r e39wom en ine a c ho fth em i s a t t r ib u t io nco nd i t i on s ,w i thap p r ox im a t e l y eq u a lnumb e r so fp a r t i c i p a n t sw i t h i ne a ch m i s a t t r i bu t i onco n d i t i ona s s i gn edtoth em od e s tyno rmv i o l a t e d( n¼21i nbo t h m i s a t t r i bu t io nco nd i t i on s )an dmo d e s t yno rmno tv i o l a t ed(n¼ 18inbo th m i s a t t r i bu t i onco nd i t i on s )cond i t ion s .B e c au s eo f t im econ s t r a in t s ,d a t af romfou rp a r t i c ip an t s( twoine a ch o fth em i s a t t r ibu t ioncond i t ion s )w e r ei n c om p l e t eonth e su r v e ym e a su r e s ;how ev e r ,b e c a u s et h esu r v e y sw e r eco un t e rb a l an c e d(w i t ht h eex c e p t io no fth em a n i pu l a t i onch e c k an dd em og r a ph i csu rv ey wh i c hw e r ea lw ay sh a nd edou ta t th ev e rye ndo fth es t ud ys e s s io n ) ,th em i s s i ngd a t aw e r eno t co n s i s t en t l yonon eou t c om e .T hu s ,d e g r e e so ff r e e dom w e r e po r tr e f l e c tth enum b e ro fp a r t i c i p a n t sw i t hcomp l e t ed a t a onth a tp a r t i cu l a rm e a s u r e . P r o c e d u r ea n dM a t e r i a l s P a r t i c ip an t sw e r er e c ru i t edfo ras tudyonth e‘ ‘P sy cho logyo f Commun i c a t ion , ’ ’suppo s ed lyincon jun c t ionw i thth eO f f i c e o fC a r e e rS e rv i c e s ,m e an t‘ ‘ tolooka tw ay stoimp rov ep e r son a le s s ay s . ’ ’A l lp a r t i c ip an t sw e r eto ldth eywou ldb ew r i t ing an e s s ay a si fth ey w e r eapp ly ingfo ra US$5 ,000 un iv e r s i tys cho l a r sh ipandth a tth ee s s ay swou ldb er ev i ew ed byas t a f fm emb e randu s edinwo rk shop sto‘ ‘ a idund e rg r ad u a t e sw i thth e i rw r i t ing . ’ ’A l lp a r t i c ip an t sr e c e iv edana c tu a l d e s c r ip t iono faun iv e r s i tys cho l a r sh ip( th e‘ ‘Un iv e r s i tySy s t em Hono rS cho l a r sh ip ’ ’ ) .Th i scov e rs to ryandd e s ign w e r e ad ap t edf rom Mo s s -R a cu s inandRudm an(2010 ) . A tth i spo in t ,a l lp a r t i c ip an t sw e r eto ldth a tth ed ep a r tm en t w a s‘ ‘ r e s e a r ch ingth ee f f e c t so fex t r an eou sd i s t r a c t ion son t a skp e r fo rm an c e , ’ ’anda ssu ch ,ev e ryon e wou ldcomp l e t e asu rv eya tth ev e ryendo fth es tudyonth e i rp e r c ep t ion so f anyd i s t r a c t ion sexp e r i en c eddu r ingth es e s s ion .P a r t i c ip an t s inth em i s a t t r ibu t ioncond i t ionth enr e c e iv edin fo rm a t ion abou tth e‘ ‘b l a ckboxsub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to r ’ ’(d e s c r ib ed l a t e r ) .N ex t ,a l lp a r t i c ip an t sw e r ein s t ru c t edbyth ecompu t e r abou twhomtow r i t e(mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ionm an ipu l a t ion ) : th em s e lv e s(no rmv io l a t ion )o rano th e rs tud en t(no rmno t v io l a t ed ) .P a r t i c ip an t sw e r eg iv en5 m intob r a in s to rmb e fo r e th ecompu t e rp romp t edth emtob eg intyp ingth e i re s s ayand th en w e r eg iv en20 m intocomp l e t eth e i re s s ay .A f t e rt im e e l a p s e d ,a l lp a r t i c ip an t scomp l e t edasu rv eyp a ck e t ,w e r e M o t i v a t i o nm e a s u r e s . Twos e t so fm e a su r e st app edp a r t i c i d e b r i e f e d ,a n dth ank ed .P a r t i c ip an t s ’e s s ay sw e r es av edin p an t s ’ mo t iv a t ion sr eg a rd ingth e‘ ‘p romo t iont a sk ’ ’( e s s ay M i c r o s o f tW o r ddo cum en t s ,andas ep a r a t es e to fp a r t i c ip an t s w r i t ing ) .F i r s t ,toa s s e s sin t e r e s t ,th esu rv ey m e a su r eo ft a sk r a t e dt h eq u a l i t yo fth ee s s ay s . r a t ing sw a s ad ap t edf rom Sm i th ,S an son e , and Wh i t e ’ s (2007 )s tudy ,in c lud ing5i t em s( a¼.91 )su cha s‘ ‘ I wou ld M o d e s t yn o rmv i o l a t i o nm a n i p u l a t i o n .A l lp a r t i c ip an t scom - d e s c r ib eth i st a ska sv e ryin t e r e s t ing ’ ’and‘ ‘Th i st a skw a sfun p l e t e dt h es am e‘ ‘p romo t iont a sk ’ ’( s cho l a r sh ipe s s ay ) ,bu t todo . ’ ’A l li t em sw e r er a t edonaL ik e r t typ es c a l er ang ing t h ei n s t r u c t i o n sfo rth ee s s ayd i f f e r ed .P a r t i c ip an t sa s s ign ed f s t rong l yd i sag r e e )to7( s t rong l yag r e e ) ,andi t em s rom1( t ot h em o d e s t yno rmv io la t ioncond i t ion w e r ein s t ru c t edto w e r eav e r ag edsoth a th igh e rs co r e sind i c a t edh igh e rl ev e l s w r i t et h ee s s a ya si fth eyp e r son a l lyw e r esubm i t t ingi tfo rth e o fe a ch mo t iv a t ion . s c h o l a r s h i p ;s p e c i f i c a l ly ,th ey w e r eto ldto w r i t eabou tth e i r S e c on d , t h e tw op e r f o rm an c ego a lsu b s c a l e so f t h eA c h i ev e ow na c c om p l i s hm en t sandsu c c e s s e s .P a r t i c ip an t sa s s ign ed m e n tG o a lQu e s t io nn a i r e –R ev i s ed(E l l io t& M u r ay am a ,20 08 ) t ot h em o d e s t yno rmno tv io la t edcond i t ion w e r ein s t ru c t ed w e r eu s edto m e a su r ep e r fo rm an c e avo id an c ego a l s( e .g . , t ow r i t et h ee s s ayonb eh a l fo faf r i end who w a ssubm i t t ing ‘ ‘ Iju s tw an t edtoavo iddo ingpoo r lyonth i st a sk ’ ’ )and f o rt h es c h o l a r sh ip ,th a ti s ,to w r i t eabou tth e i rf r i end ’ s p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a l s( e .g . ,‘ ‘Mygo a lfo r th e t a skw a s a c c om p l i s hm e n t sandsu c c e s s e s . Th eu s eo fs e l f -v e r su s todob e t t e rth anmo s to fth es tud en t s ’ ’ ) .E a chi t emw a sr a t ed o t h e r d i r e c t e dp romo t iona sa m an ipu l a t iono fth e mod e s ty f rom1( no ta ta l l t ru eo fm e) to7( v e r y t ru eo fm e ) ,and i t em s n o rmw a sa d a p t edf rom Mo s s -R a cu s inandRudm an(2010 ) . fo rbo thth eavo id an c e(3i t em s ;a¼ .78 )andapp ro a ch (3i t em s ;a¼ .87 )sub s c a l e sw e r eav e r ag edsoth a th igh e r co r e sind i c a t edh igh e rl ev e l so fe a ch mo t iv a t ion .M a s t e ry M i s a t t r i b u t i o na v a i l a b i l i t ya n dm a n i p u l a t i o nc h e c k . Fo rth e s a l sw e r ea l soa s s e s s edw i th3i t em sbu td idno tshowany m a n i p u l a t i o no fm i s a t t r ibu t ion ,w eop t edtou s eanex t e rn a l go e an ing fu ld i f f e r en c e sanda r ethu sno tr epo r t ed . o b j e c ta st h es o u r c eo fs i tu a t ion a la rou s a l .