THE LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL OF CATTLE GRUBS, HYPODERMA LINEATUM
DE VILLERS AND HYPODEmU. :SOVIS DE GEER
by
Donald K. Scharff
A THESIS
Snbmitted to the Graduate Faculty
in
partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science in Entomology
at
Montana State College
Approved:
~~teo
2
Bozeman, Montana
_ October, 1949
(l ~-h
. . ....'\} t"" '
-2-
\
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
.ABSTRACT •
4
INT.BODUOTION •
5
•
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS •
6
LIFE HISTORY OF CATTLE GRUBS
6
.-. .
HOSTS
•
OTHER HYPODERMA. IN CATTLE
7
9
DISTRIBUTION •
•
North America • • •
South America •
Europe
•
India •
Africa
Asia
•
Australia, Nev Zealand, Dutch East Indies
Hawaii
• •
9
10
ll
12
12
•
12
..
•
•
•
•
Swnma.ry •
13
13
13
13
14
EOONOMIC IMPORTA.ltCE
General •
•
Damage caused by Heel Flies •
Damage caused by ~ra.bs
•
NUMBER OF LARVAL INsr.A.RS •
•
14
15
15
lS
DIFFERENTIATION OF sPECIES •
19
:BIOLOGY ~"'D irABITS •
ro
Heel Flies
Route of larvae through the body
Larval method of penetration
Larval development in the warbles •
Larval emergence and pupation •
Grubs •
ro
21.
23
~~
26
SEA.SONAL VARIATIONS
Adults
•
•
27
27
•
q~s2q
f6g66
-3Page
32
EFFECTS OF NATURAL FACTORS ON CATTLE GRUB POPULATIONS ••
Climate
Predators • • • •
Parasites
Natural resistance of host
CONTROL •
.. ...
32
33
5~
....
....
35
Heel flies •
• • • •
• • • •
Destruction of eggs and newly hatched larvae • • • • •
Immunization • • • • • • . • . •
• •.
..
....
Preventing oviposition • • • • • • •
Combating the grubs in the backs ••
The Re~isites of good grub control
Specific methods for controlling grubs ••
The use of power sprays • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Tests of cattle grub sprays in Montana
Materials and methods • • • •
Dis~ssion of results • • •
Number of treatments necessar.y •
Proper timing of treatments
..
LITERATURE CONSULTED
... . . ...
. ...
...
35
35
37
37
~
41
43
46
46
47
49
51
52
-4-
A:B STP.A.C!r
!rhe literature on cattle grub biologies and control is reviewed
and discussed, and certain criticisms and suggestions are added.
Evidence shows that H. bovis, the northern or "late" cattle grub,
is much more common in the-western and northwestern United States than
bas :previously been ~ro.p:posed.
Great difficulty was experienced in distinguishing between H. bovis
and H. lineatum in the second (penultimate) larval instar.
- -With both species of grUbs the indivi<:luals arriving at the backs in
the early part of the season spent an average of three woeks longer in
the warbles than those arriving there toward the end of the season.
Year to year variations of 30 days in dates of peak grUb abundance
are not uncommon. In any one season, variations of 60 days or more are
not uncommon between individual herds of cattle in the same general area.
TP~s is especially true in mountainous regions.
!rhe use of power sprays, using rotenone as the insecticide, and
directed at the grubs at the time they are in the warbles, appears to
be the only practical method of controlling grubs in large range livestock regions. Pressures of 6oo pounds per square inch are more effective than lo\'rer pressures. The addition of specific wetting agents to
the sprays shows promise of increasing control and should be thoroughly
investigated. H. bovis is considerably more resistant to currently
recommended sprays than is H. lineatum. Preliminary observations show
that in parts of Montana twogrub treatments, properly timed, should
contact more than 90 percent of the entire infestation of H. ~ and
H. lineatum.
The control of cattle grc.bs with sprays is unfortunately far from
perfect and there is urgent need for much good experimental work on this
problem.
-5INTBODUCTIO!i
During the years
194o to 1948, the interest in cattle grub control
increased markedly in the northwestern United States.
This increased
interest was contemporaneous with the development of cheap and efficient
high pressure liquid spray machines.
Previous to this period, the recom-
mended methods for grub control were not generally applicable to western
conditions, where large, comparatively wild,
of beef cattle are involved.
infre~ently
handled herds
The hand wash and band dusting methods of
grub control were impractical, if not impossible to use.
With our present knowledge of cattle grubs and methods for their
control, it a.PPears that the use of high pressure rotenone sprays is the
most practical method of combating these pests in Montana.
The spray
recommendations of recent years advise that the animals should be treated
at 30-da.y intervals throughout the cattle grub season, which in Montana,
is approximately six months in duration (January through June).
From the
standpoint of beef management and husbandry practices, such a program is
highly impractical.
The prima.ry purpose of the present research has been threefold:
1. To compile and summarize the information on cattle grab biologies
and control.
2. To develop a more practical treatment schedule for large herds of
beef cattle.
3. To improve upon
sp~
techniques and insecticide ingredients in
order to increase the percentage of control from each insecticidal application.
-6ACINOllLEDGEMENT S
The writer gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr. J. H.
Pepper for the proposal of the problem and for constant help and advice
during its development • and to Dr. J. A. Callenbach and Mr. E. :B. Hastings
for helpful
critici~s
and assistance.
LIFE HISTORY OF CATTLE GRUBS
The life histories of the common cattle grUb (HyPoderma lineatum De
Villers), and the northern, or late grUb (EYpoderma ~De Geer) are
generally quite similar.
The adult heel flies appear from early spring to
late summer, and lay their eggs on the cattle.
The eggs are placed for the
most part on the hairs of the legs and other lower portions of the animal's
bod,y.
In two to six days, depending upon the temperature, the eggs hatch.
The young maggots immediately crawl down the hair to the skin, and burrow
directly into the tissues.
There is a period of about five months after
the larvae enter the body, during which their movements are not too well
known.
Their travels seem to be exclusively through connective tissues.
They 'ltJAY appear in the tissues of the various visceral organs and the
spinal canal.
A large majority of the larvae of H. lineatum congregate
for _several months in the tissues of the gullet, and H. bovis larvae spend
a similar period in the spinal canal.
The larvae, nov about 15 millimeters
in length, begin their final migration, again through the connective
tissues.
They eventually arrive in the subdermal tissues of the baekp
where, almost immediately they make breathing holes through the skin.
Cysts are formed around them, but the breathing holes are kept open. After
a 6o-day period in the backs, they emerge, drop to the ground, and pupate.
-7In one to three months, depending on weather conditions, the adult heel
flies emerge to spend a brief but
bu~
life terrorizing their bovine
victims.
HOSTS
Cattle are the normal hosts of both species of grubs.
:Riley (1892) reports that H. lineatum is not uncommon in American
bison.
Bishopp et al (1926, 1949) report .that bison harbor cattle gTobs,
but do not seem to be as heavily infested as cattle.
.Roudabush (1936),
however, upon e%lllllina.tion of 13 bison slaughtered in Oklahoma, found.them
infested with a total of 150 H. lineatum larvae.
Lo (1935) reports that three to flve percent of the buffalo hides
inspected from Shensi province, in northwest China, were infested with
grubs.
Goats and sheep are the occasional hosts of all stages of H. lineatum
larvae in India, according to Bhatia (1934), Sen (1934), and
1939a).
SoD!
(1939,
Bishopp et al (1926) and Ditmans (1948) cite several other in-
stances of goat and sheep infestation.
They were unable, however, to
induce complete larval development of H. lineatum in experimentally infested goats or sheep.
Barrett and Wells (1948) at necropsy recovered.
less than 20 percent of
H.
months previously.
lineatum larvae.tran~lanted into goats four
Apparently none had reached the back.
Horses are not infrequently found to be subdermally infested vi th
H,ypoderma larvae, but there is little information as to whether they
successfully complete their development.
infestation and normal emergence of one H.
Girard. (1939) reports a natural
~
larva from a horse in
-8France.
Tarlier (1930) and :Baker and Monlux (1939) report H.
the brains of horses, causing nervous disturbances.
and Monlux ( 1939) , 21 of
infestation.
k2!!!. in
According to Baker
79 riding horses showed positive evidence of grub
One percent of horses examined by Potemkin and VedernikoT
(1944) were infested with one to four H. bovis larvae per horse, all in
the second and third instar.
Other infestations in horses are reported
and described by Carpenter (1914), Pillars (1923), :Bishopp et al (1926),
MOte (192S), Ono (193S), Zottner and Coste (1939, 1939a) and :Badanin and
:Badaniva (1945).
.
Local stockmen report to the writer that grub infes-
.
tations very frequently render riding horses unusable for periods of
several months, apparently because chafing of the saddle breaks the gl'tlb
or its enclosing cyst, with the result that an extremely tender, elovhealing infection occurs.
:Bishopp et al (1926) give a thorough discussion of grub infestation
in man.
"They are found usually in the subdermal tissues, where they
produce what is often called
1 creeping
m;yiasis 1 •
There seems to be a
tendency for the larvae to work upward and most of them are finally" extracted from the head, face, or upper extremities.
These migrations are
often extensive and rather rapid, accompanied by considerable pain.
In
some cases the larvae appear under the mn.cous membranes of the mouth. ir
Three cases of HyPoderma infestation of the human eyeball are recorded
by Granberg (1913); Von Schmidt zu Wellenburg (191g), and O'Brien and
Allen (1939).
Other descriptions of human m;yiasis caused by H. linea tum
and H. bovis are given by Henricksen (1921), Engel (1923), Style (1924),
Andre (1925), Herms (1925), Lanford and Warner (1925), Lawson (1929),
-9Wegelin
(1930), DosSantos (1932), PavlovSkii and Glazer (1932), Natvig
(1935), Smart (1939) and Haseman (194s). The writer found no records of
the completion of larval development in humans.
Attempts have been made by Bishopp et a1
(1926), Barrett and Wells
(194s), Roubaud and Perard (1924) and others cited by Bishopp et al (1926),
.
.
to infest dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice with H. lineatum and!:_
bovis larvae.
The maggots were recoverable up to four months after i&-
festation, but all evidence pointed toward death of the larvae before
they matured.
OTHER HYPODERMA IN CATTLE
H. crossi, normally occurring in goats, occasionally infests cattle
in India, ~ccording to Patton
~
(1924), and Fletcher and Sen (1930).
aeratum, also normally a goat parasite, is recorded in cattle
from Cyprus by McDonald
(1945, 1946). Infestations of this type are
probably not common.
H. Diana, a deer parasite, was found in cattl.e in Scotland by Mac
Dougall
(1934). Attempts at inoculating cattle with larvae of this spe-
cies proved unsuccessful.
DI STRIBUTIOli
The distribution of H. bovis and H. lineatum has received, and
apparently continues to receive, a minimum of attention. certainly not
as much as the subject deserves.
As discussed by Bishopp et al
cattle grubs have been known in Europe for more than 200 years.
(1926),
In Amer-
ica., interest in cattle grubs became evident during the latter part of
-10the nineteenth centur,r •
.A rather complete discussion of cattle gru.b distribution is given
by Bishopp et al
(1926).
Since the date of that work, however, it appears
that these pests have spread considerably.
North America
According to Hearle
(1932)
(1936),
and Gibson and Twinn
both spe-
cies of grUbs are common wherever cattle are raised in Canada.
H. lineatw:l has been common throughout all of the United. States for
many years.
Regarding H. bovis, Bishopp et al
(1949)
.
.
state that its dis-
.
tribution is limited to the northern states, that it is much more ahund.·ant in the northeastern states than elsewhere, and that it occurs only
here and there in the northwestern states.
Their map showing the probable
southern limits of H. bovis indicates that it should not be found to any
extent south of latitude
of latitud.e
35°
4o 0
N. west of the state of Missouri, nor south
N. east of the Mississippi River.
that "both H. lineatum and H.
~are
For Oregon, Lindquist and Roth
(1926)
(1947)
Pfadt
(1947)
reports
major pests of cattle in Wyoming".
write, "Since Bishopp and coworkers
show cooparatively few H: bov:is in the western United States, it
is concluded that this species has become firmly established in this
area durii:Ig the past 20 years".
In Montana. the writer, in e:mmining a
typical herd of yearling beef stock, found them to be infested with an
average of
17
the spring of
H. lineatum per animal and
194S.
Sorenson
(1945)
17
H.
~
per anima.l during
reports that in northern Utah,
199
H. bovis were recorded. from a native yearling steer, and 45 H. bovis
-from a native heifer.
In California, according to Douglas and Furman
-11H. ~is well established as far south as San Luis Obispo
(1947),
County (latitude
305
found
N.).
Also in California, Furman and Douglas
cattle to be infested with
which were H.
Russo
35°
3.7
(1948),
grubs per animal, 20 percent of
E2..!!!·
(1927)
reports that ~ lineatum is one of the major pests of
cattle in San Domingo.
There are some areas in North .America where gra.bs do not ordina.ril;r
occur.
According to Gibson and Twinn
(1936),
large parts of Sea Island
and Lulu Island, British Columbia, are free or nearly free of grubs.
Bishopp
(1915)
states that the Red River Valley of the North in North
Dakota and Minnesota is free of grubs.
The southern two-thirds of
Florida is uninfested according to Bishopp et al
(1926).
Mills et al
{1946)
report that R. lineatum does not occur in an area several miles
in extent in the vicinity of Bozeman, Montana. The writer surveyed the
above area and found its extent to be 20 to
30
sqaare miles.
Porto Rico
and Jamaica are reported to be free of cattle grubs by Wolcott
Von Volkenberg
(1932)
and Ritchie
(1919).
(1922),
No records are known to the
writer of the occurrence of HyPoderma in Mexico or Central America.
South America
Two reports, from Brazil and Chile, by Palazzolo
(1923)
are negative, but Doe Santos
(1932)
(1916)
and Sievers
reports that two R. bovis
iarvae were found. infestizl& a man in :Brazil.
This would i.ndiCI'Lte the
possibility that R. bovis has become established in South America.
-12Europe
,!h ~and H. lineatum are reported £rom Cyprus and Italy to Norvay
and Finland, and £rom Britain to the Urals.
There is evidence to indicate
that there may be some regions in Europe in which one species or the other
is not economically important (BiShopp et al,
Blagoveshchenskii and Pavlovskii,
Bruisova and Pushina,
1932;
1925;
Dcyenski,
Faber,
194o;
Kftrschner,
Pacchioni,
1933;
1924;
fanski and Obitz,
1931;
Degtyarev,
1927;
Kurtpinar,
?avlovskii,
1935;
1930;
1928;
Boas,
1930;
Gannser,
1947;
Anonymous,
1928;
Brassler,
Dinulesco,
1923;
Natvig,
1931;
1926;
193S;
Doinikov,
Gannser-Burckhardt,
1937, 1939;
Pricelkov et al,
1924, 1925;
Walton,
1926;
1948;
Westermarck,
Obitz,
Roe,
1936;
1938;
Ste-
1927).
India
According to Sen
Soni
(1938),
(1934),
Handa
(1936),
(1939)
Chadha and Sen
and
H. lineatum is common in most of' northwest India, including
Sind, Punjab, Northwest Frontier Province, and Baluchistan, and in the
Kumaun Hills of' northeast India.
H.
~is
common in eastern India,
including Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and the Central Provinces.
Grubs are
widespread in dry, hilly, and sancy areas, and are practically absent
f'rom the moister areas and ma.rsh;r districts.
Africa
Bishopp et a1
(1926),
citing others, state that H. ~ occurs in
Algeria and Egypt, and that larvae of H. lineatum have been collected in
Mozambique, southeast Africa.
After many introductions of Hnoderma
into Kenya and South Africa, say Bedford
(1926)
and Lewis
(1933),
cat-
-13tle grubs still have not suc.ceeded in establishing themselves.
Asia
Sonan (1927} reports that introduced H. bovis did not establish
itself in Formosa.
In spite of introductions, Lo (1935} states that cattle grUbs have
not become a pest in Soochow, Nanking, nor in Central China, but that
they are a pest in Shensi province, nor\hwes\ China.
Ono (1933, 1936) and Ono and Yama.sa.ld (1934) found that both H.
bovis and H. lineatum are common, but that H. lineatum is much more
numerous and is a serious cattle pest in Inner Mongolia
an~
Manchuria.
Austmlia, New Zealand, Dutch East Indies
Evidence presented by Miller(1922} and Bi8hopp et al (1926) indicates that HyPoderma have not become established in these areas.
Hawaii
Sweze.y (1933) gave the first positive evidence that H. lineatum
.
.
had become established.
Ten years later :Beaumont (1943) found that 26
percent of the cattle examined from the Island of Hawaii were inf'ested
with H. linea tum.
Summary
With the possible exceptions of Mozambiqu.e, and :Brazil, no records
are known to the writer of the occurrence of Hzyoderma farther south
than about latitude 16° N.
H. lineatum is recorded from San Domingo
at 16°, Hawaii at 19o, India at 25°, and Cyprus at 35° north latitude.
-1~
H. ~is reported from California at
Africa and Egypt at
35°, India at 20°, and l!'reneh West
30° to 32° north latitude. It appears that cattle
gru.bs have not a.s yet established themselves in economic numbers in the
tropics or the southern hemisphere.
Na.tvig (1937) reports H. lineatUill as far north as latitude
66° N.
in Norway.
ECONOMIC
IMPO~CE
General
Biley (1890) aptly describes a gru.bby carcass, as follows:
1 •••
beyers of the highest class meat, who supply hotels and restaurants
will not on any account pnrchase carcasses showing traces of warble
attack ••• The appearance known as Licked....Beef, which, resnlting from
the presence of the grub, may be described as a moist or ro.nning surface
of a greenish-yellow color, is certainly unwholesome in look, if not in
fact.
The description of such meat as given in the Farmers' Review •••
is almost sufficient to tarn one against beef altogether.•
Smith (1948) says,
"When hides are removed from grub-infested cattle, there is
a mass of yellowish gelatinous meat around the grub hole that must be
trimmed out as inedible. In a slaughter test conducted for the
National Live Stock Loss Prevention Board by a Chicago paCker, there
vas a loss of $1,248.131 on 29 badl7 infested carcasses, and for the
lot of 57 steers averaging 1,254 pounds live weight, the loss amounted
to $22 per head. Twenty-nine of the 57 carcasses were lowered one full
gra,de by the trimming-out process, constituting a loss of 2!~ per lb.,
or a total of $512.50. Many of the loins were so badly damaged tha.t
the7 had to be boned which meant a loss of $10 per cwt. on 1~ of the
carcass weight, or $1.10 per cwt. on the en.tire carcass. 0! the 57
cattle, 44 hides were graded f2 which amoulited to a loss of $37. The
detailed breakdown of this damage shows that the loss of meat Talue is
often far greater than the hide damage. This, to be sure, was a rather
bad lot, but it does go to show vbat actual slaughter losses are in
-15such cases.
There was a waste of at least 14,000,000 lbs. of meat trimmed
out of all grubby cattle carcasses in the United States in 1948 causing
a loss of approximately $13,000,000 which includes degrading loin Cllts
mutilated. u
Smith (1948} estimates the annual loss due to cattle grUbs in the
United States at well over $100,000,000.