(P a s tr e s e a r chh a s m u s e di t em sr a n g i ngf romacub i c a lboo th ,s c r e enf i l t e r s ,f l i ck e r i n gl i g h t s ,ap i l l ,andano i s eg en e r a to r . )W es e l e c t edth e P e r f o rm a n c em e a s u r e s .W eco l l e c t edtw om e a su r e so fp a r t i s u b l im i n a ln o i s eg en e r a to randc r e a t edanom inou sb l a ckbox , c i p a n t s ’p e r f o rm an c e :s e l f p e r c e iv edp e r fo rm an c ean dju dg e s ’ r e p l e t ew i t hw i r e sandsp e ak e r s(B en -Z e eve ta l . , 2005 ; r a t i ng so fth equ a l i tyo fp a r t i c i p a n t s ’e s s a y s .F i r s t ,em b e dd ed O l s o n ,1 9 8 8 ) .P a r t i c ip an t s in th em i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l econ - w i t h i nal a rg e rsu rv eyt h a tco n t a i n e d10f i l l e ri t em s ,4i t em s d i t i o nw e r et o l dth esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rc au s eds id e a s s e s s edp a r t i c i p a n t s ’p e r c ep t i ono ft h equ a l i t yo fth ee s s a y e f f e c t ss u c ha s‘ ‘ in c r e a s edh e a r tr a t e ,n e rvou sn e s s ,anda rou - th eyh a dw r i t t e n .U s in gas c a l ef r om1(n o ta ta l l )to6 s a l , ’ ’ t h e r e b yp r ov id ingp a r t i c ip an t sw i thana l t e rn a t eex t e rn a l ( e x t r em e l y ) ,p a r t i c i p a n t sr a t ed :‘ ‘W h e no t h e r sr e adyo u re s s a y , s o u r c eo fa n yd i s com fo r t .P a r t i c ip an t sinth i scond i t ionw e r e howqu a l i f i e ddoyo uth in kth ey w i l lr a t eth eap p l i c an t ? ’ ’ t h e np l a y e ds amp l eton e sbyth eexp e r im en t e r ,wh i chinr e a l - ‘ ‘Wh en o t h e r sr e ad yo u re s s a y , how comp e t en t do yo u i t yw e r et h r e et on e sp l ay edd i s c r e t e lyf romaniPod .P a r t i c i - th in kth ey w i l lr a t et h eap p l i c an t ? ’ ’‘ ‘H ow w e l ldoyo uth in k p a n t sa s s i g n e dtoth eno m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l econd i t ion yo up e r fo rm edonyo u re s s a yto d a y ? ’ ’an d‘ ‘H oww e l ldoyo u w e r et o l dn o t h i n gabou tth esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rth e r e - th in kyo up r om o t edinyo u re s s a yto d a y ? ’ ’ Ad ap t edf r om f o r en o tp r o v i d i ngth emw i thana l t e rn a t e ,ex t e rn a lsou r c eo f Mo s s -R a c u s i nan d Ru dm an( 20 10 ) ,th ei n t e r n a lco n s i s t en cy s i t u a t i o n a la r o u s a l .Th esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rw a sp r e s - r e l i ab i l i t y( a¼.8 0 )o fth i sm e a su r ew a sso un d . e n ti nt h er o ominbo thcond i t ion sandinr e a l i tyd idno tp ro S e cond ,s im i l a rtop ro c edu r e su s edby Mo s s -R a cu s inand d u c ea n ys o u n d s . Rudm an(2010 ) ,an ews amp l eo f44in t rodu c to ryp sy cho logy .04y e a r s ;89 .7 % Wh i t e ) A tth eendo fth es tudys e s s ion ,a l lp a r t i c ip an t scomp l e t ed s tud en t s(60 .1 % wom en ;Mage¼20 e rv eda sn a iv er a t e r stod e t e rm in eth eamoun to fs cho l a r sh ip a‘ ‘d ep a r tm en t a lequ ipm en tinv en to ry ’ ’d e s ign edtot e s t s ey w a r r an t edbyth equ a l i tyo fe a chp romo t ione s s ay . th ee f f e c t iv en e s so fth em i s a t t r ibu t ion m an ipu l a t ion . To mon a r t i c ip an t sw e r eto ldth eywou ldb er a t ings ev e r a lp e r son a l en su r eth a ta l lp a r t i c ip an t scou ldan sw e rth ei t em ,in c lud ing P s s ay sw r i t t enbyo th e rs tud en t sapp ly ingfo ra US$5 ,000 tho s eno tinth em i s a t t r ibu t ionc ond i t ion ,th er e s e a r cha s s i s - e cho l a r sh ip .P a r t i c ip an t sr e c e iv edad e s c r ip t iono fth es cho t an th and edou tah a l f -p ag esu rv eyandexp l a in ed‘ ‘nowth a t s a r sh ipfo r wh i chth ee s s ay sw e r ew r i t t en ,s ixr andom ly youh av ecomp l e t edth eexp e r im en t ,th ep r im a ryinv e s t ig a - l e l e c t ede s s ay s ,ands ixe s s ays cho l a r sh ipr a t ingsh e e t s .In to randth eD ep a r tm en t a lR ev i ewBo a rd wou ldl ik etoco l - s rd e rto m a skth e mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ioncond i t ion ,th e l e c tyou rthough t sandexp e r i en c e sr eg a rd ingth es e s s ion . ’ ’ o rmno tv io l a t ed(o th e rp romo t ion )e s s ay sw e r ech ang ed Th esu rv eyin c lud edf i l l e ri t em sin c lud ingqu e s t ion sabou t no i r s tp e r son .Fo rex amp l e ,th es en t en c e‘ ‘Sh ei sv e rysu c anyno i s eth ey m igh th av eh e a rdando th e re l em en t sinth e tof e s s fu l ’ ’b e c am e‘ ‘ Iamv e rysu c c e s s fu l . ’ ’P a r t i c ip an t sw e r e room( e .g . ,th e i rcompu t e r )a sw e l la sat a rg e ti t emabou tth e c ldtor a t eth ee s s ay ss t a r t inga tth etopo fth ep i l eandto b l a ckboxg en e r a to r .P a r t i cip an t sr e spond edtoth ei t em , to eonon lya f t e rcomp l e t e lyr a t ingth ep r ev iou se s s ay .Th e ‘ ‘ If e e lth esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rm ad em ef e e ln e r - mov s s ay se a chp a r t i c ip an t judg er e c e iv edw e r ecoun t e rb a l an c ed t rong l yd i sag r e e )to7 e vou s , ’ ’onas c a l er ang ingf rom1(s tocon t ro lfo ro rd e re f f e c t s . ( s t rong l yag r e e ) . Tab le1 .Co r r e l a t ion sAmon gth eD ep end en tM e a su r e s . Po t en t i a lcon t ro lv a r i ab l e s 1 .T a s kv a lu e 2 .E s s a ywo rdcoun t Mo t i v a t ion 3 .In t e r e s t 4 .P e r fo rm an c ea vo id an c ego a l s 5 .P e r fo rm an c eapp ro a chgo a l s P e r fo rm an c e 6 .P e r c e i v edp e r fo rm an c e 7 .S cho l a r sh ipamoun taw a rd ed 1 2 3 — .24 * — .48 * * * .04 .30 * * . 1 9 . 0 7 . 2 2 .30 * * .19 . 2 5 * . 1 1 4 5 — . 1 2 . 3 7 * * * — . 3 6 * * — . 2 0 . 0 0 . 0 2 . 3 1 * * . 2 9 * . 0 3 6 — . 1 1 * p<.05 .* *p<.01 .* * *p<. 0 0 1 . J u d g e sr e s p o n d e d to th e i t em‘ ‘G iv enas cho l a r sh ipamoun t b e tw e e n$ 0a n d$ 5 000how mu chdoyouth inkth eapp l i c an t w i l lr e c e i v e ? ’ ’E a c he s s ay w r i t t eninth i ss tudyr e c e iv ed a t l e a s ttw o( a n ds om e t im e sth r e e )ind ep end en tdo l l a ramoun t ju d gm e n t s .A k i n t oaw i th in sub j e c t sd e s ign ,w i the s s aya s th e w i t h i nv a r i a b l ea n ds cho l a r sh ipr a t inga sth ed ep end en tv a r i ab l e ,t h eg o a lw a stog e tanav e r ag edo l l a ramoun tf roma t l e a s ttw on ew( n a iv e )p a r t i c ip an t sa stoth es cho l a r sh ip am o u n tt h ee s s a yw a r r an t ed . Th eav e r ag e do l l a ramoun t aw a r d e dr e s u l t e di nad a t as e tw i thth e75e s s ay sa sun i t s . Notw oj u d g e sr a t e dth es am es e to fs ixe s s ay s .Th i sov e r a l l m e a nd o l l a ram o u n ts e rv edto m e a su r eth equ a l i tyo fe a ch p a r t i c i p a n t ’ se s s a yp e r fo rm an c e .1 P o t e n t i a lc o n t r o lm e a s u r e s .W ea l soexp lo r edth epo s s ib l e in f lu en c eo fth ev a r i ab l e s ont a sk v a lu eande f fo r t . To m e a su r et a skv a lu e ,3i t em s(a¼ .83 ,e .g .‘ ‘ Ith inkth i s w a sav a lu ab l et a sk ’ ’ )f rom Sm i the ta l . ’ s(2007 )s tudy w e r ein t e r sp e r s ed w i th inth es am esu rv eya sth ein t e r e s t i t em sd e t a i l ed abov e . Th e s ei t em s w e r er a t ed on a t rong l yd i sag r e e )to7 L ik e r t typ es c a l er ang ingf rom1(s ( s t rong l yag r e e )and w e r eav e r ag edsoth a th igh e rs co r e s ind i c a t edh igh e rp e r c e iv edv a lu eo fth ep romo t iont a sk . A sane s t im a t eo fe f fo r tonth et a sk ,th enumb e ro f wo rd s p a r t i c ip an t sw ro t efo rth e i re s s ay w a scoun t ed u s inga wo rdcoun tapp l i c a t ion . Re su l t s P r e l im i n a r yA n a l y s e s T h er e s p o n s et ot h ei t em m e a su r ingth ee f f e c t iv en e s so fth e m i s a t t r i b u t i o nm a n i pu l a t ion w a ssubm i t t edtoa2(mod e s ty n o rmv i o l a t e dv s .n o tv io l a t ed ) 2(m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e v s .n o ta v a i l a b l e ) an a ly s i so fv a r i an c e (ANOVA ) . A s ex p e c t e d ,r e s u l t sy i e ld edas ign i f i c an tm a ine f f e c to fm i s a t t r i .P a r bu t i o nc o n d i t i o n ,F(1 ,74 )¼21 .43 ,p<.001 ,Zp2¼.23 t i c i p a n t si nt h em i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l econd i t ion( M¼2 .81 , SE¼ . 1 7 )r e p o r t edth a tth esub l im in a l no i s eg en e r a to r m a d et h emf e e ls i g n i f i c an t ly mo r en e rvou scomp a r edtoth e m i s a t t r i bu t io nno tav a i l a b l eco nd i t i on(M ¼ 1 . 67 ,SE¼ .1 7 ) , in d i c a t i ngth a tth em an ip u l a t i onw a ssu c c e s s f u l . An a ly s e sonou rtwoexp lo r a to ryv a r i ab l e sshow ednod e f i c i t sint a skv a lu eamongwom enwhod idandd idno tv io l a t e th e mod e s tyno rmund e rno rm a lcond i t ion s .In s t e ad ,r e su l t s show edon lyas ign i f i c an tm a ine f f e c to f mod e s tyno rmv io ,su ch l a t ioncond i t ion ,F(1 ,70 )¼8 .42 ,p¼.005 ,Zp2¼.11 th a ta c ro s sm i s a t t r ibu t ioncond i t ion s ,p eop l ev a lu edth et a sk mo r e wh ens e l f -p romo t ing(M ¼4 .89 ,SE¼.19 )comp a r ed to wh eno th e r -p romo t ing( M ¼4 .04 ,SE¼ .22 ) .W er e tu rn toth i spo in tinth ed i s cu s s ion . An a ly s e sonth eexp lo r a to ry v a r i ab l eo fwo rdcoun ta sapo s s ib l em e a su r eo fe f fo r ty i e ld ed as ign i f i c an tin t e r a c t ionb e tw e enm i s a t t r ibu t ioncond i t ionand mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ioncond i t ion ,F(1 ,71 )¼5 .59 ,p¼.02 , ,su chth a twom enwhov io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rm Zp2¼.14 w ro t esom ewh a tf ew e r wo rd scomp a r edto wom en whod id no tv io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rm ,F(1 ,73 )¼ 3 .84 ,p¼ .054 , .How ev e r ,th i sd i f f e r en c ew a son lym a rg in a l lys ig Zp2¼.05 n i f i c an tandqu i t esm a l l .B e c au s enon eo fth e s ee f f e c t sa r ein d i r e c t ion scon s i s t en tw i thou rhypo th e s e s ,n e i th e rt a skv a lu e no rwo rdcoun tc ana c coun tfo rou rf ind ing sand thu sw e r eno t in c lud edinth et e s t so fou rhypo th e s e s . T ab l e1d i sp l ay sth eco r r e l a t ion samonga l lou rm e a su r e s . B e c au s es ev e r a lo fth e mo t iv a t ion a lv a r i ab l e sw e r es ign i f i c an t lyandpo s i t iv e lyco r r e l a t ed w i the a cho th e r( a lb e i tno t h igh lyco r r e l a t ed ) ,anov e r a r ch ing2(mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ed v s .no tv io l a t ed ) 2(m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l ev s .no tav a i l ab l e ) mu l t iv a r i a t ean a ly s i so fv a r i an c ew a scondu c t edu s ing th eth r e em o t iv a t i on a ld e p e nd e n tm e a s u r e s .T h ep r ed i c t e ds i g n i f i c a n tin t e r a c t i on em e r g e da c ro s st h eth r e e mo t i v a t i on m e a s u r e s ,F( 3 ,6 7 )¼1 3 . 7 9 ,p< . 0 0 1 ,W i l k s ’ sL¼. 6 2 , ¼.22 , .A ssu ch ,w ef e l tju s t i f i edincondu c t ings ep a r a t e Zp2¼.38 un iv a r i a t eANOVA sone a ch mo t iv a t ion m e a su r e . H y p o t h e s i sT e s t i n g Fo rou rov e r a l lan a ly s e sexp lo r ing mo t iv a t ionandp e r fo r m an c e ,w econdu c t eds ep a r a t e2(mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ed v s . no tv io l a t ed ) 2(m i s a t t r ibu t ion av a i l ab l ev s . no t av a i l ab l e ) ANOVA s one a ch m e a su r e ,exp e c t ingtof ind Tab le2 .M e an sA c ro s sD ep end en tM e a su r e sfo r Mod e s t y No rm D ep end en tM e a su r e Mod e s t yno rm In t e r e s t V io l a t ed No tv io l a t ed P e r fo rm an c ea vo id an c ego a ladop t ion V io l a t ed No tv io l a t ed P e r fo rm an c eapp ro a chgo a ladop t ion V io l a t ed No tv io l a t ed P e r c e i v edp e r fo rm an c e V io l a t ed No tv io l a t ed Jud g edp e r fo rm an c e V io l a t ed No tv io l a t ed M i s a t t r i b u t io nCo nd i t io n s . M i s a t t r i b u t io nU n a v a i l a b l e M M i s a t t r i b u t io nA v a i l a b l e SE M SE Mo t i v a t io n 2 .85b 4 .03c . 2 7 . 3 4 3 . 8 8a 2 . 4 8b . 2 8 . 3 0 4 .35b 3 .51a . 2 0 . 2 3 3 . 5 6a 3 . 6 8a . 2 0 . 2 1 3 .38b 3 .69b . 2 2 . 2 6 P e r fo rm a n c e 4 . 2 5a 3 . 3 7b . 2 2 . 2 4 3 .66b 4 .37a . 1 6 . 1 9 4 . 2 9a 4 . 0 8a . 1 7 . 1 8 $1675 .04b $2662 .60a 2 4 2 . 5 3 2 9 0 . 7 8 $ 2 6 1 1 . 9 1a $ 2 4 3 3 . 8 2a 2 5 3 . 8 2 2 8 2 . 1 0 N o t e. M e an sw i th ine a c hd e p e nd e n tm e a s u r eno ts h a r i n gas u b s c r i p td i f f e ra tp<. 0 5u s i n gs im p l ee f f e c ta n a l y s e s . s i g n i f i c a n ti n t e r a c t ion s .A c ro s s m i s a t t r ibu t ion cond i t ion s , n om a i ne f f e c to f mod e s tyno rmv io l a t ioncond i t ionem e r g e do nt h em o t iv a t i on a lv a r i ab l e s( e xp e r i e n c eo fi n t e r e s t , p e r f o rm a n c e a v o id an c e go a l ad op t i on , o r p e r fo rm an c e a p p r o a c hg o a la d op t i on )o ront h etw op e r f o rm a n c ev a r i a b l e s ( s e l f p e r c e i v e dp e r f o rm a n c ean dju dg edp r om o t io nqu a l i t y ) . I n s t e a d ,r e s u l t sy i e l d e dth ep r ed i c t eds i gn i f i c a n tin t e r a c t i on b e tw e e nm i s a t t r i b u t io nav a i l a b l eco nd i t i onan d mo d e s t yno rm v i o l a t i o nc o n d i t i o nfo rth eex p e r i en c eo fi n t e r e s t ,F(1 ,70 )¼ 1 ;fo rp e r fo rm an c e av o i d a n c ego a l 1 8 . 7 6 ,p<. 0 0 1 ,Zp2¼ .2 7 ,an dfo r a d o p t i o n ,F( 1 ,71 )¼ 5 . 22 ,p¼ .0 2 ,Zp2 ¼ .0 p e r fo rm an c e app ro a ch go a l adop t ion , F(1 , 71 )¼ 6 .29 , .An a ly s e ss im i l a r lyy i e ld edas ign i f i c an t p¼.01 ,Zp2¼.08 in t e r a c t ionb e tw e en m i s a t t r i bu t ioncond i t ionand mod e s ty no rmv io l a t ioncond i t ionforp e r c e iv edp e r fo rm an c e ,F(1 , ,andjudg edp romo t ion .84 ,p¼ .01 ,Zp2 ¼ .08 74 )¼ 6 . qu a l i tyindo l l a r s ,F(1 ,73 )¼ 4 .73 ,p¼ .03 ,Zp2 ¼ .06 W i thth e s e omn ibu st e s tr e su l t se s t ab l i sh ings ign i f i c an t in t e r a c t ion sfo ra l lth r e em o t iv a t ion m e a su r e sand bo th p e r fo rm an c em e a su r e sin m ind ,w en ex tr epo r tth er e su l t s o rg an i z eda round ou rtwo hypo th e s e s . W eu s eds imp l e e f f e c t an a ly s e stoin t e rp r e t any m e an ing fu ld i f f e r en c e s a c ro s sou rfou rcond i t ion s . H y p o t h e s i s1 :R e p l i c a t i o no f t h ee f f e c t so fm o d e s t yn o rmv i o l a t i o n . O u rf i r s th y p o t h e s i sfo cu s edonr ep l i c a t ingp r io rf ind ing so f v i o l a t i n gt h em od e s tyno rm wh e r eby ,und e rno rm a lcond i t i o n s( i . e . ,n om i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e ) ,wom enwou ldr epo r t l ow e rm o t i v a t i o nandp e r fo rmwo r s ewh enp romo t ingth es e l f t h a nw h e np r omo t ingano th e rp e r son .A ss e enin T ab l e2 ( u n d e rt h eM i s a t t r ibu t ion Un av a i l