:Barret and Wells (1948) quote
estimates as high as $300,000,000 per year.
It is very difficult to
arrive at a really accurate figure on total damage due to grubs because
of the varied ways in which cattle are affected by them.
Damage caused by Heel Flies
l3ishopp et al (1926) say, "HYpoderma~ causes the most excite-
.
.
ment to stoCk and hence, where it occurs, produces the greatest damage
in this respect.
Losses caused by this anno)"ance include marked reduc-
tion in milk flow, failure to put on :flesh normally, mechanical inJU%7 due
to the wild efforts of the animals to escape attacks, and not infrequent!)"
loss from the miring down of cattle when they rosh into ponds or mn.d holes,
or their injury or destruction when ronning over embankments or cliffs. 1
Bishol'P et al (1949) estimate that milk production is reduced 10 to 25
percent during periods of heel fly activit)".
Roe (1938) states that in Cyprus during the heel fl7 season agricultural operations are impeded owing to the frequent impossibility of
using cattle for draft purposes.
Damage Caused b7 Grubs
Soni (1938), checking weekly weights on five heavily infssted _and
two unin:f'ested bulls, found that the infested animals lost weight from- ·..
-15aFebrua.ry until mid-March then graduall;y gained thro'llgh April (most of the
grubs had emerged b;y mid-March).
There was no appreciable weight loss in
the two uninfested animals.
Mohler
kept on
16
(1939)
describes an experiment in which weight records were
cattle held in a fly proof encloBtlre, and
18
check animals.
The experiment lasted about 2 years, and the results showed that the exposed animals gained an average of 514 pounds against 550 pounds for the
protected ones.
Gunderson
(1945),
reporting on weight tests on
cattle, treated twice for grubs, at
219
head of grubby
30 da.;y intervals, found that they
gained an average of 0.14 pounds per animal per dq over similar untreated
gru.bb;y animals.
Munro et al
The tests ran for an average period of
(194 7)
53
da1's.
report that noninfested steers averaged
43 pounds
greater gain per steer, during the wintering period, than grubby steers
treated twice for the control of grUbs.
According to Trullinger et al
(1949),
grtib control tests at the
Oklahoma Experiment Station resulted in 0.1 pounds extra gain per dAy
on steers and 0.5 pounds extra milk per dq on dairy cattle over check
animals.
Smith
(1949)
~s, "In
1948
a State Experiment Station made a test
in which 10 steers in one lot, sprayed with rotenone • • • gained on the
average one-fourth pound each per da.;y more than the same quality of 10
other infested steers untreated fed the same ration.
It is significaut
also that the treated cattle required 10~ less grain per 100 lbs. of
gain in weight than the untreated cattle during a 6-months' feeding
period. 11
-16BiShopp et al (1926) cite work by Boas, in which a cow, daily producing 30 to 32 pounds of milk, increased the yield to 4o pounds a few
days a:Cter SO grubs had been extracted from her back.
They also cite an
experiment by Sch8ttler and Glllser in which the grubs were
half the animals in a feeder herd.
extrac~ed
from
These animals showed a gain in weight
of 5.16 percent over the infested portion of the herd.
Moderate grub infestations do not materially affect the yield of
milk in dairy cows, according to Julienne (1947) and Mohler (1948).
.
~
'
~
Ride damage by grubs is by far the easiest of all grub damage to
evaluate.
Practically all nations and countries with economic numbers
of cattle grubs have figures which show the percentages of total hides
that are grubby, the devaluation of hides caused by grubbiness, and the
yearly loss to the leather industry from Hypoderma infestation.
Gibson
and Twinn (1936) give the following figures for western Canada:
25-~
percent of all hides harvested are grubby.
41.4 percent of all hides harvested during grub season are grubby.
70 percent of all hides harvested in April are gru.bby.
Smith (1949) states that at least 33 percent of all cattle hides proanced in the United States contain :five or more grub holes and are sold
at the agreed discount of $.01 per pound.
These holes are in the thick-
est and best part of the hide used for sole leather.
Coppens (1913)
cites a statement by Godfrind, chemist to the War Ministry at Brussels, to
the effect that the wearing property of warbled hides as leather is only
30 percent of that of sound hides.
0 1Flaherty and McLaughlin (1930) and
Simmons (1939) made histological studies of the effects of grubs upon
cattle hides.
They found that cellular infiltrations and grul> debris
are commonly walled off in the process of healing.
These leave weak
-17spots in the scar tissue and corresponding weak spots in the finished
leather.
Simmons states that even a perfectly healed cyst presents a
defective hide for leather production.
This is due to the fact that in
the healing process fibers are laid down which are more uniformly parallel
to the epithelium than those in normal tissue.
As pointed out by
0 1 Flaherty and McLaughlin, polydirectional fibers are the source of the
tissue's strength, while unidirectional structures are a source of weakness.
The penetration of the skin by the
ne\~ly
hatched larvae produces
what Hadwen (1919) calls cypodermal rash.
The points of penetration be-
come extremely sore, tender and inflamed.
They generally eXIl.de a yellow-
ish serum.
Simmons (1937), in a histological stu~ of esophagi infested with congregations of H. lineatwn, states that the larvae typically occur in the
submucosa, causing inflammatory swellings into which there is a very striking infiltration of leucocytes.
Sometimes, accar ding to Scilmid (1941),
when the larvae are quite numerous, the swelling
~
become severe enough
to hinder swallowing.
H.
~
congregating in the spinal canal sometimes causes paralysis,
myelitis, and other nervous disorders (Schmid, 1941; Sergent, 1939; Ano:nymous, 1947; Popescu-l3aran, 1939) ..
There appear to be some variations in opinion on the matter of anaphylaxis.
Hadwen and l3ruce ( 1917) report having produced severe anapby-
laxis in cattle by injecting
~oderma
extracts into the jugular veins.
They also state that the same symptoms may be caused by breaking cypoilermal grubs and their qsts in the back.
Hadwen (1922), describes
11
Eose
-18-
Fever", which he says, appears to be identical with eypodermal anaphyla::rls.
Re cites numerous cases of it in Europe, and also warns against
rough or careless methods of extracting grubs.
MacDougall (1930) and
:Blagoveshchenskii and Pavlovskii (1930) report that numerous grubs broken
in the backs caused an anaphylaxis.
The latter two authors also state
that the subcutaneous injection of grub extract bas no effect on the animals.
The fact that Jensen (1924) reports eight fatal cases of "Rose
Fever" in Denmark after one year of intensive nationwide grub extraction,
indicates that some da.nger of anaphylaxis may be expected from band
extraction of grubs.
liatvig (1937) observes that animals in poor condition are usually
more heavily infested than healthy ones.
pressed by stockgrowers, who not
This is an observation often
uncommo~
animals is conducive to grubbiness.
e~
feel that poor condition in
It bas not been determined definitely
whether heavy infestations of grubs are the result of unthriftiness or the
cause of it.
'l!he preponderance of evidence, however, as set forth in the
preceding paragraphs, would indicate that gro.bbiness could be and probably
is a contributing factor to the poor condition of the host.
EmmER OF LARVAL IN&rARS
The number of larval stages in R. · bovis and R. lineatum has been a
matter of considerable argument for at least ha.lf a centur;y.
de~cribed
what were
apparen~ly
four stages.
Ri1B7 ( 1892)
Then for a quarter of a cen-
tur;y, four stages were generally recognized (Xnipling, 1935) until Laake
(1921) described what he considered to be anOther, fifth, stage.
the publication of Laake's description of the supposed new stage
Since
in~
-19lineatum and Phibbs' (1921) description of a corresponding new stage in
R.
~.
five stages have been recognized by most investigators (Laake
1921, 1924; Warburton, 1922; Hadwen and Fulton, 1924; :Bishopp et al, 1926;
Mote, 1928; Case, 1929; Carpenter, 1924; Ono, 1933; Knipling, 1935}. Knipling (1935) cites others who hold to the older theory of four and states
further that investigators in
Germa~
generally recognize three stages. He
then convincingly shows, through numerous measurements of cephalopharyugeal
sclerites, counts of the spines on various segments and measurements of
spiracles, that what were formerly thought to be the first three stages
are actually only one.
Bishopp, Laake, and Wells (1936) nov reverse their
former stand, and refer to three iarval stages, as- do
L8a.ke et
al
(1942).
Since 1935 most workers recognize only three stages (ROudabush, 1936; Natvig, 1937; Smart, 1939; Zottner and Coste, 1939; Snipes and Cooper, 1942;
Mathysee, 1945; Lindquist and Roth, 1947; Westermarck, 1947). A few still
hold to five: (Ono, 1938; Potemkin and Vedernikov, 1944; Stewart, 1944;
Furman and Douglas, 1948).
Dinulesco (1938) speaks of four stages. Rase~
man (1941) questions the three-stage theory in favor of one or tvo additional stages.
DIFFERENI!IATION OF SPECIES
Using Laake 1 s (192i) -methods, it has been consistently possible for the
writer to differentiate between H. bovis and!!.:. lineatum in the first and
last larval stages.
Regarding the second (penultimate) stage Laake ( 1921)
says, "••• the characters of the stigmal plates permit, with absolute
certainty, the differentiation (of species) of the fourth (actually the second) as well as the fifth (third) larval insta.r 11 •
The writer has been
-20-
consistently unable to duplicate Laake's success on second stage larvae
from Montana.
Natvig (1937a) also reports that it is sometimes difficult
to distinguish between
!h. lineatum
and R. bovis by the characters of the
posterior stigmal plates.
BIOLOGY AND HABITS
Reel Flies
Adult heel flies generally emerge from their puparia early on bright
sunny mornings (Carpenter, et al, 1914).