ab l eco lumn ) ,fo l low -up s im p l ee f f e c ta n a ly s e sd e compo s ingth eov e r a l ls ign i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o nf o r wom en ’ s mo t iv a t ion p r ev iou s lyr epo r t ed show edth a t ,wh ennom i sa t t r ibu t ionwa sa va i lab l e,ou rf i r s t hypo th e s i sw a sp a r t i a l lycon f i rm ed .A sp r ed i c t ed ,v io l a t ing th e mod e s tyno rmbyp romo t ingth es e l fr e su l t edin wom en exp e r i en c ings ign i f i c an t lyl e s sin t e r e s t ,F(1 , 70 )¼ 7 .43 , ,andendo r s ings ign i f i c an t ly mo r e p¼ .008 ,Zp2 ¼ .10 p e r fo rm an c e avo id an c ego a l s ,F(1 ,71 )¼ 7 .46 ,p¼ .008 , ,comp a r edtowom enwhod idno tv io l a t eth e mod Zp2¼.10 e s tyno rm .Su rp r i s ing ly ,und e rth e s eno rm a lcond i t ion sw i th nom i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e ,nos ign i f i c an td i f f e r en c eem e rg ed b e tw e en g roup sv io l a t ingth e mod e s ty no rm o r no t on p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a ladop t ion . Tu rn ingto wom en ’ sp romo t ionp e r fo rm an c e ,fo l low -up s imp l ee f f e c tan a ly s e sshow edth a tinl in ew i thou rhypo th e s i s ,und e rno rm a lcond i t ion s wh ena m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c e w a sun av a i l ab l e ,wom enwhov io l a t edth emod e s tyno rmp e r c e iv edth eyh adp e r fo rm eds ign i f i c an t ly wo r s eth annonv io s e e l a t ing wom en ,F(1 ,74 )¼ 8 .19 ,p¼ .005 ,Zp2¼ .10( T ab l e 2 und e rth e M i s a t t r ibu t ion Un av a i l ab l e co lumn ) . Fu r th e rmo r e ,e s s ay sw r i t t enbys e l f -p romo t ing wom en w e r e aw a r d e ds i gn i f i c an t l yl e s ss c ho l a r s h i pm on ey t h a ne s s a y sw r i t t enbyo th e r -p romo t ingwom en ,F(1 ,73 )¼ 6 .80 ,p¼ .01 , s e eT ab l e2 ) . Zp2¼.09( H y p o t h e s i s2 :M i s a t t r i b u t i o na v a i l a b i l i t y .Tot e s tou rs e cond hypo th e s i s ,w eex am in edth es ign i f i c an tov e r a l lin t e r a c t ion s r epo r t edp r ev iou s lyfo rev id en c e th a twh ena t t r ibu t iono fs i t u a t iona rou s a ltoanex t e rn a lsou r c ew a sav a i l ab l e ,th ed e f i c i en c i e sw efoundin mo t iv a t ionandp e r fo rm an c eamong wom enwhov io l a t edth emod e s tyno rmund e rno rm a lcond i t ion swou ldb ee l im in a t edo rr ev e r s ed .Nowfo cu s ingonth e fu l l2 2 in t e r a c t ion ,w ecomp a r edwom enwhov io l a t ed th e mod e s tyno rmtotho s ewhod idno tv io l a t eth eno rmwh ena m i s a t t r ibu t ionw a sbo thunav a i l ab l eandav a i l ab l e . F igu re1 .Th eamoun to fs cho l a r sh ipmon e yaw a rd ed indo l l a r sb y s tuden tjud g e s( jud g edp e r fo rm an c e )a c ro s sth efou rc e l l so fth e 2 2d e s i gnc ro s s in g mod e s t yno rmv io l a t ionw i th m i s a t t r ib u t ion a v a i l ab i l i t y . H y p o t h e s i s2 a :C l o s i n gt h em o d e s t yn o rmv i o l a t i o ng a p .A s s h ow ni nT a b l e2 ,fo l low -ups imp l ee f f e c tan a ly s e sshow ed t h a tw h e nt h es u b l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rw a sav a i l ab l eto m i s a t t r i b u t ea n ya r o u s a l ,v io l a t ingth emod e s tyno rm(byp ro m o t i n gt h es e l f )r e su l t edin wom enr epo r t ings ign i f i c an t ly m o r ei n t e r e s tf o rt h et a skcomp a r edtotho s ewom enwhod id n o tv i o l a t e t h em o d e s tyno rm ,F(1 ,70 )¼11 .69 ,p¼.001 , Zp2 ¼. 1 4 .L i k ew i s e ,wom enwhov io l a t edth eno rmw i tha m i s a t t r i b u t i o n a v a i l ab l e endo r s ed s ign i f i c an t ly mo r e p e r f o rm a n c e a p p r o a chgo a l s ,F(1 ,71 )¼ 7 .29 ,p¼ .009 , 0 9 ,a n da d op t eds im i l a rl ev e l so fp e r fo rm an c eavo id Zp2¼. a n c eg o a l sc om p a r edtowom enwhod idno tv io l a t eth e mod .Thu s ,fo rbo th e s t yn o rm ,F( 1 ,7 1 )¼0 .20 ,p¼.66 , Zp2¼.00 p o s i t i v ef o rm so f mo t iv a t ion( in t e r e s t and p e r fo rm an c e a p p r o a c hg o a la d op t ion ) ,h av ing a m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c e r e v e r s e d t h ed e f i c i tmo t iv a t ionexp r e s s edbywom enwhov io l a t e dt h em o d e s t yno rmto m ak es e l f -p romo t ing mo r e mo t i v a t i n gt h a to t h e r p romo t ing . Fo rp e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e g o a l s ,t h ef o rm e r mod e s tyno rmv io l a t iong ap w a sc lo s ed , w i t hb o t hp a t t e r n sfo r mo t iv a t ion a lm e a su r e scon f i rm ing H y p o t h e s i s2 a . A n a l y s e so np e r fo rm an c ea l so show ed suppo r t fo r H y p o t h e s i s2 ab yc lo s ingth e mod e s tyno rmv io l a t iong ap . W h e na m i s a t t r i b u t i onsou r c ew a sav a i l ab l e ,th ep r ev iou s ly f o u n dd i f f e r e n c e sb e tw e ens e l f -ando th e r -p romo t iononp e r c e i v e dp e r f o rm a n c eandjudg edp romo t ionqu a l i tyw e r ee l im i n a t e d .A ss h ow nin T ab l e2 , wom en who v io l a t edth e m o d e s t yn o rm p e r c e iv ed equ a l ly good p e r fo rm an c e and r e c e i v e de q u a l l yh ighs cho l a r sh ipfund ing( s e eF igu r e1 ) w h e na m i s a t t r i b u t i on w a sav a i l ab l e .Th e s er e su l t scon f i rm t h a th a v i n ga m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l etoo f f s e ts i tu a t ion a l a ro u s a la l l e v i a t e s(o rev enimp rov e s )th e mo t iv a t ion a land p e r f o rm a n c ed i f f e r en c e sb e tw e entho s ewhov io l a t eth emod e s t yn o rma n dt h o s ewhodono tv io l a t eth eno rm . p e r fo rm an c efo r wom en whov io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rm . R e su l t scon f i rm edth i shypo th e s i s .Comp a r edtowom env io l a t ingth e mod e s tyno rmund e rno rm a lcond i t ion s , wom en p r om o t i ngth es e l fw i t ha m i s a t t r i bu t io nav a i l a b l ew e r es i gn i f i c an t l y mo r el ik e l yt oex p r e s sin t e r e s ti nth et a s k ,F( 1 ,70 )¼ 9 ,toen do r s ef ew e rp e r f o rm an c e 7 . 03 ,p¼ .0 1 ,Zp2 ¼ .0 0 ,an d av o i d a n c ego a l s ,F(1 ,71 )¼ 8 . 03 ,p¼ .0 06 ,Zp2¼ .1 to ad op t mo r ep e r f o rm a n c e ap p r o a ch go a l sf o rth et a sk , 0 . F(1 ,7 1 )¼7 . 