They are sexually mature, and
may mate within. an hour after emergence (Carpenter, et al, 1914; Bishopp
et al, 1926; and others).
Copulation lasts only a few minutes.
Bishopp
et a1 (1926) observed the l~ing of fertile eggs 20 minutes after copulation.
ing.
bo~
The mouthparts are degenerate and apparently incapable of function-
The adult fly, upon emergence, bas enough energy reserves within its
to last throughout its lifetime.
Length of adult life varies,
accor~
ing to different authors, from two to 25 days, depending on temperatures.
Various figures are available as to the number of eggs laid.
MacDougall
(1935) reports that 6oo to SOO may be deposited; Gibson and Twinn (1936)
estimate an average of 4oo per fly; Bishopp et a1 (1949) estimate
500 per
fly.
Oviposition takes place most commonly on warm, suney, quiet dqs.
R. linea tum lays chiefly on the hairs of recumbent stock (Hadwen, 1917,
1919) , and has often been observed to actually place its eggs on the bairs
along the ground line while standing on the ground.
Several eggs are
usually placed on a single hair by R. lineatum while R.
singly.
~
places them
The latter species attacks the animals more viciously and
-21-
persistently, causing a considerably greater amount of terror in herds of
cattle.
The reason for the wild running of cattle when attaCked by heel
flies has never been conclusively established. A single adult H.
~
has been observed by Hadwen (1915) to put a whole herd of cattle into hea~
long flight.
Capturing the single fly put an end to the cattle's excite-
ment.
It is generally the opinion of investigators (Faber, 1927; Davies
and Jones, 1932; Bishopp et al, 1926, and others) that adult heel flies
have very little tendency to migrate more than a mile from one area to
another.
MacDougall (1935), however, states that there is a record of one
heel fly that flew nine miles.
Descriptions of eggs, of hatching, and of skin penetration by young
larvae have been adequately covered in other literature (Hewitt, 1914; Had~en,
1919; Warburton, 1922; Bishopp et al, 1926).
Route of Larvae through the
Bo~
Discussing H. lineatum Hadwen and .Fulton (1924) state,
-
11
Wherever the
.
.
eggs are laid the underlying tissues show the tracks followed by the larvae•.
These investigators found young larvae in the connective tissues of the
diaphragm, duodenum, esophagus, pericardia! sac, and heart.
Bishopp et al
(1926), citing Stub, report that he observed an infiltrated area, caused
by grubs, in the superficial connective
tis~e
on the inside of the right
tibia, which continued over the shoulder, around the muscles of the neck,
to the tissue of the esophagus where it enters the thoracic cavity.
They
cite the finding of Hypoderma. larvae in connective tissues of the spleen,
pouch, intestine$, thoracic cavity, loin muscles, hip muscles, baCk
-22muscles, spinal column, and kidney vicinity.
Hadwen ( 191 7) says, liThe
larvae follow connective tissue exclusively and no larvae have been discovered in the muscular tissue 11 •
He explains that connective tissues offer
the least resistance to the passage of the larvae.
The majority of H. lineatum migrate in connective tissues by various
routes, from the point of invasion to the esophagus.
A few may wander
over the various organs of the body and never reach the esophagus.
They-
remain on the esophagus for a :period of several months, and then migrate
through the connective tissues to their
subde~
positions in the back
(Schmid, 1941; BiSho:pp et al, 1926; Stub, 1920; Warburton, 1922; Hadwen,
a.nd others).
Schmid (1941) reports that
.!h bovis
migrates to the spinal canal along
the nerves, and from there along the muscles to the back. According to Nauck
et al (1948) H. ~ follows the course of the large nerves to the epidural
fat of the spinal canal.
Haberman et al (1949) report that Gebauer found.
larval traces of H. bovis in the epineural connective tissues along nerve
trJ.Dks, from the foot to the spinal canal of calves.
Haberman et al (1949)
summarize their investigations as follo\tS:
11 0ur observations on the occurrence of Hypoderma ~ in the spinal
canal of cattle indicated a distinct difference in the migration r~~te
follo~red by the larvae of the two species. Only the larvae of H. ~
occurred regularly- in the spinal ca.nal whereas those of R. lineatum were
rarely found in the spinal canal. On the other hand, only H. lineatum
occurred regularly- in the esophageal region. The increase Til the average
length of the larvae and in the number collected betveen September a."1d
June indicated that the larvae graduall7 ac~~ate in this region prior
to appearing in the subdermal regions of the back. This occurrence corresponds with the well known acc-ll.tiUla.tion of H. lineatum larvae in the submucosa of the esophagus".
-
It is to be noted that Bishopp et a.l (1926) found only one larva of
R. bovis in 114o larvae removed from the gtulets of 563 cattle in regions
-23where H. bovis occurs.
It is also to be noted that of 9S2 larvae removed
by Haberman et al (1949) from 293 infested spinal canals, 975 were identified as R.
E2.!!!
and oniy seven as H. lineatum.
A review of Haberman 1 s
data shows that these seven H. lineatum were collected in December and February in Wisconsin.
Those are months when it would be perfectly logical in
Wisconsin for H. lineatum to be making its final migration to the akin of
the back from other parts of the body.
The average length of Haberman 1 s
seven H. lineatum larvae (14.6nm.) corresponds very well with those of
Bishopp et al (1926) made on H. lineatum which were read;r to leave the
esophagas and migrate to the back.
Larval Method of Penetration
Terada and Ono (1930) report finding a toxin resembling globulin in
first stage ¥zpoderma larVae.
0 bypodermatoXin"
an enzyme.
Ono (1932, 1932a, 1933) gives it the name
~. B:~ describes it ~s a green, viscous fluid, apparently
It is found in the midgut which is dialated so as to occuw
nearly three-fourths of the bod;r cavity.
and has a proteolytic action.
It can dissolve fibrin readily
Ono states that it is certain that perfor-
ation of the Skin of cattle is caused by the dermolytic action of "hypodermatoxin".
Simmons (1939) agrees that the appearance of the tissues suggests
gradual dissolution rather than mechanical perforation.
The toxin is not
present in second and third stage larvae.
Larval Development in the Warbles
According to Biahopp et al (1926), Ono (193S), and others, the first
.
.
stage larva perforates the Skin of the back very soon after it arrives in
-2~
tis~es.
the sUbdermal
Migration now ceases and a cyst of dense connective
tissue, infiltrated with leucocytes, is formed about the grUb (Simmons, 1939).
The grub feeds on the pus and bacteria that accumulate within the cyst
(Simmons, 1939a; Ne~ov, 1933; Ono, 1933).
Two molts occur while the
gru.b is in the back.
The length of the period spent in the warbles varies sonewbat according
to di£ferent authors as is shown in table I.
Bishopp et al (1926) found in Texas that the time spent in the warbles
by R. lineatum. averages slightly loDger in the case of larvae coming up to
the backs in the early part of the season.
The average period of those
which appeared in the backs in October and early November was about seven
days longer than that of those which appeared during the latter part of
December and in Jannar,r.
Under Montana conditions during two grub seasons,
the writer found that the first H. linea.tum. to arrive in the backs remained
there for a. period approximately three weeks longer than was the case with
the last ones that came up.
--
This was also true of H. bovis.
this difference has not been determined.
The cause of
Su.ch a phenomenon is of consider-
able importance in a beef-raising state like
~iontana,
where the Sll.ceess of
a control program might require reducing the number of insecticide application to two.
Larval Emergence and Pupation
When the third stage larvae complete their growth they work their way
out through the holes which have been kept open for two months, and drop to
the ground.
This normally occurs between 5:00 and 10:00 A.M.
They seek a
sheltered spot among t:rash, or if the soil is soft, they may burrow down
-25-
Table I.
Total developmental period of grubs in the backs of cattle.
lnve stigator
H. lineatum
H. bovis
Number of Number of days Number of ""'Nuiber of days
specimens
in back
specimens
in back
studied Min. Max.
Av. studied Min. Max. Av.
~lagoveshchenskii
and Pavalovskii(l930)
. 56
Obitz (1935)
Soni (1938)
51
Nauck et al (1948)
51
Gebauer (1940)
53
72
77
:Bishopp et a1
(1926)
350+
35
89
54.5
approx.
6
sCharf'f
209
36
85
54.5
174
stu~)
(present
65
77
72.8
-26into it for a distance of an inch or two.
Pupation may take place within
12 hours if temperatures are favorable, or may be delayed for several days
(Massonnat and Vinet, 1913; GlAser, 1914; Gebauer, 1939; Bishopp et al, 1926;
and others).
The length of the pupal period is dependent upon temperature.
references were consulted on this matter.
Twenty
The shortest period, 10 days,
was reported by Ono (1938) and Gebauer (194o) for R. lineat'Wll; the longest,
80 days, by Pfadt (1947), also for H. llneatiun.
The average for both
species is probably between 30 and 50 days, but since the rate of metamorphosis is so dependent upon temperature, the pupal period will vary
with the temperature of' its micro-environment.
SFASORA.L VARIATIONS
For a period of from
9
to 11 months~·cattle grabs are in a comparative-
ly constant environment within the body of their host.
It seems reasonable
to assume that in this environment their average rate of' development should
be fairly constant.
During the prepupal, pupal, and adult periods, however,
they are at the complete mercy of the elements.
As shown above, it is
theoretically possible, under most favorable weather conditions, for oviposition to occur within two weeks after emergence of grdbs from the back.
On the other hand, it is again possible that oviposition might be delayed
to a~ period of 14 weeks or more.
Thus it is possible to have a
year-to-year variation of three months in the peak period of fly activity
and the subsequent period of gra.b appearance in the baclcs.
seasonal variations probably never occur.
&.1ch vide
-27Adults
The season of adult activity will var,y considerably according to the
climatic conditions.
]ishopp et al (1926) report heel fl;y emergence in
southwestern Texas as early as December and in iev York as late as September.
Where H. lineatum and H.
several weeks earlier.
~
occur together, the former is usually
The period of adult activity 1a generally an esti-
mate made on the basis of observations of cattle showing
~toms
fly attack, a method which lends itself to considerable error.
of heel
Mills et
al (1946) report that cattle in Montana have shown tY"Pical symptoms of
heel f17 terror in late Februar,y.
The writer observed. the same symptoms
in a herd in 1948 at least one week before there had been an;y larval
emergence in the area.
In that instance at least, the heel fly symptoms
were caused b;y something other than heel :flies.
Since cattle grubs remain in the hosts' backs for periods of from five
to eleven weeks, a much easier and more tangible study of H.
E..2.!!!
and
!:..
lineatum seasonal variations can be made through observations of the grabs
in the warbles.
Grubs
:Bather thorough studies have been made b;y ]ishopp et al (1926), Mote
(1928), and. Haberman et a1 (1949) on the seasonal histor-.r of cattle gru.bs
.
.
in the esophagus and spiDnl canal.
Year to ;year variations of grub
appea~ce
and grub abundance in the
backs of cattle have been reported b;y only a few investigators.
ing reports are from ]ishopp et al (1926).
The follow-
At Uvalde, Te:xas, H. lineatum
ordinarily appears in the backs about September 15, but in 1920, it did
-28not appear until October 9.
At Dallas, Texas, first appearance in 1914
and 1918 was about October 10; in 1916 it was October
tember S.
JO; and in 1923, Sep-
At Herkimer, N. Y., H. lineatum first appeared in the backs on
March 1, 1920 and on Febru.aey 6, 1922.
Walton (1925) states that the date of first larval appearance varies
widely with climatic conditions.
The vri ter found H. linea tum in the backs
of one Montana herd on February 10, 1948; the following year there were
none before March 10.
It appears evident that year-to-year variations of
a month or more in grub appearance dates may not be at all uncommon.
Appearance dates of gruhs vaey widely in aey one season vi thin compare.tively small individual areas.
Smith et al (1941) say, "In El Paso county,
Colo., the first grab openings appeared in one herd, located at an altitude
of about 5,000 ft. on December 4, 1938.
In another herd, 50 miles distant,
but located on a high mountain plateau at an altitude of about 7,000 ft.,
the first grub openings were seen on January
15, 1939."
Here, in a distance
of 50 miles, is a difference of 42 dais in seasonal development.
Shull et
al (1945) found in Idaho that the first gru.bs appear from late January in
.
.
.
the lover Salmon River area until mid-April in the upper Snake River area..
This is a difference of nearly 90 days· in a distance of about
and a change in elevation of approximately 3500 feet.
3~
miles
Pfadt (1947) states
that H. lineatum first appeared in the backs at Cheyenne, Wyoming on Januaey 10, 1944.
At Laramie, 1000 feet higher and 50 miles away the first
appearance was on February 2,
1944.
Here, there is a difference of 23
dqs in a distance ·of 50 miles.
The date of gru.b appearance cannot be correlated in all instances,
however, vith elevation.
In Table II are listed the appearance dates of
-29-
Table II.
First appearance dates of H. lineatum and H. bovis in
Gallatin County,"T!ontana.
--
Herd number
and name
I. (Feistner)
II. (Storey)
III. (Axtell)
IV. (Hash)
· V. (Uonforten)
VI. (Carter)
IIIA. {Axtell)
IVA. (Hash)
Number of
cattle
examined
Elevation
Date grubs were first observed
in
in backs
feet
H. lineatum
H. ~
18
~100
32
29
16
4800
4900
27
5000
5&00
~2
12
21
~950
49oo
4950
Jan.
Jan.
Dec.
jan.
Dec.
z:ra.r.
Dec.
Jan.
12, -1949
14, 1949
Feb.
8, 1949
29, 1948
21, 1949
30,
10,
26,
5,
1948
1949
1947
1948
lt.ar. 19, 1949
Feb. 3, 1948
Mar. 4, 1948
-30~ lineatum in six herds under observation during the
1948-1949
grub sea-
son, near Bozeman, Montana.
Referring to Table II:
Herd number V, 6oo feet lover thrul number VI,
and less than 25 miles distant, was
Herd number I,
57
~s
1500
earlier.
days earlier in grub appearance.
feet lover than number VI, and
Herd number I,
25 miles away, was
71
14
900
33
miles distant, vaa
feet lower the.n number V, and about
days~ in grub appearance.
Herds numbered II to
V were located within an area five mileo long by two miles vide.
~iahopp et al
(1949)
have prepared a map entitled, ~Approximate date
lines of first appearances of grubs in backs of cattle in the United States•.
A comparison of some of these da.te linea vi th data already supplied above bythe writer indicates that sol!le of those lines may be in error by as much as
30
to
90
da.ys in parts of Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana.
It would. seem
that errors as large as those could hardly be included rl thin the range encompassed by the term, "approximate".
The first appearance of H. bovh in four herds (Table II) during the
1948
and
1949
grub seasons vas from nine to
appearance of H. lineatum in those herds.
R. lineat\U'I first appeared.
by Hadven
(1917),
58
days later than the :t'irst
The average was
33 dars a!ter
This period agrees very well with that reported
but is considerably at variance with the corresponding
data supplied by :Bishopp et al (1926) and Mills et al (1946).
The appearance and energence dates of grubs in the backs are listed in
Table III on four herds in the vicinity of Bozeman, V.ontana during the
and 1949 cattle grub seasons.
1948
Table III.
Appearance and emergence dates of cattle grubs in the backs of cattle, Gallatin
County, Montana, 19l~g and 1949 grub seasons.
Herd number
and name
Elevation in
feet
IliA. (Axtell)
l49oo
4950
4100
56oO
IVA. (Hash)
I. (Feistner)
VI. (Carter)
II IA.
IVA.
I.
VI.
(Axtell)
(Hash)
(l!,eistner)
(Carter)
4900
4950
4100
56oO
Grub
First
season appearance
H.
194S Dec. 2~
1943 Jan. 5
1949 Jan. 12
1949 Mar. 10
1943
194S
1949
1949
Feb.
Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
Last
appearance
linea.tum
Feb. 23
Feb. 20
Mar. 13
Apr. 20
H. bovis
3 Apr. 19
4 May 12
g May 11
19 June 4
First
emergence
Last
em ergence
Mar. 3 Apr. 11
Mar. 15 Apr. 11
Mar. 13 May 5
Apr. 20 Jun. 4
S:eread in days of:
AppearEmerganoe
en co
59
45
65
41
39
27
4S
45
I
\j.l
Apr.
May
Apr.
May
29 July 1
12 July 12
13 June 24
20 Aug. 3
76
69
92
77
63
61
72
75
1-'
I
-32EFFECTS OF NATUBAL FACTORS ON CATTLE GRUB POPULATIONS
Climate
The role of climate as it affects seasonal variations in appearance of
heel flies and cattle grubs has already been discussed.
Climatic conditions
are also an important factor in reducing cattle grub populations.
Natvig
(1937) reports that flies and grubs are fewer in Norway following cold, wet
summers, and that in the more northern parts of the country
th~
seem to
have been totally exterminated in unfavorable years. · I:a. Bri\ish Columbia,
according to Radven (1915), the spring of 1913 was very wet; as a result,
very few H. lineatum were found in the backs in 1914.
Similar situations
are reported and discussed by Radwen (1919) 1 !J.acDougall (1925), Walton
(1925, 1928), Blagoveshchenskii and Pavlovskii (1930), Obitz (1936) and
Bruce (193S).
Extended periods of cool rainy weather lengthen the prepupa1
and pupal periods, and practically prevent oviposition.
Bruce (1938) states that H.
.
E2.!!.! will
not mature in soils with a
.·
moisture content of more than 22 percent, and that H. lineatum will not
mature if the moisture content is higher than 10 percent.
The same vet
soils, he found, when amply drained, would permit co:a:plete development and
adult emergence.
Citing Donaghue, Bru.ce states that during the spring and
vegetative season in the Red River Valley of the North in North Dakota,
Minnesota and Manitoba, the moisture content of the soil is above 25 percent.
Under average climatic conditions, cattle grubs are entirely absent
from this 12,000 square mile area.
Soni (1938) vri tes that in India cattle
grubs are most prevalent in sandy areas where rainfall is scanty.
Sen
(1934) states that !!.:_ lineatum is practically- absent from moist Madras,
-33Assam, .Burma, and Ceylon.
According to .Bishopp et al (1926) no grubs are
found in cattle on low sw.mpy ground.
Cocpa.ratively small areas, grub-
free as a result of soil moisture relations, are probably not uncommon
throughout most countries where cattle grubs are a problem.
The general dissemination of cattle grubs throughout the tropics and
the southern hemisphere has not occurred, in spite of the fact that many
grubby cattle have been shipped into various points within these areas.
Oase (1929), .Bishopp (1915) and ::Sishopp et al (1926) express the belief
-
~
-
~
_,._
that climatic barriers, principally hot weather and its effects on pupae
and adults, are at least partly responsible for this lack of spread of the
two species.
Predators
Robins have been observed by the writer to exhibit a marked likiDg
for mature H. bovis in the active prepupal stage.
::Sishopp et al (1926) re-
port that both robins and chickens will greedily devour cattle grub larvae.
Walton (1924) states that jackdaws commonly visit cattle and extract the
grubs.
Goodrich (194o) states that in 1937, 193S, and 194o, there were
Jllai1Y reports of starlings devouring grubs in the backs of cattle.
The
starliDgs were feeding not only on the grubs, but also on the surrounding
flesh, making large and deep wounds.