71 ,p¼.0 07 ,Zp2¼.1 P e r fo rm an c ew a sa l soenh an c edfo r wom env io l a t ingth e mod e s tyno rm w i tha m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e ,comp a r edto wh eni tw a sun av a i l ab l e .A ss e enin T ab l e2 ,fo l low -up s imp l ee f f e c tan a ly s e sshow edp romo t ingth es e l fw i tha m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l er e su l t edins ign i f i c an t lyb e t t e rs e l f p e r c ep t ion so fp e r fo rm an c ecomp a r edtowh ennom i s a t t r ibu ,and t ionw a sav a i l ab l e ,F(1 ,74 )¼7 .28 ,p¼.009 ,Zp2¼.09 r e su l t edin wom enr e c e iv ing mo r es cho l a r sh ip mon eyf rom . Thu s , th ejudg e s ,F(1 ,73 )¼ 7 .12 ,p¼ .009 ,Zp2 ¼ .09 Hypo th e s i s2b w a scon f i rm eda c ro s sa l lth r e e mo t iv a t ion a l andbo thp e r fo rm an c em e a su r e s . P r e d i c t i o n2 c :M o d e s t yn o rmn o n v i o l a t i o na n dm i s a t t r i b u t i o n . F in a l ly ,w ew an t edtoex amin e wh e th e rth eav a i l ab i l i ty o fth em i s a t t r ibu t ionin f lu enc edth e mo t iv a t ionandp e r fo r m an c e(on ew ayo rth eo th e r )fo r wom en whod idno tv io l a t eth em od e s t yno rm .A s s um i ngth a tnos i tu a t io n a la r ou s a l com e sf r omen g a g i ngina m od e s ty -n o rmco n s i s t e n tt a sk (p romo t i ngan o t h e rp e r s on ) ,w ed i dno tex p e c tan yin f lu en c e o fm i s a t t r ib u t io n av a i l a b i l i t y .A ssh ow nin T ab l e2 ,fo r wom e nwh od i dno tv i o l a t eth e mo d e s t yno rm ,m i s a t t r i bu t io n av a i l ab i l i t yd i d no tch an g eth ead op t i on o fp e r f o rm an c e av o i d a n c e go a l so rt h ead op t i on o fp e r f o rm an c e a pp ro a c h go a l s .S u r p r i s i ng ly ,o t h e r -p romo t i ng w om end i dr e po r ts i g n i f i c a n t lyl e s sin t e r e s tfo rt h et a skwh ena m i s a t t r i bu t io nw a s av a i l ab l e(v s .no tav a i l ab l e ) ,F(1 ,70 )¼ 11 .77 ,p¼ .001 , .W er e tu rntoth i spo in tinth eD i s cu s s ions e c Zp2¼ .14 t ion .P e r fo rm an c ew a sa l sol a r g e lyun a f f e c t edby m i s a t t r i bu t ionav a i l ab i l i tyfo r women who d id no tv io l a t eth e mod e s ty no rm .Ind e ed ,m i s a tt r ibu t ioncond i t ion d id no t m e an ing fu l ly ch ang ep e r c e iv ed p e r fo rm an c eo rjudg ed qu a l i tyo fth ee s s ay wh enth e mod e s tyno rm w a sno tv io l a t ed .W i thth eex c ep t iono fr e po r t edin t e r e s t ,th er e su l t s g en e r a l ly sugg e s tth a tth e av a i l ab i l i ty o f an ex t e rn a l sou r c eto m i s a t t r ibu t es i tu a t ion a la rou s a ld idno th e lpo r hu r tth e mo t iv a t iono rp e r fo rm an c eo f wom en whod idno t v io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rm . D i s cu s s ion Ou rr e su l t sr ep l i c a t edandex t end edp a s two rkonth en eg a t iv e e f f e c t swom enexp e r i en c ewh env io l a t ingth e mod e s tyno rm v e r su sno tund e rno rm a lcond i t ion s(wh ennoex t e rn a lsou r c e a sav a i l ab l etoa t t r ibu t es i tu a t ion a la rou s a l ) .Inl in ew i th H y p o t h e s i s2 b :M o d e s t yn o rmv i o l a t i o na n dm i s a t t r i b u t i o n . w th e s i s1 ,th e s es e l f -p romo t ing wom enexp e r i en c edl e s s N e x t ,w ew an t edtot e s t wh e th e rou rm i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l - Hypo t e r e s t ,w e r e mo r el ik e lytoadop tp e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e ab i l i tyin t e rv en t ion cou ldi mp rov eth e mo t iv a t ion and in g o a l s ,h a dp o o r e rp e r c ep t ion so fth e i rownp e r fo rm an c e ,and t h e i re s s a y sw e r e judg ed low e r inqu a l i tycomp a r ed towom en w h op r om o t e do nb eh a l fo fano th e r .En cou r ag ing ly ,r e su l t s s h ow e dt h a tw ew e r eab l etoc lo s eth i s mod e s tyno rmv io l a t i o ng a pw i t hm i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab i l i ty . Wh en wom en who v i o l a t e dt h em o d e s tyno rminth ep r e s en c eo fasub l im in a l n o i s eg e n e r a t o rth a tth eyw e r eto ldcou ldb easou r c eo fd i s c om f o r t ,t h e mo t iv a t ion a l and p e r fo rm an c ed i f f e r en c e s b e tw e e nt h o s e whov io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rmo rno tw e r e e l im i n a t e do re v enr ev e r s ed . Wh a ti s mo r e ,th e s epo s i t iv e e f f e c t so ft h em i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab i l i ty w e r eev id en t wh en c om p a r i n gw om enwhov io l a t ed th emod e s tyno rmund e rno r m a lc o n d i t i o n sw i ththo s e whov io l a t edth eno rm w i thth e m i s a t t r i b u t i o na v a i l ab l e .Th epo s i t iv ee f f e c t so fth em i s a t t r i b u t i o na v a i l a b l efo r wom enwhov io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rm c am el a r g e l yw i thou tcon s equ en c etoth ewom enwhod idno t v i o l a t et h em o d e s tyno rm( a lb e i tw i thon eex c ep t ion ,d i s c u s s e db e l ow ) . T a k e nt o g e t h e rth en ,ou rr e su l t ssugg e s tth a tth eav a i l ab i l i t yo fam i s a t t r i bu t ionsou r c efo rs i tu a t ion a la rou s a limp rov ed t h ep r om o t i o nexp e r i en c eandth equ a l i tyo fp romo t ionfo r w om e nw h ov i o l a t edth e mod e s tyno rm .Impo r t an t ly ,ou r r e s u l t sa l s os h ow edth a t wom en whov io l a t edth e mod e s ty n o rma n dw e r eg iv enam i s a t t r ibu t iona rou s a lsou r c er epo r t ed g r e a t e ri n t e r e s tinth ep romo t iont a skcomp a r edtotho s eno t g i v e na m i s a t t r i bu t ionsou r c e .Imp rov ing wom en ’ s mom en t a r ys e l f p r om o t ionp e r fo rm an c ei simpo r t an ttob esu r e ,bu t e n h a n c i n gw om en ’ sin t e r e s ti sk eyb e c au s esu chin t r in s i c m o t i v a t i o n a le x p e r i en c e scou ldpo t en t i a l lyr e su l tin mo r e l o n g t e rm m o t i v a t iontoeng ag eino th e rs e l f -p romo t iont a sk s (C s i k s z e n tm i h a ly i , 1978 ; Thom an e ta l . , 2013 ) . To ou r k n ow l e d g e ,o u r si sth ef i r s two rktod emon s t r a t eth a tv io l a t i n gt h em o d e s t yno rmimp a c t sth eexp e r i en c eo fin t e r e s tin s e l f p r om o t i o n . G r e a t e rt a s kin t e r e s tty p i c a l ly d e p e nd s onth et yp eo f a c h i e v em e n tg o a l sad op t eddu r i ngt a s ken g a g em e n t(E l l io t& H a r a ck i ew i c z ,1996 ) .Ind e ed ,ou rd a t ashow edth a t wom en adop t ed mo r ep e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e go a l s wh en s e l f p romo t ing und e r no rm a l cond i t ion s and adop t ed mo r e p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a l s wh ens e l f -p romo t ing w i tha m i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e .A l thoughno tex am in eda sa m ed i a to r(b e c au s ego a l sw e r ea s s e s s edfo l low ingth ep romo t ion t a sk ) ,fu tu r er e s e a r ch wou ld b en e f i tf rom und e r s t and ing howp e r fo rm an c e -go a ladop t ion ,e sp e c i a l lyp e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e go a l s ,m igh tin f lu en c es e l f -p romo t ionexp e r i en c e s . W eh ad p r ed i c t edth a t wom en who v io l a t edth e mod e s ty no rm und e r no rm a l cond i t ion s wou ld adop t p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a l sl es so f t en ,bu tth i sw a sno tth e c a s e .P e rh ap sth en a tu r eo fth et a skin s t ru c t ion s( to w r i t e an e s s aytot ryto w in as cho l a r sh ip )sub t lyt r igg e r ed p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a l sto‘ ‘dow e l lcomp a r edtoo th e r s ’ ’amonga l lp a r t i c ip an t s ,w a sh ingou tth ee f f e c t s .N ev e r th e l e s s , wh ena m i s a t t r ibu t io nw a sav a i l ab l e ,p e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a l sw e r eadop t ed mo r eo f t enby wom en who v io l a t edth e mod e s tyno rmcomp a r edtotho