According to Lucet (1914) and Stegmann (1920) moles and other small
rodents feed upon mature larvae and pupae.
Parasites
Obitz (1937) reports two H.
E.2!!..!
pupae parasitized by ichneumonids,
-34one by nematodes, and several others by bacteria and. fungi.
Lucet (1914)
expresses the opinion that certain fungi destroy the pupae.
Natural Resistance of Host
It is common knowledge among stockgrowers that cattle grubs are mch
more numerous in the backs of calves and yearlings than in older animals.
Experiments by Peter and Gaehtgens (1934) Show that the treatment of rabbits
with an aqueous extract of cattle grubs produces specific antibodies, the
presence of which can be proved by antigens.
In the same way, epecific
antibodies were determined in the serum of infested cattle, a negative
result being obtained with the sera of calves that could not have been infested.
The antibodies were found in all young cattle that bad been exposed
to infestation and bad grubs-in the backs, but in ol4
~-free
animals, the
serological reactions were positive in some cases and negative in others.
In
the latter, it could not be determined whether antibodies had ever existed.
The authors conclude, therefore, that the reaction with antigens may be used
as a proof of infestation, but not of a naturally acquired immunity.
Hadwen (1916, 1917) and Hadwen and Fulton (1924) present evidence to
show that immunity, or naturai resistance to cattle ~b invasion increases
with the age of the animals.
Newly hatched larvae, penetrating the skin,
cause skin lesions, anaphylactic in nature, and accompanied by swelling,
dermatitis and more or less exudation of serum.
These akin lesions, they
report, are confined almost entirely to older animals, calves showing only
slight effects.
The writer has observed that varying percentages of grubs will die in
different animals after their arrival in the back.
In some animals, all
-35grobs that perforate the skin of' the back will mature and emerge normally.
In other animals, on the other hand, all grubs that reach the back will die
within 10 days after the breathing pore has been made.
In one instance, 30
R. lineatu.m and two R. bovis were observed to be destroyed this way in the
back of' a three-year-old Guernsey cow.
Table IV shows the total mortality
of' gra.bs in the backs of' four herds of' cattle under observation in Montana.
The natural resistance of' cattle to grubs varies widely, even
one-year-old animals which are experiencing their first grubs.
a.l!!Ong
In some
herds that are infested with large numbers of' grubs, there will be individuals present which are practicall;y grub free.
will show the af'oreDentioned
11
There will be others which
dela;yed resistance 11 (where the gra.bs die after
reaching the back) •
CONTBOL
Heel Flies
The short life and elusive habits of' the heel flies, together with the
fact that they do not feed, make the direct control of' the flies a virtual
impossibUit;y according to our present knowledge.
No feasible method of' repelling the flies to prevent their oviposition
has as yet been discovered or devised (Bishopp et al,
et al,
1926; Mote, 1928; Mills
1926; Soni, 1946).
Destra.ction of' Eggs or Newly Hatched Larvae
Imes and Schneider
(1921) and Mohler (1923, 1926) used shallow wading
vats containing various chemicals, and by systematic and consistent use of'
this method, were able to reduce grub infestations in succeeding seasons.
Table IV.
Natural mortality of grubs in backs of cattle, Gallatin County, Montana.
:Breed
of
Cattle
Age
in
Years
IVA.. (Hash)
Mostly
Guernseys
3-7
IliA. (Axtell)
Shorthorns
Herd number and
name
VI. (Carter)
Holsteins
I. (Feistner) Holsteins
Number
Total number of
Number of' grubs
cattle
Grub grubs that appear- that died before Percent
examined Season ed in backs
maturin~
Morta.litz
18
1948
151
111
73
9
1948
169
56
33
3-5
9
1949
115
31
27
3-7
17
1949
234
lto
19
Mostly
yearlings
l
VI
0"\
I
-37Eradication is not :probable, however, and the method is wanting in many
respects.
It would be impractical in a range cattle countr,r.
Immunization
A few immunization exper.iments have been made, but to date they have
been negative in results (:Boubaud and Perard,
1924;
Stefanski and Obitz,
1935).
Preventing Oviposition
Coppens
(1913)
.
reports that there will be very limited numbers of
gru.bby animals if all cattle are kept under shelter during the heat of the
~ (10:00 A.M. ~ 5:00 P.M.) in the fly season.
the use of shelters as a control meagure.
Haseman and Roland
(1941)
Selan
Walton
(1913)
{1925),
recommends
Mote
(1928)
and
recommend the use of abundant shelters and ponds
for the protection of the animals during fly time.
Seldom will heel flies
oviposit on animals in shade or on animals standing in water.
These methods
wUl reduce gru.b infestations to a large degree i f pro:perl.7 used, but the)"
will not result in eradication.
Combating the Grubs in the l3acks
The fight against cattle grubs finall7 concentrates upon the grubs
during the period when they are present under the skin of the animal's
back.
During this :period, the infestation is visible ant!. apparently most
vulnerable to the control efforts aimed at destroying it.
It is during
this period that the greatest success in combating the pest has been
achieved.
Eradication has been demonstrated in small areas of certain foreign
-38countries, and significant reductions have been obtained in Europe and
North America.
Mote (1928), citing ~oas, reports a systematic grub ex-
traction campaign undertaken by a dairy association in Denmark.
On a farm
in the center of the control area total grub counts over a period of seven
years, beginning in 1889 were as follows:
832, 215, 65, 229, 64, 0, 0.
Complete eradication was not accomplished toward the edges of the area,
but the number of grubs was greatly reduced.
Coppens (1913), reporting on the systematic destruction of grubs in
approximately 4,000 dairy cattle, says that in 1902, 22,394 grubs were
killed, and in 1910 only 3,875 were found.
In 1910, the average infest-
ation of the treated cattle was 0.11 grubs per head, and for imported
cattle, 16.0 per head.
He states further that local eradication of the
pest would have been po·ssible in the absence of imported animals.
Carpenter and Hewitt (1920) observe that on· Clare Island, County
Mayo, Ireland, three miles-from-the mainland, successfui extermination of
cattle grubs was achieved in five years, and probably could have been done
in two years.
In Denmark a law was enacted in 1923 reqa.iring the destruction of all
cattle grubs.
As a result, according to Faber (1927), ~oas (1928) and
~homsen (1935), the percentage of grub-damaged hides in Denmark dropped
from 23 percent in 1922 to four percent in 1925, to three percent in 1932,
and even to 0.1 percent in the Danish Islands.
the Denmark situation further.
He
says
Petersen (1945) discusses
that in 1939 and 191K> eradication
was suspended due to an outbreak of foot and mouth disease, then vas :put
into effect again.
In 1941, 303,550 animals were infested and by 1944
-39the infestation had been reduced to 99,747 animals, a reduction of 67 percent in
n~er
of animals infested.
Davies and Jones (1932) give an account of control experiments in
Wales, where derris powder was used.
One to two. years after treatment, in-
festations were reduced from an average of 13 grtibs per animal to about one
per animal .
In Bavaria ZaUbzer (1932) describes a cooperative control campaign in
which the total grub infestation was reduced 37.3 percent (29,790 grUbs extracted in 1929 and 3, 808 in 1932).
hook.
The grUbs were extracted with a crochet
Zau.bzer feels that the infestation could have been eradicated in two
years, with proper cooperation of the cattle owners.
In May, 1938, the government of Cyprus approved a compulso17 grub
eradication program for the Island.
McDonald (1945, 19%), reporting on
the campaign, states that from the fall of 1943 to Decembe~ 1945, only 52
cases of warble infestation '-tere observed. During this period, only one
H. bovis was found,
-
-
the rest of the identi£iable larvae being H. aeratum
which is normally found in goats.
Gibson and Twinn (1936) report complete grub eradication in Canada on
50 to 80 milk cattle, and more than a 95 percent reduction in grubs on 750
beef animals in five years.
In another test on 2,000
~ttle,
grub numhers
were reduced 37 percent in four years.
In a control experiment in Ohio, Mote {1928) reports 73 percent reduction in grUb numbers in three years.
Coapton.(l931) states that an iso-
lated herd of 26 Holsteins in Illinois was entirely freed of grUbs in three
seasons.
In the central zone of a control area in Colorado, a five year
-l!ocontrol program reduced average grub infestations from
animal by
1933,
according to Mohler
infestation was reduced to
6.4
4.9
(1933, 1934,
grUbs-per head.
and
In
35
to
1935).
1935,
5.1
In
grabs per
1934
the
it increased to
owing to importation of infested cattle, invasion of heel flies, and
lack of cooperation among cattle owners.
tained a reduction of
Ma.tcysee
(1945)
in one year ob-
60 percent in grub numbers on, approximately 600
dairy cattle in a four-square-mile area (New York).
He obtained approxi-
mately SO percent kills in his ezperiments.
(1945)
1947,
and
1948)
Miller
and Simms
(1946,
discuss control experiments in Colorado and New l-iex:tco.
On
a 150 square mile area, H. lineatum numbers vera reduced 60 to SO percent
in three years using a rotenone wash.
On an area 200 miles square in liew
Mexico, a spray treatment which killed
77 percent of the
a
grubs resulted in
5S percent reduction in grub numbers the following year.
The Requisites of Good GrUb Control
A study of the work of those who have successfully controlled cattle
grubs shows that there are two fundamental reqo.irements that a successful
campaign must meet.
First, all treatments applied must have as their objective a maximum
kill of grubs throughout the control area.
It appears possible to eradi-
cate gru.bs in one season if the exterminators are thorough enough in their
work.
Second, isolation of treated animals from infested ones is an absolute
essential if reinfestation is to be prevented.