s e whod idno t v io l a t eth eno rmsugg e s t ingth a tth e s ego a l sa r eimpo r t an t tocon s id e r . A sl a idou ta tth eon s e t ,th ea c to fs e l f -p romo t ioni sav io l a t iono fth emod e s tyno rm .Thu s ,w eexp lo r edth epo s s ib i l i ty th a tt a skv a lu eande f fo r t( a sind ex edbynumb e ro f wo rd s w r i t t en ) wou lda l sob en eg a t iv e lyimp a c t ed wh env io l a t ing th e mod e s tyno rm .Y e t ,und e rno rm a lcond i t ion s( i . e . , wh en no m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c ew a sav a i l ab l e ) ,th ep e r c e iv edv a lu e o fth et a skr em a in edth es am eno m a t t e ri fth e mod e s tyno rm w a sv io l a t edo rno t . Mo r eov e r ,co l l ap s inga c ro s sth etwom i s a t t r ibu t ioncond i t ion s , wom en whop romo t edth es e l fr a t ed th et a skh igh e rinv a lu ecomp a r edto wom en whop romo t ed o th e rp eop l e .I ti spo s s ib l eth a tth en a tu r eo fth et a sk( as cho l a r sh ipe s s ay )i ss e ena s mo r ep e r son a l lyv a lu ab l eg en e r a l ly sp e ak ingb e c au s eo fth epo t en t i a lfo rd i r e c tf in an c i a lg a in . C e r t a in ly ,d e c ad e so f wo rkonth e‘ ‘ s e l f r e f e r en c ing ’ ’e f f e c t and‘ ‘ ego invo lv ing ’ ’t a sk o r i en t a t ion ssugg e s tth a ts e l f r e l a t edt a sk sa r eo f t enp ro c e s s eda tad e ep e rl ev e landa r e v i ew eda s mo r eimpo r t an tandin t e r e s t ing(Bu t l e r , 1987 ; Symon s &John son ,1997 ) .S t i l l ,d e sp i t es e e ingth eh igh e r v a lu eo fth es e l f -p romo t iont a sk ,th e s e wom en w e r el e s s l ik e lytoen joyth et a skandsu f f e r edp e r fo rm an c ed e c r em en t s comp a r edto wom en whod idno tv io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rm und e rno rm a lcond i t ion s . Fu r th e rmo r e ,ou rr e su l t sshow edsom en eg a t iv ee f f e c t so f th esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to rsu chth a t wom en whoo th e r p romo t ed wh enth e m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c ew a s av a i l ab l e r epo r t edl e s st a skin t e r e s tcomp a r edto wom en whoo th e r p romo t edw i thou tam i s a t t r ibu t ionav a i l ab l e .I tw a sp r ed i c t ed th a to th e r -p romo t ingwou ldno tb ea f f e c t edby th eav a i l ab i l i ty o fa m i s a t t r ibu t ionb e c au s eo th e r -p romo t ingdo e sno tv io l a t e th e mod e s tyno rm . On epo s s ib i l i tyfo rth i sf ind ingi sth a t th em i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c e mu t edanypo s i t iv ef e e l ing sp eop l e m igh th av e wh en w r i t ingabou tth ea c comp l i shm en t so fa f r i end ,d e c r e a s ingany‘ ‘b a sk ing inr e f l e c t edg lo ry ’ ’a f f i l i a t ion exp e r i en c e s(Snyd e r ,L a s s eg a rd ,&Fo rd ,1986 ) .How ev e r ,w e in t e rp r e tth e s er e su l t sw i thc au t ion ,g iv enth a tnoo th e rm e a su r eshow edth e s eun exp e c t edr e su l t s . P o t e n t i a lS o u r c e so fS i t u a t i o n a lA r o u s a l T ak entog e th e r ,r e su l t so fth ecu r r en tp ro j e c tshow edth a t v io l a t ingth e mod e s tyno rmc ana c ta sab a r r i e rtowom en ’ s s e l f -p romo t ionandth a t ,und e rno rm a lc i r cum s t an c e s(wh en no m i s a t t r ibu t ionsou r c efo ranyd i s com fo r ti sp rov id ed ) , s e l f -p romo t ioni so flow e rp e r c e iv edanda c tu a lqu a l i ty ; r e su l t sin g r e a t e rp e r fo rm an c e avo id an c e go a ladop t ion ; andd im in i sh e sth eexp e r i en c eo fin t e r e s t . How ev e r , wh en wom en s e l f -p romo t e und e r cond i t ion sth a tp rov id e an oppo r tun i tyto m i s a t t r ibu t eanys i tu a t ion a la rou s a l ,th eg ap b e tw e en v io l a t ingth e mod e s ty no rm and no tv io l a t ing th e mod e s ty no rm w a se l im in a t ed( tos im i l a rl ev e l so f p e r fo rm an c e avo id an c ego a ladop t iona sw e l la sp e r c e iv ed anda c tu a lp e r fo rm an c e )o rev enr ev e r s ed(h igh e rin t e r e s t andp e r fo rm an c e app ro a chgo a ladop t ion ) . Th i sev id en c e sugg e s t sth a t ,und e rp a r t i cu l a rs i tu a t ion a la rou s a l r edu c ing c i r cum s t an c e s ,wom ena r eab l etop romo t ea sw e l lfo rth em s e lv e sa sth eydofo ro th e r s . T h e r ea r ean um b e ro fpo s s ib l eexp l an a t ion sfo r th e s ef ind i n g s .F o re x am p l e ,d e c ad e so fr e s e a r chonF e s t ing e r ’ scogn i t i v ed i s s o n a n c et h eo ryshow sth a t wh enp eop l eb eh av eina m a n n e ri n c o n s i s t e n tw i thth e i rownb e l i e f s ,th eyexp e r i en c e d i s c om f o r t(F e s t i n g e r &C a r l sm i th ,1959 ;s e ea l so Coop e r e ta l . ,1 9 7 8 ;E l l i o t &D ev in e ,1994 ;H a rmon Jon e s ,B r ehm , G r e e n b e r g ,S im o n , &N e l son ,1996 ) . Cogn i t iv ed i s son an c e o c c u r sa n yt im eap e r sonh a stwop sy cho log i c a l lycon f l i c t ing c o g n i t i o n s ,s u c ha sb eh av ingina m ann e rin con s i s t en tw i th o p i n i o n s ,o ra sw ea rgu eh e r e , wh enb eh av ingina m ann e r i n c o n s i s t e n tw i t hg end e rno rm s .Thu s , wom eninou rs tudy m a yh a v ee x p e r i e n c eda rou s a lb e c au s eth ey w e r ea sk edto s e l f p r om o t ea n ds u chb eh av io ri sin con s i s t en tw i thth e mod e s t yn o rm . Ano th e rpo s s ib l eexp l an a t ioni sth a t wom en whos e l f p romo t e exp e r i en c ef e a r -o f -b a ck l a sh( fo r ar ev i ew ,s e e Rudm ane ta l . , 2012 ) ,andth i sb a ck l a shf e a rm an i f e s t s a ss i t u a t i o n a la r o u s a l .A sou t l i n e dint h eb a ck l a shav o i d a n c e m o d e l(M o s s -R a c u s in &Ru dm a n ,20 10 ) , wom enex p e r i en c e w o r r ya n df e a ro v e rth e(o f t env e ryr e a l )‘ ‘ s o c i a la nde c o n om i cp e n a l t i e s ’ ’a s so c i a t ed w i t hv i o l a t i ng g e nd e r no rm s (B r e s co l l , 2011 ; Rudm an , 1998 ) . Th i sf e a ro fb a ck l a sh m ay m an i f e s ta ss i tu a t ion a la rou s a l ,a l thoughth i sconn e c t ionr em a in sfo rfu tu r er e s e a r chtodo cum en t . Wo r ryo r f e a rov e rcon f i rm ingas t e r eo typ ei sy e tano th e ra l t e rn a t iv e exp l an a t ionfo rth esou r c eo fs i tu a t ion a la rou s a lexp e r i en c edby wom en whos e l f -p romo t edinou rs tudy . Wom en who wo r ry abou t con f i rm ing a s t e r eo typ e ,i ron i c a l ly , und e rp e r fo rmandexp e r i en c er edu c edt a sk mo t iv a t ion( fo r r ev i ew s ,s e e Nguy en &Ry an ,2008 ;Thom ane ta l . ,2013 ) . A l thoughth ero l eo fanx i e tyins t e r eo typ eth r e a te f f e c t son p e r fo rm an c ei sun c e r t a in( se eSm i th ,2004 ,fo rar ev i ew ) , th e r ei sconv e rg ingev id en c et h a ts t e r eo typ eth r e a tc r e a t e s g e n e r a l i z e ds i t u a t i o n a la r ou s a l( Jo hn se ta l . ,20 05 ;O ’B r i e n& C r a n d a l l ,2 0 0 3 )t h a tm a ym a n i f e s ta sph y s io l og i c a la r ou s a l (C r o i z e te ta l . ,2 0 04 ) .T hu s ,toth eex t en tth a t wom en wh o s e l f p r om o t e d w e r