If grUbby animals never
come any nearer t:han one-half mile from grub-free areas, there is probably
-41little danger of rein!estation.
All imported grubby animals should be
systematically !reed of their grubs before entering a grub-free area.
In
a large rangeland area where there are communal pastures, all animals that
use such a pasture should be treated.
During heel fly season, grub-free
animals should not be taken through or into an area that held grubby
animals at any time during that season.
Cattle grub control is far from easy and many a poorly executed campaign bas resulted in no significant rednction in cattle grub numbers.
Specific Methods for Controlling Grubs
Removal of individual grubs from their cysts was one of the first
effective methods used in grtib control, and is still one of the most effective i f systematically done.
Squeezing, and the use of various sorts of
hooks and suction methods have been recommended (Coppens,
1913; Selan, 1913;
1917; Carpenter and Hewitt, 1920; Seymour and Jones, 1921; Broderson,
Bene,
1922; Gabert, 1924; MacDougall, 1924; Mote, 1928; Case, 1930; StefanSki and
Obitz,
1935; Haseman and Roland, 1941).
Scores of chemicals in various formulations, and methods of application
have been tested on cattle grUbs.
and practical.
Only very few have proved to be effective
Most investigators have reached the conclusion that ground
derris or cube root is the most effective and practical material known at
the present time for the control of grubs.
The new organic insecticides, chlordane, to::mphene, DDT, benzene hemchloride and methoxychlor, in preliminary tests, bave proved to be either
ineffective or quite variable in their grub killing ability (Sergent,
Furman and Douglas,
1947; Telford, 1947; Westermarck, 1948}.
1946;
-42The wash or scrub method of applying derris and cube root to grubs
has for many years been an effective and accepted method of control (Wells
et al, 1922; Bishopp et al, 1926; MacDougall, 1924, 1930; Davies and Jones,
1932; Remien, 1933; StefanSki and Obitz, 1935; Gibson and Twinn, 1936;
Mohler, 1938, 1941; Smith et al, 1941; Stewart, 1944; Miller, 1945; Snipes
Kills of
et al, 1948).
6o
to 100 percent are usually reported.
The most
commonly used formulae consist of 8 to 16 ounces of powdered cube or
derris root (four to five percent rotehone content) in 1 gallon of water,
to which is added two to four ounces of soap or other detergent.
The
material is applied to the backs and worked in vigorously by hand or with
a stiff brush.
The dusting method by which derris or cube powder mixed with a
diluent dust is sprinkled on the backs and worked in vigorously by hand,
has gained mu.ch favor in recent years.
This is especially tru.e in areas
where cold weather treatments are necessary and the application of
is preS1lllled to be injurious to cattle under such conditions.
li~ds
Kills with
the dust are generally not quite as good as with the cube or derris washes.
Bishopp et al (1926) report 95 percent kills with undiluted derris powder,
.
while Bishopp et a.l (1930) obtained erratic results in extensive tests with
derris powders.
derris.
Howard (1924) reports a 98 percent kill with. undiluted
Laake (1942) recommends the mixing of equal parts of wettable
sulfur vi th the powdered roots.
Since 1942 there has been considerable
difference of opinion as to which diluents are best.
that tripoli earth is most effective, yielding
sulfur is least effective.
6o
Miller (1944) states
percent kills, while
Annand (1945) reports tba.t tripoli earth, vol-
-43canic ash, and pyrophyllite are much more effective than talc or sulfur.
Mathysee
{1945)
(4.2
found that ground cUbe powder
part, to pyrophyllite three parts, gave
77
percent rotenone) one
percent kills, and, he
~s.
Telford (1947), using cube root (4.5
resulted in satisfacto17 control.
percent rotenone) one part, and ca.lci11m carbonate two parts, obtained 90
percent kills.
cUbe root
(1.25
Snipes et al
{1948)
reports
66
percent mortality with
percent rotenone) in tripoli earth.
The injection of various liquid materials into the individ.u.a.l cysts
bas given high mortalities but is indeed a laborious process (Bishopp et
al,
1926;
Mote,
1928;
Dinulesco,
1934;
Westermarck,
1947,
and others).
A
somewhat similar method, the application of insecticidal ointments bas been
tested widely and found effective, although again it is laborious (Wells et
al,
1922;
Howard,
1924;
Bishopp et al,
1926;
Compton,
1931,
and others).
The Use of' Power 'Sprays
The first recommendation for use of a power ~ray or for cattle grub
control was made by Wells
spray applied at
(1942).
He advocated the use of a bard, driving
250 pounds per square inch, using the formula:
CUbe or derris powder
Wettable sulfur
Water
(5
percent rotenone)
5 pounds
10 pounds
100 gallons
The material, he explained, penetrates the anima.l 1 s coat well, and dislodges the scabs over the grub holes.
The high pressure spray method
quickly' became popular and millions of cattle have been sprayed with
ing degrees of control obtained.
var.~-
This method of control would seem to be
the only practical one developed to date for the treatment of range cattle.
Ma.tw
range animals are ve17 wild, and it would be virtually impossible to
-44handle them efficiently b7 hand treating methods.
The speed o! treatment
vi th a power spray machine 1 s of great importance in making the control o!
grubs in range cattle practicable.
sp~a
Unfortunatel7, in practice the control of cattle gntbs by
u~ll7
far from 100 percent effective.
11
At the present time there are m&ny
conflicting recollli:lendations in the literature regarding the ingredients of
spra7s and. in application techniques.
In all investigations knovn to the
writer the investigators, vi th two exceptions ( Stevar~, 1944; J'u.rma.n and
Douglass, 194S) have used a cone-shaped. spray which makes a round pattern on
the animal's back.
Stewart
~s,
nEarl7 trial tests demonstrated tbnt a
nozzle delivering a flat, fan-shaped spray provided much better penetration
through the hair than a nozzle delivering a cone-shaped spray".
Douglass also used the fan-shaped pattern, and a pressure of
pounds.
Jlu.rman and
350 to 4oo
Rupp (1948) states that 75 pounds pressure resulted in 75 to 85
percent kills.
Snipes et al (1948), making five tests on onl.r 25 animals
and 324 grubs, apparently obtained an almost perfect correlation between
spray pressure and percentage of grubs killed.
report 73 percent control.
At intervals of
At 200 pouda preaw.re thq
50 pounds, they increated press-
ures up to 4oo pounds, with gradually increasing percentages of control.
Their reported kill at 4oo pounds pressure vas
97.5 percent. Shull et
ol.
(1945) and Anna.nd (1945) • recommend. a minl1n1m pressure o! 4oO pounds.
Stewart (1944) used 250 to 300 pounds presware in his experimental work.
!ishopp et al (1949) recommend spra7 pressures of
4oo
to
During the first year or tvo that power spraya vere
500 pounds.
use~
for grub
control most workers agreed that 5 pounds of powder bearing 5 percent
Table V.
Power
Author
we-if&-· \191+2J
Snipes (1942)
Stewart (1944)
spr~
ingredients and pressures tested or recommended by different workers
for cattle grub control.
Ingredients per 100 gallons
of water
Ground derris
or cube root
Pressure used
Percentage
( 5% rotenone)____ ~ _ W~t_ting _age_nj; ~ _____l]l_._ I'_~r _s_g_.___!n~--~k_ill re-ported
11Effeetive 11
5 lb.
Wettable sulfur
10 lb.
250
5 lb.
10
lb.
Wettable sulfur
10 lb.
350
11 90
Wettable sulfur
Detergent
10 lb.
300
72
l
pt.
lb.
None
4oo
"Good Xi11 11
lb.
None
4oo
11 Effective 11
Shull et al (1945)
7?3
11!
Snipes et al (1948)
5
lb.
Wettable sulfur
10 lb.
4oo
11
Furman and Douglas
(1948)
10
lb.
\fettable sulfur
Diglycol laurate
10 lb.
4oo
56
Furman and Douglas
10
Anonymous {1944)
or more 11
1 :pt.
90 or more"
lb.
None
4oo
59
(1948)
Furman and Douglas
(1948)
7Ir
1b.
None
4oo
53
Eishopp et al (1949)
7i
lb.
None
500
"Effective"
Knowlton (1949)
713
lb.
None
500
II
Knowlton (191±9)
6 lb.
500
11
Wettable sulfur
10 lb.
I
f
-46rotenone plus 10 pounds of wettable sulfur per 100 gallons of water were
satisfactocy.
Stewart (1944) concluded that the rotenone content of the
spray should be doubled and that a pint of detergent be added (Table V).
U.S.D.A. workers (Ano~vmous, 1944) reported that 7! pounds of 5 percent
rotenone per 100 gallons of water gave better kills at 4oo pounds pressure
without the addition of sulfur or wetting agent than with one or the other
of these materials added.
Shull et a1 (1945), ::Bishopp et al (1949), and
most other workers are currently recommending this forma.lation.
Snipes
et al (1948) advocate Wells 1 (1942) formula, stating that it is the most
effective of several tried.
Tests of Cattle Grub
Sp~s
in Montana.
The purpose of these experiments vas to attempt an evaluation of some
of
~he
currently recommended spray formulae and application methods, and
to improve upon them if possible.
Materials and Methods.
The animals treated in these tests were range
beef stock infested with average numbers of grubs of both species.
pressures, from 4oo to 600 pounds were used.
Variable
!fhe spr~ nozzle was held
vertical to and 12 to lS inches from the animals' backs, and produced a
pattern about 2! inches in diameter at this distance.
During the spra;y
operation the animals were restrained in chu.tes or small crowding pens.
In one test a special cattle grub
teeth vas used.
gtlll
with two rows of rak&-like
:Between the two rows a fan-shaped spray was emitted.
In
operation, the animal' s back was raked, the spray being forcibly ejected
against the back at a nozzle distance of about two inches.
-47Nine to
15
~s
after treatment, all grubs were squeezed from the
cysts, and mortality was determined.
It was found that an interval of 10
days between treatment and examination made mortality determinations
relatively easy and sure.
Partly healed empty cysts were ignored in the
mortality calculations. All living first instar grubs found at the time of
examination were presumed to have arrived in the backs after treatment
(Bishopp et al, 1926, found that the first stage grubs almost invariablymolt within 10 days after perforating the skin of the back.).
Discussion of Results.
summarized in Table VI.
The data obtained from these experiments are
Erratic results were obtained in maey of the
experiments, and an eXamination of the data. immediately- suggests that
there is need for good experimental work on the use of spra;ys for cattle
grub control.
Some of the sa.bsequent statements must be considered as
preliminary-, pending the collection of more data.
Stateoents by Bishopp et al (1926) and Furman and Douglass (1948),
suggest that H. bovis is considerably- more resistant to most rotenone
formulations than is H. lineatum.
Rotenone e:ttracts and y..u-ified rotenone
when used at the recommended concentration are not as effective for killing
cattle gro.bs as is ground cube root, according to Smith et al (1941), and
Furman and Douglass, 1948.
These views are definitely- corroborated by the
writer in the current experiments.
Three wettable powders, impregnated
with rotenone extracts also proved to be inferior to the ground cube root.
One test made at 600 pounds pressure gave the best control of H.
bovis, and suggests the need for more experimental work with higher pressures.
All tests on H. bovis indicate that there is much to be desired in
r
. !l'abla VI.
Results o£ Insecticide !rests against Cattle Grubs •
For.mu.lation per
100 Gallons o£ Water
· Date
Sprayed
Mar.
3, 1 49
Mar. 3,
'49
Mar. 3,
1
Application
Spray
Species Animals Grubs Percent
Technique
of
(Cube powder contained
Pressure
Treated Treated Killed
PSI•
Grubs*"'
5~ rotenone)
L
16
208
7~ lb. Sprayed twice
Cube powder
450
95
with garden
hoe mas sage
between sprays
-
450
L
15
171
90
7~ lb. Sprayed once
Wettable sulfur 10 lb.
450
L
16
264
gg
Ou.be powder
7t lb. Sprayed twice
49 Cube powder
Mar. 3,
1
49
Cube powder
7t lb. Sprayed once
45o
L
15
192
s4
Ma.r. 3,
1
49
Spray-ed once
Liquid rotenone extract plus s,ynergists
(2.5~ rotenone)
S pts.
450
L
13
114
74
Mar. 3,
'49
Sprayed once
Wettable powder 1mpregnated with rotenono extract plus
synergists (2.5~
rotenone)
4 lb.
450
L
14
173
56
Mar. J 1 1 49 Check animals
•PSI - Pounds per square inch
.
L
•• L= Hypoderma linea.tum; B= Hypoderma.
1
E2.!!!•
~3 --- -
7
r
3f
I
~able
Date
Sprayed
Mar.
1-!a.r.
24,
24,
Results of Insecticide Teats. against Cattle Grubs
Formulation per
Application
Gallons of Water
Technique
(Oube powder contained
~ rotenone)
Sprayed once
t4g Liquid rotenone ex.tract (2.5% rotenone)
5 pta.
100
Sprayed once
t).:.g Liquid rotenone ex-
tract
none)
Mar.
VI (Continued).
24, 1 43
(2.5%
rote-
10
Spray
Species Animals Grubs Percent
Pressure
of
Treated Treated Killed
PSI*
Grubs**
4oo
l.!oo
Sprayed once
l.!oo
24,
May
3, '49
'}t.g Wettable powder im.Sprayed once
pregnated with rotenone extract (% rotenone unknown)
7-h lb.
Sprayed twice
Liquid rotenone extract plus synergists
(2.5~ rotenone)
8 pts.
B
5
63
32
5
65
23
6
45
44
and
L
pregnated with rotenone extract plus
synergists (2.5%
rotenone)
15 lb.
Mar.
B
and
L
pts.
\~ettable powder im-
B
and
L
I
£'
f
4oo
B
and
L
450
B
6
63
lto
19
llS
41
63
19
B
Sprayed twice
8
Liquid rotenone ex450
tract plus synergists
(~ rotenone unknown)
10 pts.
"'"' L= !!YJloderJr!. 11neatum; B= !Jypoderm .bovis •.
•PSI - Pounds per square inch
V.a.y
3. ·~
Table VI (Continued).
Formulation per
Gallons of Water
(Cube powder contained
. ~ rotenone}
100
Date
Sprayed
26
366
89
Sprayed once
500
l3
71
455
68
Sprayed once
4oo
l3
52
325
78
lb. Sprayed twice
Cube powder
Sodium lauryl sul.fate
1 lb.
450
l3
17
96
73
Cube powder
7-ff lb. Sprayed twice
anhydrous alkylated
aryl poly-ether
1 pt.
alcohol
450
l3
23
220
68
Oube powder
Apr. 28,
•48
Cube powder
May
1
May
3.
May
3.
May 3.
Mey
5.
49
1~
Spray
Species Animals Grubs Percent
Pressure
of
Treated Treated Killed
PSI*
Grubs••
l3
29, •4s
3.
Application
Technique
6oo
Apr. 21, tl~g Cube powder
Apr.
Results of Insecticide Tests against Cattle Grubs.
7!
lb. Sprayed once
7! lb.
7i lb.
1ts
I
49
Cube powder
Wettable sulfur
7i
10
lb. Sprayed twice
lb.
450
l3
20
171
65
'49
Oub e powder
Wettable sulfur
7!
10
lb. Sprayed twice
lb • vi th garden
hoe massage between sprays
450
B
2l
238
70
32
101
Sl
1
1
49
Cube powder
*PSI - Pounds per square inch
7i
B
lb. Sprayed twice
450
using special
rake-like "grUb
scrubber 11
•• L::: Hrnodel'lll!'. lineatum; B= Hrroderma.
~.
~I
-49the current control recommendations.
~~s
There
ver,y little difference in effectiveness between
sp~s
containing cube alone and those containing in addition to cube, wettable
sulfur, sodium la.uryl sulfate, or aneydrous allcy'lated ar,yl poly-ether
alcohol.
The spray containing sodium lauryl sulfate gave slightlY' better
control than the other formulations.
Spraying the .animals twice, and massaging their backs vigorousl1 between the two spra.yings with a blunt garden hoe increased kills slightly.
Better control of H. bovis was obtained with the special rake-like gun
than with
any method other than application at 6oo pounds pressure. It
is not known whether the better kill should be attributed to the i'akiD&
or the more forcible application of the Bpl'S¥ at close range, or to both
of these factors.
The teeth on this piece of equipment scratched the backs
quite seriously-.
Number of Treatcents Necessar,y
Quite a variable number of treatments are recommended in the literature where both species of grubs are involved.
of the
u.s.D.A.
is to treat ever,y
Carpenter and Hewitt
gro.b season.
(1920)
Case,
to 20 days (Bishopp et al,
1949).
advocated six to eight treatments during the
Most authors have preferred to recommend four to five treat-
ments at intervals of about
1926;
15
The current recor.amendation
1929;
Compton,
Dinulesco and Foisoreano,
by Stefanski and Obitz
30
~s throllgh.out the grub season (Anonymous,
1931;
1939).
(1935),
Anony-mous,
1932;
Gibson and Twinn,
1936;
Two treatments are considered cufficient
Snipes
(1942)
and Mathysee
(1945).
La.a.ke
-50(1942) suggests that three treatments may be enough to control most of the
grubs.
Where onlY R. lineatum is present, Mohler (1941) reports that two
treatments, properly timed did not give complete kills, but
satisfactorr control.
re~ted
in
Smith et al (1941) found that one treatment, applied
30 days after the first grub holes appeared, killed 6o to 100 percent of
the entire H. lineatum infestation.
Presuming that we do have a treatment for kUling cattle grubs that
is effective and practical, the gnccess of a control campaign in a large
range-land country like Montana depends directly upon the number of treatments required.
A large number of cattle men will not accept a four or
five treatment program.
They state that by handling the cattle that many
times they lose more pounds of beef than would be gained by controlling the
grubs in the above way.
The writer therefore set out to find what percent
of a mixed (H. ~and H. lineatum) infestation could be contacted by two
properly timed spray-s.
During two seasons individual records were kept on
all of the grubs that arrived in the backs of four herds of cattle.
In
each of the four herds one grub control treatment, properly timed, would
have contacted ver,y nearly the entire H. lineatum infestation.
In other
words, the first normal emergence of H. lineatum from the baCks occurred
on or after the date the last individuals of that species perforated the
skin of the backs (Table III).
This first treatment in all cases would.
have contacted a nUmber of the first H.
:!!.2!!!.
to arrive in the backs.
A
chart of these four infestations shows that a second treatment applied 60
days after the first would have contacted the following percentages of the
-51remaining H. bovis in the four herds: 70, 90, 97, and 100.
These high
figures were made possible by the fact that in the four herds studied the
earliest grohs (of each species) to arrive in the backs remained there an
average of three weeks longer than the latest ones to appear (see page 24
and Table III).
The four herds examined were small, and the relative number of grubs
was likewise small.
It remains to be determined whether a similar situation
exists generally throughout larger herds and larger areas.
Proper Timing of Treatments
In order to kill a maximum number of cattle grubs in a two treatment
schedule, it is necessary to delay the first treatment until Just before the
first grubs are ready to emerge and drop to the ground.
cattle owners must determine this date by careful and
of their cattle during the early grub season.
The individual
fre~ent
examination
Preliminary investigations
indicate that the second treatment should be applied 6o days after the
first in Montana.
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