e co n c e r n e d ab ou t co n f i rm i ng g e nd e r s t e r e o t y p e s ,s t e r e o t y p et h r e a tm ayh a v et r i gg e r e ds i tu a t io n a l a r o u s a l .O u rc u r r e n td a t ac a nn o tsp e a kt oth en a tu r eo fth e s i t u a t i o n a la r o u s a l ,bu tno m a t t e rth eex p l an a t io n( e .g . ,co g n i t i v ed i s s o n a n c e ,f e a ro fb a ck l a s h ,an ds t e r e o t yp eth r e a t ) , o u rd a t as h ow w h e naso u r c ef o ran yun com f o r t a b l ea r ou s a l w a sp r o v i d e d ,t h i sm i s a t t r i bu t i onr e su l t edinin c r e a s e dp r o m o t i o ns u c c e s s . P r a c t i c eIm p l i c a t i o n s O u rr e s u l t sa d dt ot h el i t e r a tu r eth a tshou ldg iv es e a r chcom m i t t e e sa n daw a r dcomm i t t e e sp au s einr e ly ingh e av i lyon s e l f g e n e r a t e dc o v e rl e t t e r sande s s ay sin m ak ingd e t e rm in a t i o n so fm e r i tb e c a u s ewom en m ayund e r s e l lth em s e lv e sfo l l ow i n gs o c i e t a ln o rm sa s so c i a t edw i thmod e s tyg end e rno rm s (Mo s s -R a cu s in &Rudm an ,2010 ) .On es t r eng tho fou rp ro j e c tw a sint e s t ing m i s a t t r ibu t iona sanin t e rv en t ion ;w efound th eav a i l ab i l i tyo fanob j e c t( inou rc a s e ,asub l im in a lno i s e g en e r a to r )to m i s a t t r ibu t eanys i tu a t ion a ld i s com fo r tc lo s ed th eg apb e tw e entho s ewom enwhod idandd idno tv io l a t eth e mod e s tyno rm .Adm i t t ed ly ,af ak esub l im in a lno i s eg en e r a to r wou ldb ed i f f i cu l ttoimp l em en tinp r a c t i c e .How ev e r ,t e l l ing p eop l eth a tth e i rcompu t e rs c r e eno rth ecub i c a linwh i ch th ey a r ewo rk ingc anc au s ed i s com fo r ta r eo th e rpo s s ib l eex t e rn a l ob j e c t sth a tm igh tb eu s edtoa t t r ibu t es i tu a t ion a la rou s a l .Th e n ex ts t epi stof e r r e tou tth esho r t -andlong t e rmb en e f i t so f th e s e and o th e r m i s a t t r ibu t ion s t r a t eg i e s . Fo r ex amp l e , wom en whoa r et augh ttob l am eg end e rs t e r eo typ e sfo rany d i s com fo r tth eyexp e r i en c edu r inga m a tht e s tp e r fo rmb e t t e r ( John se ta l . ,2005 ) .P e rh ap swom enwhoa r et augh ttob l am e mod e s tyno rm s wou lds im i l a r lyshowanimp rov em en tin s e l f -p romo t ion . A long th e s el in e s ,‘ ‘no rm a l i z ing ’ ’s e l f p romo t ion a s‘ ‘p a r to fth ejob ’ ’(p a r t i cu l a r lyin c e r t a in dom a in sth a ta r em a l e -dom in a t ed ,su cha ss c i en c eand m a th ) cou ldr e su l tinanimp rov em en tno ton lytoa wom an ’ ss e l f p romo t ionexp e r i en c ebu ta l soh e rf e e l ing so fb e long ingand mo t iv a t ionfo rth ejobi t s e l f( fo ras im i l a r‘ ‘no rm a l i z ing ’ ’ in t e rv en t ion s t r a t egy r eg a rd ing e f fo r t exp end i tu r e s ,s e e Sm i th ,L ew i s ,H aw tho rn e , &Hodg e s ,2013 ) . L im i t a t i o n sa n dN e x tS t e p s I ti sc e r t a in lypo s s ib l eth a ta l lp eop l e ,in c lud ing m en ,exp e r i en c es i tu a t ion a la rou s a l wh enp romo t ingth es e l f .A l though ou rfo cu sh e r ew a son wom en ,fu tu r er e s e a r ch w i l lb en e f i t f romsu chag end e rcomp a r i son .How ev e r ,th emod e s tyno rm i sp a r t i cu l a rto wom en ’ sg end e rro l e s(B ron s t e in , 2006 ) ; b e c au s em en ’ sg end e rro l e sin c lud et r a i t ssu cha sa r rog an c e anda s s e r t iv en e s s(Mo s s -R a cu s ine ta l . ,2010 ) ,thu s ,i ti s un l ik e lyth a tth e mod e s tyno rm wou lds im i l a r lyl im i tm en ’ s s e l f -p romo t ion .N ev e r th e l e s s ,m en whodov io l a t eg end e r no rm sa s so c i a t edw i thag en cyexp e r i en c eb a ck l a shbyo th e r s . Fo rex amp l e , wh ena m a l ec and id a t ean sw e r edin t e rv i ew qu e s t ion sina mod e s tm ann e r ,h esu f f e r edin t e rp e r son a lcon s equ en c e s(byob s e rv e r s )fo rv io l a t ingth eg end e rno rmth a t m enshou ldb eag en t i c(Mo s s -R a cu s ine ta l . ,2010 ) .Fu tu r e r e s e a r chwou lda l sodow e l ltoin c lud ec ro s s cu l tu r a lcomp a r i son stod e t e rm in e th eg en e r a l i z ab i l i tyo f th ee f f e c t so fv io l a t ing th emod e s tyno rm( andw ay stoo f f s e t i t )b e c au s e , insom e cu l tu r e s( e .g . ,J ap an ) ,m enandwom ena l ik ea r eexp e c t edto b e mod e s tandhumb l e(M a rku s &K i t ay am a ,1991 ) . Toou rknow l edg e ,ou rr e s e a r chi sth ef i r s ttocon s id e r wom en ’ ss e l f -p romo t ion mo t iv a t ion a lexp e r i en c e sandp e r fo rm an c et end en c i e su s inga m i s a t t r ibu t ionp a r ad igm .P a s t wo rka s sum edwom e nw e r ec a p a b l eo fs e l f -p romo t i onb e c a u s e o fth e i rab i l i t yt op r om o t ean o t h e rp e r s on(M o s s -R a cu s i n& Ru dm an ,20 10 ) ;th u s ,th ed e f i c i en cyi sa s sum edtono tb ein p r om o t i ona b i l i t yp e rs e .O u rd a t aa r e th ef i r s tkn ow n t oc l e a r ly d em on s t r a t eth a tw om en ’ ss e l f p r om o t io nc a nb eju s ta sh i gh inqu a l i tya so t h e r p r om o t io n ,an d , wh a ti s mo r e ,th a tth e p r om o t i o ne x p e r i en c ec a nb epo s i t i v e . Wh enp r ov id edw i t ha s o u r c et om i s a t t r i bu t ed i s c om fo r tt h e ym i gh tex p e r i e n c ew h i l e s e l f p r om o t i n g ,w om enr e po r t eden h a n c edm o t iv a t i onan dp e r c e i v e dt h e i rp e r f o rm a n c et ob eb e t t e r ,an dt h e i re s s a y sw e r e aw a r d e dm o r es c ho l a r sh i pm on eybyin d e p e nd en tju dg e s .T h i s i sim p o r t a n tc o n s i d e r i ngt h a tw om en m u s ts e l f p r om o t ein o r d e rt oa c q u i r eed u c a t io n a lan dc a r e e rad v a n c em en t . Th e g e n d e rw a g eg a p ,f o rex am p l e ,p e r s i s t s ,an di ti spo s s i b l eth a t t h eu n c om f o r t a b l ea r ou s a lw om en ex p e r i e n c ew h e ns e l f p r om o t i n gi sc o n t r i bu t in gtoth i sg a p .I fs e l f p r om o t io ni sn e c e s s a r ya n dw om ena r eun com fo r t ab l edo in gsoth en ,w i th ou ta s i t u a t i o n a li n t e r v e n t i on ,t h e i rap p l i c a t i on sm ayb ev i ew eda s l ow e ri nq u a l i t yan dt hu swom en m ayb ep a s s edov e rfo rp r o m o t i o n sa n dr a i s e s .O u rd a t ao f f e rin s i gh ti n t oon es i tu a t io n a l o p t i o nf o rh e l p i n gw om ens e l f -p romo t e t oad v a n c e in th e i rp r o f e s s i o n so rn e g o t i a t eb e t t e rw ag e so rs t a r t upp a ck ag e s . I ti sim p e r a t iv eth a t ,a ss cho l a r sid en t i fy w ay stoh e lp w om e ns e l f p r omo t e ,th e r ei sas imu l t an eou se f fo r ttocomb a t t h ev e r yr e a lb a ck l a shth a ts e l f -p romo t ing wom enf a c e (B ow l e s &B a b co ck ,2012 ;B r e s co l l ,2011 ; Mo s s -R a cu s in e ta l . ,2 0 1 0 ;R u dm ane ta l . ,2012 ) .P e rh ap s th e r e i sa th r e sho ld f o ra‘ ‘ p r o p e r ’ ’amoun to fs e l f -p romo t ion th a twou ldbo thb en e f i tw om a n ’ se d u c a t ion a landc a r e e rsu c c e s sandno tr e su l tin s o c i a lo re c o n om i cs an c t ion s .O rp e rh ap sth e r ea r ew ay sto s t a n d a r d i z e ds e l f -p romo t iont a sk s( e .g . ,w i thc l e a rqu e s t ion / a n sw e ro p t i o n s )o ro th e rw ay stog a inth es am ein fo rm a t ion ( e . g . ,r e q u i r el e t t e r so fr e f e r en c ein s t e ado fs e l f -g en e r a t edl e t t e r s— a l b e i tl e t t e r so fr e f e r en c ec anf a l lsub j e c ttog end e rb i a s a sw e l l ;S c hm a d e r , Wh i t eh e ad , & Wy so ck i ,2007 ) .Ind e ed , r e s e a r c ho nr e f r am ingt a skin s t ru c t ion sinaw ayth a ti s mod e s t yn o rmc o n s i s t en t( e .g . ,a sanoppo r tun i ty to‘ ‘po l i t e lya sk ’ ’ v e r s u s‘ ‘ n e g o t i a t e ’ ’ )enh an c e sth el ik e l ihood wom en w i l l i n i t i a t ean e g o t i a t ion(Sm a l le ta l . ,2007 ) . C o n c l u s i o n T h ec u r r e n tf i n d ing ssugg e s tth a twom enexp e r i en c eun com f o r t a b l ea r o u s a l wh enp romo t ingth es e l fb e c au s esu chs e l f p r om o t i o nv i o l a t e sg end e rno rm sfo rmod e s ty .Am e r i c anr e l i g i o u sl e a d e rH ow a rdHun t e r(1997 ,p .123 )on c es t a t edinh i s t e a c h i n g s t h a t : ‘ ‘Th eg i r lwhochoo s e s tob emod e s tchoo s e s to b er e s p e c t e d . Aboy whoi shon e s tw i thh im s e l fw i l ladm i t t h a th el i k e sag i r l whoi s mod e s tinsp e e ch ,condu c t ,and d r e s s .M o d e s t yi son eo fth eg r e a tv i r tu e s . ’ ’Su ch m e s s ag e s a b o u tg e n d e rand mod e s tya r econv ey edin m any w ay s a n da r ei n g r a i n edin Am e r i c ancu l tu r e(B ron s t e in , 2006 ; B u dw o r t h& M a nn ,2010 ;Rudm an ,1998 ) .W ed emon s t r a t ed t h a t ,w i t h o u tp rov id ingfo rth em i s a t t r ibu t iono fs i tu a t ion a l a r o u s a l( e . g . ,d i s com fo r t )th a tr e su l t edf romv io l a t iono fth e m o d e s t yn o rm ,wom enm ayr e so lv eth e i rd i s com fo r tbyb e ing m o d e s ta n dd ow np l ay ingth e i rowna c comp l i shm en t s .W i tha s i t u a t i o n a li n t e rv en t ion ,how ev e r , wom enc an m i s a t t r ibu t e t h es o u r c eo fs i tu a t ion a la rou s a landa r eth enf r e etop romo t e t h em s e l v e s .I n d e ed ,b r agg ingough ttob ea‘ ‘ r igh t ’ ’a f fo rd ed t oe v e r y o n e . Acknow ledgmen t W ea r eg r a t e f u lt ot h er e s e a r c ha s s i s t a n t si nt h eM o t i v a t i o na n d D i v e r s i t yL a bf o rt h e i ra s s i s t a n c ew i t hd a t ac o l l e c t i o n . Au tho r s ’ No te s P a r t so fs t u d ys e r v e da st h es e c o n da u t h o r ’ sW om e na n dG e n d e r S t u d i e sT h e s i s . Dec la ra t iono f Con f l ic t ingIn te re s t s T h ea u t h o r ( s )d e c l a r e dn op o t e n t i a lc o n f l i c t so fi n t e r e s tw i t hr e s p e c t t ot h er e s e a r c h ,a u t h o r s h i p ,a n d / o rp u b l i c a t i o no ft h i sa r t i c l e . Fund ing T h ea u t h o r ( s )d i s c l o s e dr e c e i p to f t h ef o l l ow i n gf i n a n c i a ls u p p o r tf o r t h er e s e a r c h ,a u t h o r s h i p ,a n d / o rp u b l i c a t i o no f t h i sa r t i c l e :T h i ss t u d y w a ss u p p o r t e di np a r tb ya M o n t a n aS t a t eU n i v e r s i t yU n d e r g r a d u a t e S c h o l a r sP r o g r amG r a n t . No te 1 .T h i sm e t h o d o l o g yw a sb o r r ow e df r om M o s s -R a c u s i na n dR u d m a n( 2 0 1 0 ,s t u d y2 ) ,w i t ht h eo n l ye x c e p t i o nt h a tw em a s k e dt h e s e l f -v e r s u so t h e r p r om o t i o nn a t u r eo ft h ec o n d i t i o n .Am o n gt h e 4 4n ewp a r t i c i p a n t‘ ‘ s c h o l a r s h i pj u d g e s , ’ ’b e c a u s en otw op a r t i c i p a n t se v e rr a t e dt h es am es e to fs i xe s s a y s ,i ti sn o ta p p r o p r i a t et o c om p u t ei n t e r r a t e rr e l i a b i l i t y .T h eg o a lw a st og e ta na v e r a g er a t i n gf r oma tl e a s ttw on ewp a r t i c i p a n t sr e g a r d i n gt h es c h o l a r s h i p aw a r dm o n e yt h ee s s a yw a r r a n t e d ,s im i l a rt oh owa na c t u a lp a n e l o fj u d g e sm i g h tr e v i ewa p p l i c a t i o n sf o ras c h o l a r s h i p .T h i sp r o c e d u r ei sa k i nt oar e p e a t e dm e a s u r e sd e s i g nw i t he s s a ya st h e w i t h i n s u b j e c t sv a r i a b l ea n ds c h o l a r s h i pr a t i n ga st h ed e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . Re fe rence s A l l e n ,J . ,G e r v a i s ,S .J . ,&Sm i t h ,J .L .( 2 0 1 3 ) .S i tb i gt oe a tb i g :T h e i n t e r a c t i o no fb o d yp o s t u r ea n db o d yc o n c e r no nr e s t r a i n e de a t i n g .P s y c h o l o g yo fW om e nQ u a r t e r l y,3 7 ,3 2 5 – 3 3 6 . A l l en ,J . , & Sm i th ,J .L .(20 11 ) . Th ein f lu en c eo fs ex u a l i ty s t e r eo ty p e son m en ’ sexp e r i en c eo fg end e r ro l ein co ng ru en c e . 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Wh ent ry in gh a rdi sn ’ tn a tu r a l : Wom en ’ sb e long ing w i thand mo t iv a t ionfo rm a l e -dom in a t edSTEMf i e ld sa safun c t iono f e f fo r texp en d i tu r econ c e rn s .P e r son a l i t ya ndS o c ia lP s y cho log y 9,3 –15 .d o i :10 .1 177 /014 616 721 246 833 2 Bu l l e t in,3 Sm i t h ,J .L . ,S a n s o n e ,C . ,& W h i t e ,P .H .( 2 0 0 7 ) .T h es t e r e o t y p e d t a s ke n g a g em e n tp r o c e s s :T h er o l eo fi n t e r e s ta n da c h i e v em e n t m o t i v a t i o n .J o u r n a lo fE d u c a t i o n a lP s y c h o l o g y ,9 9 ,9 9 – 1 1 4 . d o i : 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 / 0 0 2 2 0 6 6 3 . 9 9 . 1 . 9 9 Sm i t h ,J .L . ,& W h i t e ,P .H .( 2 0 0 2 ) .A ne x am i n a t i o no fim p l i c i t l y a c t i v a t e d ,e x p l i c i t l ya c t i v a t e d ,a n dn u l l i f i e ds t e r e o t y p e so nm a t h em a t i c a lp e r f o rm a n c e :I t ’ sn o tj u s taw om a n ’ si s s u e .S e xR o l e s , 4 7 ,1 7 9 – 1 9 1 . 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( 2 0 1 3 ) .B e y o n dp e r f o rm a n c e :Am o t i v a t i o n a le x p e r i e n c e sm o d e l o fs t e r e o t y p et h r e a t .E d u c a t i o n a lP s y c h o l o g yR e v i ew,2 5 , 2 1 1 – 2 4 3 .d o i : 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 6 4 8 0 1 3 9 2 1 9 1 U r d a n ,T .(E d . ) .( 1 9 9 9 ) .A d v a n c e si nm o t i v a t i o na n da c h i e v em e n t : M o t i v a t i o ni nc o n t e x t (V o l .1 1 ) .S t am f o r d ,CT :JA IP r e s s . W a d e ,M .E .( 2 0 0 1 ) .W om e na n d t h es a l a r yn e g o t i a t i o n :T h ec o s t so f s e l f a d v o c a c y .P s y c h o l o g yo fW om e nQ u a r t e r l y,2 5 ,6 5 – 7 6 .d o i : 1 0 . 1 1 1 1 / 1 4 7 1 6 4 0 2 . 0 0 0 0 8 Z a n n a ,M .P . ,&C o o p e r ,J .( 1 9 7 4 ) .D i s s o n a n c ea n dt h ep i l l :A na t t r i b u t i o na p p r o a c ht os t u d y i n gt h ea r o u s a lp r o p e r t i e so fd i s s o n a n c e . J o u r n a lo fP e r s o n a l i t ya n dS o c i a lP s y c h o l o g y , 2 9,7 0 3 – 7 0 9 .d o i : 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 / h 0 0 3 6 6 5 1